ancient notes abridged.doc

8/16/2019 ancient notes abridged.doc

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Pompeii and Herculaneum (Colonia Veneria Cornelia Pompeianorum )

1. Geographical Context

Physical Environment• Coastal• 200km southwest of Rome• located on the Bay of Naples – part of the Campania region (Capri )• River Sarnus flows through the region• People would want to live there ecause!

" temperate climate" very fertile (produces very fresh fruit and veg)" economically prosperous (vines# fish)" slower pace of life than Rome" trade links y land and sea" usiness centre (fishing# agriculture)

•

Stra o (Geography ) says every where on $esuvius had dwellings on it save for the summit% &he summitwas flat unfruitful' ash coloured and lackened y fire% lso says that the ash from the fire at the summitwas carried onto the surrounding slopes making it suita le for vine growing %

• !lorus ( Epitome ) says it was a very eautiful area # much "uieter than Rome# very fertile and therewas trade y sea and land and there was a temperate climate%

• # located km south of $esuvius on a low hill% *t relied on trade and it was a commercial town%Population not certain ut somewhere etween %&'' and (' ''' and it had socio)economic diversity(i%e% oth rich and poor)

• * located +km southwest of $esuvius % Population estimated to e around +''' (very small) and it was aholiday resort for the rich and famous and so it was less commercial with less poor people %

• Resources of the area included!" ,live oil (a su stantial industry to P) climate suita le for olive growing" #erfume (,ampanian region famous for perfume) a undance of flowers grown in the area" -ine ($esuvius viewed as one large vineyard) climate was suita le and produce was e-ported" !ishing (P famous for garum)" -ool and extiles (many fullonicae –where washing and dying of wool took place – found)" !ruit and veg (important part of local economy) fertile volcanic soil suited to growing veg

Plans and .treetscapes• /oth P and H were relatively small and compact villages• #ompeii !

" &he larger of the two cities" .urrounded y a (./ km wall (which at the time of eruption was no longer needed as a defensive

wall and so people were uilding their houses on it)" ccessed y 0 gates # five of which focused on roads to other towns in the region" .treets laid out in a grid system (a main road crossed y minor roads creating locks)" ain street 1 $ia dell 2 ondan3a" Pu lic uildings associated with administration4religion4commerce were in the forum" ayout very similar to Rome" 3um le of shops of different professions with no attempt at commercial segregation" Not extensively ur an – had open and cultivated areas and polyculture was common

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" .treets had stepping stones to step over sewage# had / story houses #sidewalks #white rocks inthe road for light and straight long streets %

" Had an amphitheatre #theatre # aths #palaestra #gladiator arracks #forum #temples # asilica• *erculaneum !

" uch smaller is si5e than P ut not all of * has een uncovered therefore could e igger (moredifficult to e-cavate due to it eing uried under volcanic ash6mud which is much more difficult todig through# also# the modern town of Resina"Ercolano sits on top%)

" .urrounded y a modest wall" .treets laid out in a grid system (a main road crossed y minor roads creating locks)" ain street 1 5ecumanus 6aximus" Pu lic uildings associated with administration4religion4commerce were in the forum" ayout very similar to Rome" .treets had / storey houses #stepping stones to get over sewage ditch and long7 straight roads %" .o far it is known that H had forum #palaestra # aths #theatre ( uried)# asilica ( uried)# alters #

shops #ta ernaes # akeries # an ancient each front %

/. he Nature of Sources and 8vidence

Range of vaila le sources#ompeii *erculaneum

Private houses Private housesHousehold shrines Household shrinesPu lic uildings (palaestra# aths# amphitheatre7) Pu lic uildings ( aths# theatre# asilica# .crolls of

Papyri)8raffiti 8raffiti*nscri ptions on uildings and monuments *nscriptions on uilding and monuments&ools and work e9uipments &ools and work e9uipment:eights and measures :eights and measuresHousehold e9uipment Household e9uipment&om s .hops and workshops;ewellery ;ewelleryPottery Pottery

osaics and frescoes osaics and frescoes9ueducts# pipes# fountains# drains# water supply 9ueducts# pipes# fountains# drains# water supply#

sanitation,ooking e9uipment ,ooking e9uipment.treetscapes .treetscapesHuman remains and animal remains (plaster casts) .keletal remains of humans and animals

:eapons and armour :ooden furniture and uilding tim ersillstones# ovens# hot food ars and taverns


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• # was covered with hot ash and pumice stone which ignited many fires urning everything – leavingno organic matter and crushing uildings %

• * was covered with a pyroclastic surge and a flow of hot molten rock which covered the city –organic material and upper stories of houses were preserved %

• Buildings are records of political7 commercial and religious practises and leisure activities as well asmaterials7 technology and construction techni"ues used%

• &hey show the architectural influences of 8gypt and Greece• &here are ancient writers like #liny the younger and elder7 Stra o7 !lorus 7

imitations# relia ility and evaluation of sources• 8arly excavations distur ed and destroyed areas – things taken and misplaced – limits knowledge%• Significant lack of written sources from the people a out their everyday life# their thoughts and

outlook on life% >o personal letters# poem# stories# shopping lists7• *nterpretations of written sources are also only hypothesises• 2ll of * has not een recovered and the main pu lic6political area has not een recovered%• .ites also tend to reveal more a out the wealthy and literate than the poor# particularly women%• $iewing evidence through modern7 western eyes i%e% each room has one purpose – didn?t in Rome%• ,oncerns in relation to the possi le ias in sources

Evidence for the Eruption• he eruption has oth written and archaeological sources !

