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Ancient Near East ReligionsMesopotamian, Sumerian and SemiticReligions

ContentsArticles

Religions of the Ancient Near East 1Mesopotamian religion 6Mesopotamian mythology 11Sumerian religion 14Ancient Semitic religion 19Enûma Eliš 22Family tree of the Babylonian gods 26

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 28Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 29

Article LicensesLicense 30

Religions of the Ancient Near East 1

Religions of the Ancient Near EastThe Religions of the Ancient Near East were mostly polytheistic, with some early examples of primitive Monolatry(Mardukites) and Monism (Atenism). Some scholars believe that the similarities between these religions indicate thatthe religions are related, a belief known as patternism.[1]

Especially the Luwian pantheon exerted a strong influence on the Ancient Greek religion, while Assyro-Babylonianreligion influenced Achaemenid-era Zoroastrianism and Judaism. Both Egyptian and Greek traditions in turnstrongly influenced Christianity.

OverviewThe history of the Ancient Near East spans more than two millennia, from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age, inthe region now known as the Middle East, centered around the Fertile Crescent. There was much cultural contact, sothat it is justified to summarize the whole region under a single term, but that does not mean, of course, that eachhistorical period and each region should not be looked at individually for a detailed description. This article willattempt to outline the common traits of Ancient Near Eastern religions, and refer to sub-articles for in-depthdescriptions.The Ancient Near East includes the following subregions:• Mesopotamia (Sumer, Assyria, Akkad): Assyro-Babylonian religion, Sumerian religion, Mesopotamian

mythology• Elam• Ancient Egypt: Ancient Egyptian religion• The Levant (Canaan, Ugarit, Ebla, Mitanni): Canaanite religion• Anatolia (the Hittite Empire, Assuwa, Arzawa): Hittite mythology, Hurrian mythology• the Caucasus and the Armenian Highland (Urartu)• Cyprus, Crete (Minoan civilization): Minoan religionOur earliest sources from ca. 2000 BC allow glimpses of Mesopotamian mythology and Egyptian Religion.The early Hittite religion bore traits descended from Proto-Indo-European religion, but the later Hittite religionsbecame more and more assimilated to Assyria.Ancient Greek religion was strongly influenced by Ancient Near Eastern mythology, but is usually not included inthe term. The Mystery religions of Hellenism were again consciously connected with Egyptian religion.There are broad practices that these religions often hold in common:• Purification and cleansing rituals• Sacrifices (plant and animal sacrifice, libations, rarely, but prominently in mythology, human sacrifice)• Polytheism (Though Egypt and Greece were Henotheistic societies)• State (city state) sponsored religions (theocracy)• Sacred prostitution• Divination• Majick (invocations, conjurings and Talismans)Typically, Ancient Near Eastern religions were centered around theocracies, with a dominating regional cult of theGod of a city-state. There were also super-regional mythemes and deities, such as the God Tammuz and the descentto the underworld.Divinations:• Apantomancy: seeing animals• Cleromancy: drawing lots

Religions of the Ancient Near East 2

• Hepatoscopy: observing the liver of an animal• Nephomancy: cloud-watching• Ornithomancy: watching birds in flight• Capnomancy: divination through smoke• Oneiromancy: divination through dreams

Mesopotamia

Impression of the cylinder seal of Ḫašḫamer, patesi (High Priest) ofSin at Iškun-Sin, ca. 2400 BC

Astrology

Identification of the Gods and Goddesses withheavenly bodies — planets and stars, besides Sun andMoon — and to assigning the seats of all the deities inthe Heavens is found in Assyro-Babylonian religion.

The personification of the two great luminaries — theSun and the Moon — was the first step in the unfoldingof this system, and this was followed by placing theother deities where Shamash and Sin had their seats.This process, which reached its culmination in thepost-Hammurabic period, led to identifying the PlanetVenus with Ishtar, Jupiter with Marduk, Mars with Nergal, Mercury with Nabu, and Saturn with Ninurta.