" #liny the younger " 5io Cassius #Statius #6artial #Suetonius" 5eposits from the eruption" Buildings7 structures7 artefacts" *uman remains

•

/y the 4st

, @# most locals thought $esuvius was not a threat as it had not erupted within livingmemory and there were no historical records of prior eruptions

• Evidence of seismic activity prior to the eruption!2"ueducts &he water had stopped flowing ecause of seismic

activity and people were repairing the a9ueducts right efore the eruption

emples &he ma9or earth"uake in %/ destroyed a lot of uildings and temples were eing re uilt

Bakeries :sing the tops of grinders to mix up the mortar tofix the akery which had een damaged in %/

• However the entire towns are made up of eruption material i%e% theroads are made of asalt• #liny the younger o serves that for several days efore the eruption there had een earth tremors

ut this was not alarming as they were common• &here were some other precursors ut none that were conclusive – an earth"uake in %/25 and a

series of smaller earth9uakes in the month leading up to the eruption%• ocals may have assumed the first stages of the eruption were part of another earth9uake and so were

taken y surprise when the volcano suddenly erupted%

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• &he eruption was recorded y 1; year old #liny the emperor at the time? attempted to restore the region # deter looting and savage valua les from

P however they ecame too risky and were a andoned%• -inter rains hardened the ash and pumice covering # and the site disappeared totally

• #liny s letters to acitus were written many years after the event7 the letters recount the death ofhis uncle and the eruption.

• Pliny was the nephew4adopted son of #liny the 8lder # then commander of the Roman !leet %• Pro lems 1 they were written /+ years later >affect y memory@?7 he was an orator and so could lie

convincingly7 wasn t actually in # or * at the time of eruption7 producing family propaganda totalk a out his uncle7 self propaganda7 didn t witness what happened to his uncle and is only oneperspective.

• @espite all this# scientific analysis has shown him to e very relia le %

• :ntil the 1=0's7 not systematic examination of the stratigraphy had een made % rchaeologyfocused on removing the ash layer to ground level in order to uncover houses etc% they did not dig elowfloor levels%

• 8xamination of stratigraphy is essential if we are to understand the volcanic processes thatdestroyed the two cities.

• :orld renowned volcanologist #rof. *araldur Sigurdsson and his colleagues conducted the firstsystematic examination of the $esuvius deposits in the 1=0's %

• &hey show that the eruption affected the settlements in various ways%• :hat happened at .ta iae and =plontis were vastly different from P and H%• Compared the written account of #liny to their findings to esta lish a time se"uence and also

studied modern eruptions i.e. 6t. St. *elens.•

*ntroduced the three phase eruption theory• Phase one – the Plinian phase' phase two – the >uee rdent' phase three " 7

• # odies covered y a deep layer of fine ash %• t * # very few skeletons were found in early e-cavations ut in the 1=0's more than 1+' skeletons

were found near the ancient shore line %•


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" hermal shock which is evident in the posture of many of the plaster casts with their clenched fists ande-tended spines

" Concussion from pro9ectiles or falling masonry or tim ers# evident in reaks and fractures in the onesof a num er of victims%

• * each skeletons have car onised ones – their rains exploded as their flesh vaporised• ,ther * odies were twisted and agonised % &heflesh was still attached so these people must have

slowly# agonisingly een aked to death in the oatshed%• # plaster casts show very hot7 acidic7 glass)like ash asphyxiated many %

Source -hat is said,assius @io great fired flared up from $esuvius' the mountain now resem les an amphitheatre

due to the hollowing out of the middle' giants appeared on the mountain andwandered the hill side' there was a drought and earth9uakes' ash was lown out ofthe mountain and it uried two towns (H and P)' people egan to flee' so much ashcame out that it reached frica# .yria and Egypt and in Rome%

artial $esuvius was once covered in grape vines and /acchus loved the mountain andnow it?s uried y flames and ash% &he gods regret their powers e-tended to this%

.tatius $esuvius imitated Etna' men wont elieve that two towns lie eneath the wastelandand that the land used to lie closer to the sea

.uetonius Pliny the elder died in the disaster7 he was overcome y the force of dust andashes (may have een killed y his slave who he asked to hasten his death)

Evidence for the .ocial .tructure• Bodies as evidence – at P early e-cavators were not interested in skeletons as much as artefacts%• @isarticulated skeletons of more than A00 victims were put in an ancient ath house – not systematic

storage of ones%• >o skeletons at H until 4 C0 when e-cavations of the drainage system unearthed do5ens of skeletons%• Skeletal remains from Rome are rare ecause they cremated their dead so skeletons from # and *

are extremely valua le.• Bones can give evidence on gender7 age7 height7 race7 how many children a mother had had7

whether they had certain diseases or not7 whether they were starved or sick7 etc.

Sarah Bisel (idiot head) 8stelle Aa3er (good),nly studied (% complete skeletons ,hallenged the conventional interpretation (that the

people left ehind were young# old# sick and female)en 4D cm en 4D+cm

:omen 4 cm :omen 4 Bcm8ood healthy lives #eople lived into their +'s and %'sB6AD had arthritis 1' had arthritis.urgical e9uipment found at H and P shows thatmedical knowledge and practise was 9uitesophisticated

No dental interference found (i%e% fillings#e-tractions7)

&eeth were in e-cellent condition and so they must nothave eaten much sugar in their diet

Considera le wearing on teeth (pro a ly fromtraces of grit and stone in the read which camefrom the millstones used to grind the wheat)

She constructed imaginary lives of the ancient*erculanians and gave the skeletons names and


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identities7 occupations and lifestyles for them.

• #opulation of # estimated etween 1' ''' D /' ''' in which &' were slaves• #opulation of * was a out +'''• .ocial structure of the two towns reflected the norms of Roman society %• Basic unit of society was the household # family and slaves# headed y the paterfamilias

• any wealthy Romans also holidayed in the region (,icero# the Emperor ugustus)

• 8vidence for social structure includes human remains7 graffiti7 art7 statues7 frescoes7 pu licuildings7 inscriptions7 private houses and epitaphs from graves

• Social status depended on legal status as defined y Roman law.• &he main legal distinction was etween those who were free and those who were slaves.• he free were then either citi3ens or not (citi5ens were free males who had the right to vote locally

and in the tri al elections% >ot all citi5ens were eligi le to stand for election to political office%)

• Roman society was extremely class conscious and ased on a strict hierarchy (see a ove)• 5ivision etween groups could e due to citi3enship status7 place of irth7 level of wealth7 location

>i.e. country or city?7 free or slave and gender.• 5ivisions were furthered y legal and political privileges7 power7 influence7 criminal punishments7

marriage partners7 dress7 seating in pu lic events7 food eaten4served.• &he emperor held all the power%• Senators served the emperor in offices and the position was hereditary % &hey wore atoga with a

road purple stripe % Fou were orn into this power and were the top of the regions social structure %• 8vidence for the senatorial class!

" Seating arrangements in theatre (privileged citi5ens in the front# slaves at the very ack)" Enscriptions and statues show that the emperor and his family were revered as part of the official

imperial cult%

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" Esta lished land owning families were the core of the privileged section of society# together withfamilies whose wealth came from trade and commerce%

" Enscriptions and electoral graffiti reveal the long term prominence of certain families in localaffairs as well as the emergence of new families%

" &he wealth and client ase re9uired for participation in the local politics carried honour# prestigeand privilege%

• 8"uestrians served the emperor in posts such as commanders of the fire service # grain supply andmilitary officers% #liny the 8lder was an 8"uite % &heir position was not hereditary and they wore atoga with a thin purple stripe and a gold finger ring %

• he local elite were wealthy land owners and traders % em ers of this class sought to imitate thelifestyles of the Roman elite. *t was their wealth rather than aristocratic irth that gave them theire-alted position%

• he populus >citi3en ody? were deemed to e of Roman ackground and citi3ens of # or *. theywere usiness men7 traders7 farmers and shopkeepers who could vote in tri e meetings %

• !reedmen were slaves who had een given their freedom through various means% -ealth could egained from trade# aking# land ownership and manufacturing% &hey were excluded from entering thesenatorial order ut some were a le to ecome 8"uites % Fou could save up and uy your freedom %2 freedman s origin was never forgotten.

• &here was great diversity among the lower strata % &hey weregenerally despised and their lives werehard – they suffered s9ualid living and working conditions and inferior food and clothing%

• =ne of the ways that people could improve their social status was through mem ership of the tradeor religion guilds (controlled y the state in which mem ers paid their dues and were given mealsand a decent urial )% *t waspossi le for mem ers of the lower strata to hold office and titles withinthese guilds >collegia? yet in the wider society they could not hold such authority.

• Slaves performed most of the work in agricultural and manufacturing and upper class Romansdrew most of their wealth from exploiting slave la our % Romans saw the ownership of slaves has avalid expression of power %Slavery was considered a state of living death % .laves were prisoners of

war or free citi3ens who sold themselves to pay their de ts % &hestate purchased and used slaves %

• @espite these strict classes# it must e noted there was social mo ility %• En #7 the earth"uake of %/ allowed for new opportunities for marginalised classes. >Aoss of life and

property F room for others to monopolise.?

• 6en !" 8xtremely patriarchal society." ,onsidered the political leaders of the city and the heads of their households (paterfamilias)" 2ll political positions were reserved for men of aristocratic ackground" /eing paterfamilias gave the man ultimate and unchallenged control over the family" 6en were encouraged to e in the army"


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" *eld considera le autonomy within their households7 eing responsi le for the delegation oftasks to servants and managing their hus ands accounting and finances.

Places fre9uented y women Evidence of the presence of women&he


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• -ithin the slave population there was an o vious social hierarchy – i%e% great difference etween aslave who controlled his masters funds and one who controlled the food supply

• 2 female slave was not allowed to marry and any offspring also elonged to her master.•


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• 6ost of what historians know comes from # and it is assumed H was much the same• # ecame Roman colony in 0'BC and a Roman constitution laid down the political structure• P was self administering municipality and its form of local government followed standard rules laid

down in the law of ulius Caesar (the Lex Iulia Municipalis B /,)• *t set out how local magistrates# the principle town officials# would e elected•

Aocal inha itants not excluded from voting or standing for office (only male citi5ens could vote)• * was governed in much the same manner

• &he ,rdo 5ecurionum >town council? !" council of a out 1'' mainly ex magistrate – a few non magistrates of e-ceptional wealth or

talent were admitted" &he council was only open to those of free irth7 good character and reputa le profession (not

actors# gladiators# e-ecutioners)" Controlled civic finances and pu lic religion" Supervised the construction of pu lic uildings" ,versaw the use of standard weights and measures

" Granted prominent citi3ens honorific statues in pu lic areas and tom s" Elected magistrates administered the city assisted y the =rdo @ecurionum

• &he Cursus *onorum for # and *" /egan his career as aedile –

&he 9unior magistracy # responsi le for the physical upkeep of the city andmaintenance of pu lic uildingsResponsi le for the day to day administration of the townSupervised markets and granted permit to stall holders

ook care of streets and templesProvided people with pu lic games and paid much of the cost themselves:ore a toga ordered with purple and special places were assigned to them in theatres

" &he ne-t office was the duumvir &he senior magistracy6 chief magistrates2dministered local financeSmall town e"uivalent of consuls ut had no military powers and were solelyconcerned with their local governments8lections were held in march and pairs of elected magistrates took office in uly andserved for one yearPresided over courts and legal casesPresided over and carried out the decrees of the decurion council

Gave their name to their year of office and pu lic works they supervised8xpected to provide spectacles and partly at their own expense#ossi le to hold office more than once (may indicate that there were only a few menwith the enormous wealth re9uired to fulfil the peoples e-pectations)8very five years the duumviri were designated quinquennial duumviri with powers toconduct a municipal census7 reviewing the Ordo Decurionum naming new mem ersto replace those who had died or een expelledE-ample! duumvir % ,lodius