The system represents a harmonious combination of two factors, one of popular origin, the other the outcome ofspeculation in the schools attached to the temples of Babylonia. The popular factor is the belief in the influenceexerted by the movements of the heavenly bodies on occurrences on earth — a belief naturally suggested by thedependence of life, vegetation and guidance upon the two great luminaries. Starting with this belief the Priests andPriestesses built up the theory of the close correspondence between occurrences on earth and phenomena in theHeavens. The Heavens presenting a constant change even to the superficial observer, the conclusion was drawn of aconnection between the changes and the everchanging movement in the fate of individuals and of nature as well as inthe appearance of nature.To read the signs of the Heavens was therefore to understand the meaning of occurrences on Earth, and with thisaccomplished, it was also possible to foretell what events were portended by the position and relationship to oneanother of Sun, Moon, Planets and certain stars. Myths that symbolized changes in season or occurrences in naturewere projected on the heavens, which were mapped out to correspond to the divisions of the Earth.All the Gods, Demons and Spirits had their places assigned to them in the Heavens, and facts, including such as fellwithin the domain of political history, were interpreted in terms of astral theology. So completely did this system inthe course of time sway men's minds that the Cults and Sects, from being an expression of animistic beliefs, took onthe color derived from the "astral" interpretation of occurrences and doctrines. It left its trace in incantations, omensand hymns, and it gave birth to astronomy, which was assiduously cultivated because a knowledge of the heavenswas the very foundation of the system of belief unfolded by the priests of Babylonia and Assyria."Chaldaean wisdom" became, in the classical world, the synonym of this science, which in its character was soessentially religious. The persistent prominence which astrology continued to enjoy down to the border-line of thescientific movement of our own days, and which is directly traceable to the divination methods perfected in theEuphrates valley, is a tribute to the scope and influence attained by the astral theology of the Babylonian andAssyrian priests.As an illustration of the manner in which the doctrines of the religion were made to conform to the all-pervadingastral theory, it will be sufficient to refer to the modification undergone in this process of the view developed in a

Religions of the Ancient Near East 3

very early period which apportioned the control of the universe among the three Gods Anu, Enlil and Ea.Disassociating these Gods from all local connections, Anu became the power presiding over the Heavens, to Enlilwas assigned the earth and the atmosphere immediately above it, while Ea ruled over the deep. With the transfer ofall the Gods to the heavens, and under the influence of the doctrine of the correspondence between the heavens andthe earth, Anu, Enlil and Ea became the three "ways" (as they are called) on the heavens.The "ways" appear in this instance to have been the designation of the ecliptic circle, which was divided into threesections or zones — a northern, a middle and a southern zone, Anu being assigned to the first, Enlil to the second,and Ea to the third zone. The astral theology of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion, while thus bearing the ear-marksof a system devised by the priests, succeeded in assimilating the beliefs which represented the earlier attempts tosystematize the more popular aspects of the religion, and in this way a unification of diverse elements was securedthat led to interpreting the contents and the form of the religion in terms of the astral-theological system.

EthicOn the ethical sides, the religion of Babylonia more particularly, and to a less extent that of Assyria, advances tonoticeable conceptions of the qualities associated with the Gods and Goddesses and of the duties imposed on man.Shamash, the Sun-God, was invested with justice as his chief trait, Marduk is portrayed as full of mercy andkindness, and Ea is in general the protector of mankind, a father who takes them under his protection. The Gods, tobe sure, are easily aroused to anger, and in some of them the dire aspects predominated, but the view becomes moreand more pronounced that there is some cause always for the divine wrath. Though, in accounting for the anger ofthe Gods, no sharp distinction is made between moral offences and a ritualistic oversight or neglect, yet the stresslaid in the hymns and prayers, as well as in the elaborate atonement ritual prescribed in order to appease the anger ofthe Gods, on the need of being clean and pure in the sight of the higher powers, the inculcation of a proper aspect ofhumility, and above all the need of confessing one's guilt and sins without any reserve — all this bears testimony tothe strength which the ethical factor acquired in the domain of the Religion.This factor appears to less advantage in the unfolding of the views concerning life after death. Throughout all periodsof Babylonian-Assyrian history, the conception prevailed of a large dark cavern below the earth, not far from theApsu— the fresh water abyss encircling and flowing underneath the earth — in which all the dead were gathered andwhere they led a miserable existence of inactivity, amid gloom and dust. Occasionally a favoured individual waspermitted to escape from this general fate and placed in a pleasant island. It would appear also that the rulers werealways singled out for divine grace, and in the earlier periods of the history, owing to the prevailing view that therulers stood nearer to the Gods than other mortals, the kings were deified after death, and in some instances divinehonours were paid to them even during their lifetime.