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• Comitium was an assem ly of citi3ens for the purpose of voting for the duumviri and aediles %• *n an emergency situation a #refect for the 2dministration of ustice ( praefectus iure dicundo) would

e appointed as a short term measure% *%e%25%/ Cuspius #ansa the 8lder was appointed Praefectus• wealthy and influential person was nominated y the decurion council as a patron of the colony

( patrousi coloniae ) to represent #ompeii s interests at Rome % n inscription identifies 6arcus8pidius Sa inus as patrouis %

• Roman politicians usually held priesthoods in the state and imperial cult as part of their pat of offices%#olitics and religion were intertwined i%e% the Augustales were priests involved in emperor worship

• 8ven the wealthiest women could not hold political office• &hey could lead prominent pu lic lives as priestesses i.e. 6amia and 8umachia who were

priestesses of the Cult of $enus (each woman erected and dedicated a uilding in the forum)

• /uildings!" Curia ! city council met in the curia cham er " Comitium ! a roofless uilding where town meetings were held % &he evidence for heavy gates

suggests some meetings may have een 9uite oisterous

" a ularium ! on the side of the ,uria% 2ll government usiness was recorded and filed (ta-records7)

" Basilica ! seats of the 9udiciary and law courts as well as the centre for usiness activities

• En # more than /''' electoral notices indicate a healthy pu lic interest in the political process• Some written y professional sign painters (i%e%Enfantio ) in either red or lack paint on white plaster

i%e%walls of houses and shop fronts• Endividuals and groups (i%e% friends# neigh ours# clients# religious6trade6occupation associations)

involved themselves with electoral matters i%e%the worshippers of Isis as you to elect Gnaeus Helvius!a"inus as aedile

• -omen also wrote political slogans i%e%!tatia and Petronia as you to vote for Marcus Casellius and Lucius Alfucius for aediles# May our colony al$ays have such citi%ens&

• .ome are written tongue in cheek or y the opposition i%e%6arcus Cerrinius $atia was supported ysneak thieves ?# the whole company of late drinkers ?and everyone who is fast asleep ?

• ,ther official notices were displayed i%e%lost property #slave auctions and civic regulations %• Et is not known for certain how and where the voting process took place. here is no firm evidence

that # or * were arranged in a similar manner to Rome.• *istorian ames !ranklin has determined that some families en9oyed political prominence for

generations i%e% the*olconii and the Aucretti

• * D not much evidence a out the political system• Enscriptions suggest that several families were prominent most nota le #roconsul 6arcus Nonius

Bal us % *t appears he may have donated the aths to the town7 restored the asilica7 funded theyouth games and erected a statue of the 8mperor $espasian.

• 2 statue of Bal us and a memorial alter were erected in the aths precinct and several others haveeen recovered in * as well as ones of his mother7 wife and two daughters.

Evidence for the Economy• ll evidence points to # as a ustling commercial centre where making a profit and accumulating

wealth was regarded as eing favoured y the gods%

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• 8vidence includes!" high num er of privately owned shops7 workshops7 ars and inns >a out %''?" &he city controlled markets around the forum" 8pigraphic (inscriptions) evidence of the num er of guilds of tradesmen and retailers" ppro- /' maritime warehouses containing o 9ects characteristic of a port area" Buildings lined with wine 9ars" #aintings of cargo oats on the Sarno and porters carrying o 3ects to e loaded onto the vessels" rade signs depicting various manufacturing processes" Enscriptions on walls and floors of houses and workshops paying tri ute to the pursuit of profit" Emages of 6ercury7 the god of commerce7 displayed everywhere to gain lessing" 6arket gardens in houses" Numerous medium)si3ed farmsteads and villa rusticae (country estates) on the .arno plane

• &he economies of $esuvian towns were largely ased on agricultural production and fishing• Raw materials were sufficiently provided y the market gardens and farms for the other work forces• 6any nets7 hooks and fishing gear have een found along the coastline of the ay of Naples

•

/eing a coastal town and regional capital# #ompeii possessed a num er of different industries withagriculture eing the main industry.


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• =n the other side of the forum there was a market where dried cereals and pulses were sold• &here was a weighing ta le (a mar le sla with = circular cavities of different capacities ) for

inspecting and measuring foodstuffs• @ocumentary evidence ( Indices Nundinarii ( indicates that Saturday was market day in #• Shoes were sold and farmers or owners of market gardens set up stalls to sell surplus produce•

pu lic latrine ( foricae ( was provided in the area• a ernae (shops) can e recognised y the wide opening onto the streets and the long groove in a

stone threshold where a wooden shutter closed the area up at night%• any had a ack room which were living "uarters for shop owners• .hops and workshops were all 3um led together with no commercial segregation (i%e% agem cutter

next to a green grocer )• &here a painted signs or paintings on the outside of walls advertising what was sold• out /'' pu lic eating and drinking places have een identified in #• .ome were simply fast food snack ars recognised y the mar le covered counter in which large

dolia holding hot food and dishes were encased (a large one of these has een found in H)• -ine ars and taverns were scattered throughout oth towns ut # they were more densely

clustered around entertainment areas >theatreI?• ost people drank diluted wine mi-ed with various things (milk# honey# sea water) to enhance flavour • 2 woman named 2sellina employed foreign waitresses (.myrna# aria and egle) and ran a well

known esta lishment %Sums showing customers de ts are scrawled on the inside of walls andpolitical slogans are written on the outside walls

• rade definitely took place etween other cities within ,ampania and *talian peninsular • # imported other varieties of oil and wine from Spain7 Sicily and Crete as well as pottery from

Spain and Gaul7 lamps from 2lexandria• *t is not known how extensive exports to other parts of the empire were• &he occasional #ompeian amphora7 tile or fish container has turned up eyond Etaly• &he remains of /' warehouses containing weights for anchoring oats and fishing gear7 amphorae

and a statue of Neptune have een found.

• &here was a wide range of industries in # and *• Being vacation areas the provision of services was high priority >many hotels7 inns7 restaurants

and services i.e. prostitution?• State employed artisans7 architects and workers on its pu lic uildings and re uilding after %/25• 8ntertainment was a ig industry where gladiators and sportsmen were highly valued• &here was high demand for mar le workers7 woodworkers7 furniture makers for oth pu lic and

private decorations and furnishings•


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• Social rank in theatre 6arena seating• Aeisure activities were for free citi5ens only• #articipation was decided according to class (i%e% different aths for different people)• 1+= pu lic holidays where work was suspended (no weekends though)• *t was politically useful to share peoples enthusiasm for entertainment as politicians ore most of the

costs and provision of gladiatorial contests and athletic displays were part of the patronage

-ealthy -orking Class,lients visited their wealthy patrons houses at dawn(salutatio ) which was a visi le means of displayingwealth

:orkshops and shops opened early and remain opentill dusk % *nns opened mid morning and continued lateinto the night

&he elite man would then proceed to the forum orother pu lic uildings (accompanied y his clients)for political meetings #court cases # other pu lic

usiness

any lived and worked in the same house thereforewere not particularly mo ile during the day

Business transactions took place midday and theafternoon was for siestas and resting or going to the

aths

:ould?ve gone to the market (if didn?t have slaves) to uy materials and may have had to visit their patrons

early in the morning for salutationte at home or at a dinner party ay have visited the aths

• eisure activities included!!eature 8vidence 2nalysis

ocation andspace of thegames

" 2mphitheatre – seated around1+''' D /' ''' people andlocated in the Palaestra

" Aarge spaces were re9uired and used" *ighly popular pastime if such a large arena

was used" 5ifferent seating for different classes 6genders –

social status

" 2rchitecture of the timeBarracks " 8ladiator arracks ad9acent to

the amphitheatre in #" :eapons# amour and e9uipment

found ( reastplate at # andhelmet at * )

" raining ground found

" .hows gladiators were present in #" .hows type of armour7 weapons and

e"uipment used at * and #" .hows fighting was violent and needed amour " .i5e of the armour 1 si5e of the gladiator " Shows gladiators were trained" .hows housing and living conditions" arge si5e of arracks indicates the large

population of gladiators at #!ighting " !resco illustrating gladiator

com at found in #

" .hows types of fighting undertaken

" 8ladiators were present" Shows weapons7 armour7 clothing etc used" =ne figure is leeding – shows the violent

nature of the gamesSpectators " #ainting of amphitheatre riot

in +=25 in the *ouse of 2ctius2nicetus

" mphitheatre closed ecause of the riot etweenP and >ucerians ( rivalry etween towns )

" .hows the amphitheatre had awnings for shadeand stalls for food4drink

ocation ofexercise arena

" Huge s9uare area# called Palaestra # to the southwest of

" Aarge space F exercise was popular andimportant

4B


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the amphitheatre in # " :hat was needed for e-ercise5esign and

ayout" Palaestra in * occupies a

whole lock of land" *ncluded an open air space and a gallery for

spectators to watch" &here was a large swimming pool" 5ecoration and money was invested on

exercise therefore was important" @ifferent uses for the area

#atronage and,rganisation

" Graffiti from the Palaestra in# indicates it was home of thelocal 2ugustan


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an"uet scenes " *ndication of where dining took place!ood service " *ouse of the $etti D mosaic of

a oy kitchen slave" !ood preparation was done y slaves if you

could afford it otherwise women served" Slaves had specific roles i%e% serving food

Ban"uet ehaviour

" 8ti"uette inscription on thewalls of the *ouse of the6oralist (do not ma e eyes atanother man*s $ife 7)

" 6en and women could dine together" Rude4vulgar ehaviour was not tolerated

Range of food " Car onised food found – dates#grapes# prunes# pomegranates#

read# lettuce# figs in * >,6?

" te similar foods to us" -hat foods they ate

6enu 6meal " Roman writer uvenal refersto a typical menu (Gustatio +asparagus and eggs, Mensae

Primae + chic en and goat, Mensae !ecundus + fruit )

" *nsight into regular meals they ate" -hat foods" hree course meals

ocation andspace of aths

" Aayout of P aths " Si3e and amount of aths F popularity" & pu lic aths in # (the .ta ian# the now lost? of #roconsul

6arcus Nonius Bal us

" Shows money and effort put into aths andtheir importance to the towns

" Bal us paid for the construction of the aths@" ade of mar le with wooden shutters and glass

window panes

• People of P and H adopted their dress and fashion from Rome• 6ales wore a tunic (the most asic form of clothing) and a toga for more ela orate occasions• =nes status was indicated y colours and stripes on ones toga• wall paintings in # togas worn y official magistrates• -omen wore a stola with a longer tunic

• # and * had trained doctors >Greek slaves? and #liny7 Seneca and 6artial inform us that theywere regarded as impostors

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• #aterfamilias was personally responsi le for the health and medical welfare of the family• &he *ouse of the Surgeon indicates that # had access to the latest medical technology• &he pu lic aths 1 citi5ens wanted cleanliness

• !resh water supplied to # and * via a"ueducts and continuously into homes with lead piping• &he concept of fresh water was introduced y the Greeks•

-ater was used for pu lic aths7 private homes and town fountains• /ath water was often not filtered and posed a potential health ha3ard• /y the 1 stC 25 Rome had improved sanitation standards immensely however it was still inade9uate

as the connection etween disease and sanitation had not een acknowledged• oilets were small holes in the floor and everyone cleaned with the same sponge

Evidence for Pu lic /uildings• *n # uildings date ack to the % th C BC• #rovide insight into cultural influences7 wealth7 morals and idealism of Romans• ll pu lic uildings were constructed from limestone7 tufa >volcanic rock?7 rick and wood