DemonologyMain Article: Mesopotamian Demon

Ancient Near Eastern religion knew an elaborate system of benevolent, neutral and malevolent Demons (which moreresembled Greek Daemons than the Christian concept of Evil Demons), and much of medicine consisted ofExorcisms, e.g. of Lamashtu, the hermaphroditic Demoness responsible for complications at childbirth and infantdeaths.In Chaldean mythology the seven evil Demons were known as Shedu, meaning "Storm-Demon". They wererepresented in winged bull form, derived from the colossal bulls used as protective genii of royal palaces, the name"Shed" assumed also the meaning of a propitious genius in Babylonian magical literature.[2]

Religions of the Ancient Near East 4

Later influenceThe influence exerted by the Babylonian-Assyrian religion was particularly profound on the Semites, while the astraltheology affected the ancient world in general, including the Greeks and Romans. The impetus to the purification ofthe old Semite religion to which the Hebrews for a long time clung in common with their fellows — the variousbranches of nomadic Arabs — was largely furnished by the remarkable civilization unfolded in the Euphrates valleyand in many of the traditions, myths and legends embodied in the Old Testament; traces of direct borrowing fromBabylonia may be discerned, while the indirect influences in the domain of the prophetical books, as also in thePsalms and in the so-called "wisdom literature", are even more noteworthy.Even when we reach the New Testament period, we have not passed entirely beyond the sphere ofBabylonian-Assyrian influences. In such a movement as early Christian gnosticism, Babylonian elements —modified, to be sure, and transformed — are largely present, while the growth of an apocalyptic literature is ascribedwith apparent justice by many scholars to the recrudescence of views, the ultimate source of which is to be found inthe astral-theology of the Babylonian and Assyrian Priests.

EgyptThe dominant religious rituals and beliefs of Ancient Egypt merged and developed over time. As an example, duringthe New Kingdom, the Gods Ra and Amun were syncretized into a single God, Amun-Ra.[3] Such syncretism shouldbe distinguished from mere groupings, also referred to as "families" such as Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. Over time,Gods took part in multiple syncretic relationships, for instance, the combination of Ra and Horus into Ra-Herakty.Similarly, Ptah, Seker, and Osiris becamePtah-Seker-Osiris.

Anatolia

Seated deity, late Hittite Empire (13th century BC)

Heavily influenced by Mesopotamian mythology, the religion ofthe Hittites and Luwians retains noticeable Indo-Europeanelements, for example Tarhunt the God of thunder, and his conflictwith the Serpent-God Illuyanka.

Tarhunt has a son, Telepinu and a daughter, Inara. Inara isinvolved with the Puruli spring festival. She is a protectiveGoddess (dLAMMA). Ishara is a Goddess of the oath.

Neopagan revivals

• Kemetism (Revival of Egyptian Gods/deities)• Wicca (Revival of Greek Gods)

Books

General

• Gordon, Cyrus. The Ancient Near East, 3rd Edition, Revised.W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., New York, 1965.

• James, E.O. The Ancient Gods: The History and Diffusion ofReligion in the Ancient Near East and the EasternMediterranean, 1960.

Religions of the Ancient Near East 5

• Pritchard, James B., editor. The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton UniversityPress, New Jersey, 1958.

• Pritchard, James B., editor. The Ancient Near East, Volume II: A New Anthology of Texts and Pictures.Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1975.

• Jack Sasson et al., eds., Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1995.• Smith, Morton, The Common Theology of the Ancient near East, Journal of Biblical Literature (1952).• van der Toorn, Karel (1995). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible.. New York: E.J. Brill.

ISBN 0-80282-491-9.• Mark S. Smith, God in translation: deities in cross-cultural discourse in the biblical world, vol. 57 of

"Forschungen zum Alten Testament", Mohr Siebeck, 2008, ISBN 9783161495434.

Canaan and Ugarit• Pardee, Dennis. Ritual and Cult at Ugarit. Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, Georgia. 2002.• Parker, Simon B., ed. Ugaritic Narrative Poetry. Society of Biblical Literature, U.S.A., 1997.• Smith, Mark S. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, Volume I: Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU

1.1-1.2. E.J. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands, 1994.