Building Notes2mphitheatre >#? " 8arliest known amphitheatre in the ancient Roman world

" ,onstruction started in ;'s BC" Aargest uilding in P" ,ould seat up to /'''' (larger than necessary so neigh ouring towns pro a ly

also used it – Nucerians in +=25 )" wo main entrances (> and .)" 2wnings provided shade for the people and they were sprinkled with scented

water to keep cool" Gladiatorial com at # oxing #wild east shows

" Relief s #mosaics #inscriptions and paintings show different types of fighting" 2thletic displays also put onheatres >#? " wo in # – one open air# one covered – shows importance of theatre

" Smaller could seat 1/'' and the larger could seat +'''" .hape of the theatre shows Greek influence" .eats of magistrates and civic leaders at the front" Stage at front and ackstage for actors at ack " 2wnings gave shade to audience" #?

" Had statues (2pollo #5iana #2phrodite and $enus )#alters #columns #frie3es #metopes # herms of 6ercury and 6aia

" 5amaged in %/25 and renovations took place"


18/25

$espasian emple of Esis >#? " Small ut ornate with all decorations and furnishings preserved

" 6ixture of Greek #Roman and Greek influences" any statues of Esis and water from the Nile was kept in the vicinity" Surrounded y a very high wall with a single entrance" Re uilt in %/25" Held 1/ daily services" Esis viewed as goddess who healed the sick so priests were associated with

medicine" E-ample of the permeation of other cultures" .hows Romans were accepting of other religions

Basilica >#? " *? " ,nly part has een excavated (limitations )

" ,ontains a swimming pool" ,ccupies an entire lock of land" ,pen air surrounded y three sides of pillars" *ncluded a statue of *ercules (town hero )" emples to *ermes (swiftness ) and *ygeia (health ) included" 6eeting rooms and private oudoirs included" .erved as a gym and a meeting place ( ugustan Fouth)" *ndicates the importance of health and exercise

Basilica >*? " Aarge rectangular hall" 2lternatively may e a shrine to the imperial cult (function under con3ecture)" Had a statue to the 8mperor $espasian and many other ron3e statues of

emperors # aseries of full length paintings of the Bal us family #frescoes andmosaics of mythological characters

" #aintings depicting scenes of *ercules" Re uilding at the expense of #roconsul 6arcus Nonius Bal us after %/25

>inscription says so?" ,entre of the towns administration #town hall and location of law courts

heatre >*? " Not yet een excavated (accessed through a section of old tunnels )" ,ould hold a out /+'' (more than ade"uate for population of H)" :as of standard layout ut one of the towns most impressive uildings" 2wnings were provided for shade" ,an see class division in seating

Evidence for Private /uildings• Aarge ody of evidence for housing in P and H however limitations of architectural sources i%e% it i

difficult to know the use of particular houses or to know how many families occupied them• Si3e of the house does not necessarily indicate the status of the owner• No multi)storey apartment locks like in Rome ut some two storey houses

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• ost houses were on irregular sites with no roof terraces• Blank wall to street for privacy and security i%e%no exterior windows and unimpressive front door• 6any houses had shops on the streets• .ome houses divided or occupied y various families• .ome of the more elegant houses had gardens7 water features and private aths• 6any houses in * orientated for a sea view• Rooms were multifunctional therefore cannot apply specific names to rooms• Rooms for keeping records7 dining7 sleeping7 entertaining7 cooking7 sometimes a garden or shop• &he main uilding materials used were limestone #lava stones #ru le # rick – whatever was availa le• No Jtypical # or * house D many different types due to !

" opography – limited space" !ashion – adoption of Greek and 8gyptian influences stayed from simplistic Roman styles" >atural disaster – common earth"uakes i%e% D2 meantrestoration and re uilding was needed" 8conomic changes – shops and workshops with residences #large houses divided up for many

poor families to inha it all together " #opulation growth – limited space #second storeys added# illusion of space added y decoration

• /y the time of eruption# most houses were elieved to have een supplied with water from springs ofc9uaro 2Dkms away

• -ealthier families designed their houses so they caught the ree3e in summer to try and reducedsome of the stifling heat

• &he strong cold winds and rains of winter mean that windows were filled with glass # curtains and nets were used as well as wooden partitions

• Aighting was inade"uate in every house – rich or poor% Natural light entered through windows and avariety of artificial light sources were used i%e% lamps #lanterns #fires and candles %

• ains doors had locks for security and some an iron grating fi-ed across windows to prevent thieves%• Religion was also o served and practised at home – shrines to household gods can e found and

rites of passage (marriage# irth and death) took place at home

• &he home was a centre for family life #personal religion # usiness and political dealings• Roman familia 1 legal and social unit of wife #children (married or unmarried)# slaves and freedmen• Patria potestas 1 power of paterfamilias• orning salutatio at houses (tool of social and political power)

:r an houses $illasAooked inwards #opening directly onto the street #some spatial limitations

@esigned to e at one with the landscape# make themost of the view and com ine luxury and rusticity

Small medium si3ed ta erna houses had an average

si3e of 0 D 1( rooms

/est e-ample of a villa is $illa of #apyri in * and the

$illa of 6ysteries in #$ariations in houses reflect topography7 lack ofspace7 economic factors7 fashion and naturaldisasters

Villa Rusticae >a working estate com ined withelegant living areas? D examples F $illa of #isanella,ver 1'' have een excavated

2rchitectural spaces and features included gardens #areas for slaves #latrines #atriums #mosaic floors#wall paintings # decorative pieces# minimal furniture #water supply #lighting #heating and security

2rchitectural spaces and features included $illa ofotium >leisure and relaxation? were often uilt ondifferent levels with terraces #porticoes # elvederes #fountains #gardens # swimming pools # aths #wallpainting # ron5e and mar le statues %2rchitectural spaces and features of Villa Rusticae

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included luxurious residence for owner# sta les #storage areas #slave areas

Evidence for Religion• 8veryday in each home families prayed and worshiped household gods headed y the paterfamilias• &he household shrine was called the lararium " could e a miniature temple or a simple wall opening• Several personalities could e prayed to i%e%!

" he lares – protectors of the house shown as dancing young men who held drinking horns and plates%6any took statues with them when they escaped the eruption – = statues were foundnear the dead in the streets of #

" he penates – protectors of the food supply shown similar to lares" he genius – guaranteed many children to the family and shown as a priest with a covered head

holding a drinking horn" $esta # the goddess of the fire place # was present in the flame of the fire in the house and she gave

warmth and light to the family and so she was worshiped in the home" ,ther favourite gods were included in the worship i%e% ercury# inerva7" Emproper worship caused disasters like infertility and house destroying earth9uakes

• &he most popular Etalian god was #riapus #god of fertility who was shown naked with a huge phallus• ,fferings of wreaths and food were given and occasionally animals i%e% lam s on special occasions

( irths# deaths# marriages)• Special o 9ects were used i%e%pouring owls and oil lamps• odels and drawings of phallus s were everywhere as sym ols of luck • !avourite gods and goddess ecame part of decorations in paintings etc on walls

• 6a9or gods were housed in temples in the forum – upiter (king of the gods)# uno (his wife) and6inerva (their daughter# goddess of crafts)' $enus (goddess of love)' 2pollo (lord of civilisation)'Ceres (goddess of fertility)%

• &he emperor was also honoured i%e%!ortuna 2ugustus – goddess who protected ugustus – and tothe emperor $espasian %

• Shrine to 2ugustus found in *

• !oreign religions promised what Roman religions did not – a close relationship with the god and ahappy afterlife for the good

• -omen found them especially attractive and li erating• &he most popular foreign cult was that of 8gyptian goddess Esis – powerful goddess of magic she

promised an afterlife for elievers % Her temple contained water from the >ile%• 2 wall painting shows two daily ceremonies taking place outside her temple• -orship of Bacchus (wine and drama) was extremely popular among # women although anned in

Rome due to the e-cessive drunken wildness• /elievers danced themselves into a drunken fren3y in order to unite with the god• Statue of Endian fertility goddess Aakshmi #statuettes of 6iddle 8astern fertility god Sa a3ius and

wall inscriptions mentioning the i lical towns of Sodom and Gomorrah found.• Christianity may have een practised (called a de enerate sort of cult ? y #liny the younger )

• # uried their dead outside the city gates – i%e% only the living could dwell inside the town – thereforea Street of om s appears at Roman gates

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• lways reminded themselves a out death – in a # house there is a mosaic of a full length skeletonholding a wine cup

• $illa Aa #isanella D silver cup decorated with skeletons inscri ed J en!oy life while you have it fortomorrow is uncertain" you may die

• &he dead were not forgotten – graffiti found throughout # address the dead i%e%from citi3en #yrrhusto his dead friend Chius J I am sorry to hear that you are dead and so farewell

• 5eath was seen regularly in the amphitheatre watching gladiators• s P grew richer# so did the si5e of the tom s%• &he dead were cremated and later7 a stone sla > stelae ? was inscri ed with the deceased s name

was added7 and later faces were sculpted along with special words• Gradually whole families were uried together and alters were set up #animals sacrificed # meals

shared and li ations poured• Coins were placed near the vase (with the ashes in it) to pay the Jfee to the ferryman (,haron) of the

afterlife who crossed the River .ty-

Evidence of 8reek and Egyptian *nfluence• 2ccording to legend *ercules >the Roman version of *eracles? founded # as he passed through

and * may e named after him >statues of *ercules are found "uite a lot in *?• Evidence of worship of Greek gods found in P and H include 5emeter #2pollo and 5ionysus• Greek influence evident in architectural features i%e% thetheatre and the palaestra• Reflected in many s tatues that were direct copies of Greek originals• Greek language still continued to e spoken and some inscriptions4graffiti were written in Greek )

"uotations from Greek literature found (i%e%homer ) among graffiti• Greek literature7 drama and philosophy influenced the Roman world (a Roman was regarded as eing

educated if he read and spoke Greek ) " discovery of the papyrus scrolls (4C00 scrolls)• :ould have een normal for a wealthy Romans house to e full of 8reek works as well as atin works• n 2lexander mosaic from the *ouse of the !aun shows a attle etween 2lexander the Great and

5arius – the style of the painting suggest it is a copy of a *ellenistic painting %• lso in the *ouse of the !aun is a mosaic of a Nile scene containing crocodiles# hippos and ducks• emple of Esis was a usy temple – popularity of foreign religions• -allace)*adrill suggests Rome recent con"uest of 8gypt may have spawned the influx of

8gyptian crafts and styles i.e. the use of sphinxes7 Esis sym ols7 scenes from the Nile

(. Envestigating7 Reconstructing and #reserving the #ast

,hanging ethods and ,ontri utions of 4 th and 20 th , archaeologists• No esta lished methods of excavation when # and * were first discovered – no rules to follow# little

concern for conte-t of artefacts and no precedent for record keeping• &he earliest e-cavations were mining operations? due to the 10 th C motive of Jtreasure hunting• &his hapha3ard approach y early e-cavators damaged and discarded many pieces• Karl -e er is responsi le for introducing a systematic approach resulting in greater conservation

and preservation

• 1=th ,entury rchaeologists!" Giuseppe !iorelli "

.ite director of P in 4CDA24


22/25

ethods and approach to e-cavation considered revolutionarydopted a more systematic approach and divided the site into = regions

Each region contained 22 insulae ( locks)


23/25

• Recent e-cavations involve thorough documentation and scholarly interpretation of the remains including minute analysis of the layers