External links• ASOR (American Schools of Oriental Research), Boston University [4]

• University of Michigan. Traditions of Magic in Late Antiquity [5]

• The Edinburgh Ras Shamra Project [6]

• Canaanite/Ugaritic Mythology FAQ, ver. 1.2 [7] by Chris Siren• Canaan and Ancient Israel [8] by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

References[1] Samuel H. Hooke (1970). The Siege Perilous: Essays in Biblical Anthropology and Kindred Subjects. Ayer Publishing. p. 174.

ISBN 0836955250.[2] See Delitzsch, Assyrisches Handwörterbuch. pp. 60, 253, 261, 646; Jensen, Assyr.-Babyl. Mythen und Epen, 1900, p. 453; Archibald Sayce,

l.c. pp. 441, 450, 463; Lenormant, l.c. pp. 48-51.[3] Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press 2004, p.9[4] http:/ / www. asor. org/ outreach/ links/ ANEarchy. html[5] http:/ / www. lib. umich. edu/ pap/ magic/ intro. html[6] http:/ / homepages. ed. ac. uk/ ugarit/ home. htm[7] http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~chris. s/ canaanite-faq. html[8] http:/ / www. museum. upenn. edu/ Canaan/ index. html

Mesopotamian religion 6

Mesopotamian religion

The god Marduk and his dragon Mušḫuššu, froma Babylonian cylinder seal.

Mesopotamian religion refers to the religious beliefs and practicesfollowed by the various peoples living in Mesopotamia (around thearea of modern Iraq) that lasted for a period of three thousand yearsfrom the fourth millennium to the first century BCE.[1] Commonlythought of as a form of paganism, Mesopotamian religion waspolytheistic, worshipping over two thousand different deities,[2] manyof which were associated with a specific city-state within Mesopotamiasuch as Sumer, Akkad, and later on Babylon. Some of the mostsignificant of these deities were Anu, Enlil and later on Marduk.

Some, such as the historian Jean Bottero, have made the claim thatMesopotamian religion is the worlds oldest faith,[3] although there areseveral other claims to that title. What we know about Mesopotamianreligion comes from archaeological evidence uncovered in the region,particularly literary sources, which are usually written in cuneiform onclay tablets and which describe both mythology and cultic practices.However, other artefacts can also be used as the Mesopotamians'"entire existence was infused by their religiosity, just about everythingthey have passed on to us can be used a source of knowledge abouttheir religion."[4]

Although it died out over two thousand years ago, Mesopotamianreligion has still had an influence on the modern world, predominantlybecause much Biblical mythology that is today found in Judaism andChristianity, shares some overlapping consistency with ancient Mesopotamian myths. It has also inspired variouscontemporary Neopagan groups to begin worshipping the Mesopotamian deities once more, albeit in a way oftendifferent from that of the original Mesopotamian peoples.

History

Overview map of ancient Mesopotamia.

The peoples of Mesopotamia were not one unitednationality, but members of various differentcity-states. In the fourth millennium BCE, when thefirst evidence for what is recognisably Mesopotamianreligion can be seen, the Sumerians appeared inMesopotamia, although it is not known if they migratedinto the area or whether they were some of the originalinhabitants. They settled in southern Mesopotamia,which became known as Sumer, and had a greatinfluence over many of the Mesopotamian peoples andtheir culture. Meanwhile, in the north, in an area knownas Akkad, a civilisation known as the Akkadians arose,who spoke a semitic language that was distinct fromthat of the Sumerians.[5]

Mesopotamian religion 7

Gradually there was increasing syncreticism between the Sumerian and Akkadian cultures and deities, with theAkkadians typically preferring to worship fewer deities, but elevating them to greater positions of power. In circa2300 BCE the Akkadian king Sargon the Great conquered all of Mesopotamia, though this Akkadian empirecollapsed after two centuries. Then, around 1800 BCE, the leader of the city-state of Babylon, King Hammurabi,conquered much of Mesopotamia, but this Babylonian empire collapsed a century later due to attacks frommountain-dwelling people known as the Kassites. Following this, Mesopotamia became divided largely between twopowerful city-states; the Babylonians to the south and the Assyrians to the north, although eventually, in the seventhcentury BCE, Assyria fell to its enemy.[6]