• Biological material and ceramics are considered essential o 3ects to study – nothing is overlooked• &he P ew Research and &echnologies• Not static sites which have revealed everything yet• P and H are constantly eing re)examined y historians4archaeologists with new technologies and

fresh perspectives " archival matter is re)examined and sites are re)excavated # new 9uestions areasked and evidence is used to form new interpretations% #revious research is challenged %

• the most comprehensive study ofthe remains? along with two physical anthropologists D #ier #aolo #etrone and Auciano !attore

• 8stelle Aa3er7 an archaeologist who focuses on skeletal remains7 conducted extensive studies on theremains to esta lish research on sex7 age7 height7 disease and population

• &raditionally it has een asserted that the sample of victims were skewed towards the very old# infirm#women and young%

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• Aa3er challenged this previous assumption and produced results that showed there was no iasamong sex7 age >9uveniles underrepresented as ones do not last?7 healthy or sick people.

• any people in # died from exposure to extreme heats (2 0 degrees) resulting in the pugilistic oroxers pose where the lim s are flexed and the spine is extended

• 5ale 5ominey)*owes notes that odies found at the each at * were instantly vaporised and thosein the oat house at * were slowly aked to death

*ssues of ,onservation and Reconstruction• # and * are now considered world heritage sites ecause they provide a complete and vivid picture of

society and daily life at a specific moment in the past without parallel anywhere in the world• lso among the worlds most endangered sites• wo centuries of excavations7 exposure to the elements and poor site management has contri uted

to decay

• #oor restoration work – much of the restoration work has not een done y professionals andincorrect construction methods have een used

• 2 new tim er roof erected on the *ouse of 6eleager in # collapsed• :ithout ade9uate roofing features i%e% frescoes are exposed to weather and sunlight and drainage

ecomes a pro lem as water pools on the floors• Enappropriate materials can also cause further damage i%e% steel and concrete " the steel rusts and the

concrete flakes away % Poor 9uality mortar allows water7 vegetation and fungi to penetrate• odern concrete contains more salt and causes damage• -eeds invade and ruin sites and hasten decay when they take root in cracks and force cracks to

ecome igger% lgae and fungi also ecome present in damp# poorly drained areas%• Environmental factors i%e% the fre"uent earth tremors common in the region contri ute to decay when

it shakes the foundations of sites% &he;' eruptions of $esuviu s since + have caused further damage%• #igeons nesting7 pecking at eams and windows and leavings droppings (which contain a high level

of acid) all damage houses% &hree falcons have een employed to scare away the pigeons%• #oor site protection against looting has meant many frescoes# artefacts and paintings have een stolen

and damaged in the process• Et is estimated that etween 1=;+ and /'''7 more than %'' items have een stolen• !ires are also started in houses i%e% House of *phigenia# ruining the area• #oor site management has meant that visitors to the site can cause a lot of damage – no re9uirement

for visitors to check in any large ags which provide ideal conditions for theft• &here aren t enough guides to stop people stepping over closed off areas or visitors clim ing onto

ruins to get etter photographs% &ourists also vandalise areas%• &here?s a lack of educational signs as proper signs6e-planations would encourage respect and interest•

&ourism is one of the largest industries and help to keep the sites funded• However the amount of traffic is more than can e accommodated and there are no pathways or ridges for tourists to walk on – along the $ia dell? ondan5a the footpath has een worn down to thesame level as the road " ancient lead water pipes have ecome exposed

• &he need to provide tourist amenities i%e% athrooms #catering and gar age facilities encroach on thesite oth physically as well as aesthetically

• 6osaic tiles and plaster7 fragments of pottery etc are picked up y tourists• :nintentional damage is also caused like erosion of footpaths or accidental knocking of walls etc• Aitter left y tourists attracts rodents and this encourages urrowing #nesting and clim ing on ruins

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• .ites can e left and e-posed to natural? decay# can e re uried for protection# reconstructed to its stateat the time of e-cavation# conserved# restored to its original state and protected

• Reconstructions and restorations rely on interpretation and new materials must e distinguisha le fromoriginal ones to avoid falsifying historical evidence

• here has een a push for conservation as opposed to restoration recently for oth # and *• Conservation involves the process of documentation7 analysis7 cleaning and sta ilisation of an

o 9ect or site to prevent further deterioration D to preserve it in its existing state• -allace)*adrill pushes the line that there should e no further excavation unless you can conserve

what is already found

Ethical *ssues – .tudy and @isplay of Human Remains• ,riginal excavations show little regard or respect for human remains• .keletons were damaged or removed and taken for souvenirs• .keletons were deli erately rearranged to create scenes to impress tourists• large num er of ones were carelessly stored in ath houses causing disarticulation• Ethics and archaeology collide as there are groups for whom it is ta oo to distur the dead• Changing values of generations calls for re)evaluation of treatment of odies• Human skeletons are indispensa le for research into diets# disease# genetics etc• rchaeologists must pay due regard to sacred #spiritual and metaphysical eliefs of the cultures• .hould ones e seen are solely artefacts K :ho has custodianship4ownership of onesK :hat is the

most appropriate way to store and display human remainsK• he uni"ue type of preservation at # has made victims far more accessi le to visitors D forms of

skeletons and odies7 rather than actual remains7 are displayed• &he casts at P reveal more a out the full horror of 25;= and help the general pu lic• &hey do not offend and provide a fascinating display however coming face to face with twisted#

agonised skeletons at * can create a great response from the viewer %• >ow " research is considered far more appropriate than using ones to illustrate the gruesome

manner in which they were killed• :hy would dead odies from a modern catastrophe (i%e% t% .t% Helens) e treated any different to

ancient odiesK :e would not e-pect to see photographs of the dead odies or have them on display "elapsed time the important factor for our attitude to dead odies@ E.e. ancient ok D yesterday ad.

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