In the 6th century BCE, Mesopotamia was invaded by the Persian empire, then ruled by Cyrus the Great, but thePersians maintained and did not interfere in the native culture and religion, however under their control, the foreignaramaic language began to rise in predominance. Then, two centuries later, the Greek emperor Alexander the Greatoverthrew the Persians and took control of Mesopotamia itself, heralding the end of the era of ancientMesopotamia.[7]

Mythology

CosmologyThere are no specific written records explaining Mesopotamian religious cosmology that survive to us today.Nonetheless, modern scholars have examined various accounts, and created what is believed to be an at leastpartially accurate depiction of Mesopotamian cosmology.[8] In the Epic of Creation, dated to 1200 BCE, it explainsthat the god Marduk killed the mother goddess Tiamat and used half her body to create the earth, and the other halfto create both the paradise of šamû and the netherworld of irṣitu.[9] A document from a similar period stated that theunvierse was a spheroid, with three levels of šamû, where the gods dwelt, and where the stars existed, above thethree levels of earth below it.[10]

Mesopotamian religion 8

Deities

Inanna/Ishtar depicted on the "Ishtarvase", Larsa, early 2. millennium BCE,

Louvre AO 6501

Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, thereby accepting the existence ofmany different deities, both male and female, though it was alsohenotheistic,[11] with certain gods being viewed as superior to others by theirspecific devotees. These devotees were often from a particular city orcity-state that held that deity as its patron deity, for instance the god Enki wasoften associated with the city of Eridu, and the god Marduk was associatedwith Babylon.[12] Whilst the full number of gods and goddesses found inMesopotamia is not known, K. Tallqvist, in his Akkadische Götterepitheta(1938) counted around two thousand four hundred that we now know about,most of which had Sumerian names. In the Sumerian language, the gods werereferred to as dingir, whilst in the Akkadian language they were known as iluand it seems that there was syncreticism between the gods worshipped by thetwo groups, adopting one another's deities.[13]

The Mesopotamian gods bore many similarities with humans, and wereanthropomorphic, thereby having humanoid form. Similarly, they often actedlike humans, requiring food and drink, as well as drinking alcohol andsubsequently suffering the effects of drunkenness.[14] In many cases, thevarious deities were family relations of one another, a trait found in manyother polytheistic religions.[15] The historian J. Bottéro was of the opinionthat the gods were not viewed mystically, but were instead seen as high-upmasters who had be obeyed and feared, as opposed to loved and adored.[16]

Nonetheless, many Mesopotamians, of all classes, had names that weredevoted to a certain deity; this practice appeared to have begun in the thirdmillennium BCE amongst the Sumerians, but also was later adopted by theAkkadians as well.[17]

Initially, the pantheon of deities was not ordered, but later Mesopotamian theologians came up with the concept ofranking the deities in order of importance. A Sumerian list of around 560 deities that did this was uncovered at Fâraand Tell Abû Ṣalābīkh and dated to circa 2600 BCE, ranking five primary deities as being of particularimportance.[18] One of the most important of these early Mesopotamian deities was the god Enlil, who was originallya Sumerian divinity viewed as a king of the gods and a controller of the world, who was later adopted by theAkkadians. Another was the Sumerian god An, who served a similar role to Enlil and became known as Anuamongst the Akkadians. The Sumerian god Enki was later also adopted by the Akkadians, initially under his originalname, and later as Éa. Similarly the Sumerian moon god Nanna became the Akkadian Sîn whilst the Sumerian sungod Utu became the Akkadian Šamaš. One of the most notable goddesses was the Sumerian love deity Inanna, whowas later equated with the Akkadian Ištar. With the later rise to power of the Babylonians in the 18th century BCE,the king, Hammurabi, declared Marduk, a deity who before then had not been of significant importance, to a positionof supremacy alongside Anu and Enlil.[19]

Mesopotamian religion 9

LegendPerhaps the most significant legend to survive from Mesopotamian religion is the Epic of Gilgamesh, which tells thestory of the heroic king Gilgamesh and his wild friend Enkidu, and the former's search for immortality which isentwined with all the gods and their approval.There are no known Mesopotamian tales about the end of the world, although it has been speculated that theybelieved that this would eventually occur. This is largely because Berossus wrote that the Mesopotamians believedthe world to last "twelve times twelve sars"; with a sar being 3,600 years, this would indicate that at least some ofthe Mesopotamians believed that the Earth would only last 518,400 years.[20]

AfterlifeThe ancient Mesopotamians believed in an afterlife that was a land below our world. It was this land, knownalternately as Arallû, Ganzer or Irkallu, the latter of which meant "Great Below", that it was believed everyone wentto after death, irrespective of social status or the actions performed during life.[21]

Cultic Practice

Worship and Sacrifice"Enlil! his authority is far-reaching; his word is sublime and holy. His decisions are unalterable; he decides fate forever! His eyesscrutinize the entire world!"

A prayer to the god Enlil.[22]

The pagan Mesopotamians venerated images of their gods, which it was believed actually held the essence orpersonality of the deity that they represented; this is evident from the poem How Erra Wrecked the World, in whichErra deceived the god Marduk into leaving his cult statue.[23]

A number of written prayers have survived from ancient Mesopotamia, each of which typically exalt the god thatthey are describing above all others.[24] The historian J. Bottéro stated that these poems display "extreme reverence,profound devotion, [and] the unarguable emotion that the supernatural evoked in the hearts of those ancientbelievers" but that they showed a people who were scared of their gods rather than openly celebrating them.[25]

Magic and witchcraftIn parts of Mesopotamian religion, magic was believed in and actively practiced. At the city of Uruk, archaeologistshave excavated houses dating from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE in which cuneiform clay tablets have beenunearthed containing magical incantations.[26]

Later Influence

Historical StudyFor many decades, some scholars of the Ancient Near East argued that it was impossible to define there as being asingular Mesopotamian religion, with Leo Oppenheim (1964) stating that "a systematic presentation ofMesopotamian religion cannot and should not be written."[27] Others, like Jean Bottéro, the author of Religion inAncient Mesopotamia, disagreed, believing that it would be too complicated to divide the religion into many smallergroups, stating that:

Should we dwell on a certain social or cultural category: the "official religion," the "private religion," the religion of the "educated"... Should we emphasise a certain city or province: Elba, Mari, Assyria? Should we concentrate on a certain period in time: the Seleucid, the Achaemenid, the Chaldean, the Neo-Assyrian, the Kassite, the Old Babylonian, the Neo-Sumerian, or the Old Akkadian period? Since, contrary to what some

Mesopotamian religion 10

would imprudently lead us to believe, there were no distinct religions but only successive states of the samereligious system... – such an approach would be excessive, even pointless.[28]

New Religious MovementsVarious new religious movements in the 20th and 21st centuries have been founded that venerate some of the deitiesfound in ancient Mesopotamian religion. In particular, various strains of Neopaganism have been formed that haveadopted the worship of the historical Mesopotamian gods. Another modern religion to have adopted elements fromthe beliefs of ancient Mesopotamia is Anuism, devoted to the god Anu, who supposedly revealed himself as beingthe Supreme Being to a man named V.E.M, who before then had known nothing of ancient Mesopotamia. UnlikeNeopagan groups, Anuism is wholly monotheistic, treating Anu as the one and only God.[29]

References• Bottéro, Jean (2001). Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.• Davies, Owen (2009). Grimoires: A History of Magic Books. New York: Oxford University Press.

References[1] Bottero (2001:Preface)[2] Bottero (2001:45)[3] Bottero (2001:Preface)[4] Bottero (2001:21–22)[5] Bottero (2001:7–9)[6] Bottero (2001:13–17)[7] Bottero (2001:17–18)[8] Bottero (2001:77–78)[9] Bottero (2001:79)[10] Bottero (2001:80)[11] Bottero (2001:41)[12] Bottero (2001:53)[13] Bottero (2001:45)[14] Bottero (2001:64–66)[15] Bottero (2001:50)[16] Bottero (2001:37)[17] Bottero (2001:39)[18] Bottero (2001:48–49)[19] Bottero (2001:54)[20] Bottero (2001:95)[21] Bottero (2001:108)[22] Bottero (2001:30–31)[23] Bottero (2001:65)[24] Bottero (2001:29–30)[25] Bottero (2001:37)[26] Davies (2009:8)[27] Bottero (2001:26)[28] Bottero (2001:27)[29] Views of Modern Mesopotamia (http:/ / babylon-rising. tribe. net/ thread/ 6cdd9466-fe68-4541-b8af-236673c66188). 2004. .

Mesopotamian mythology 11

Mesopotamian mythology

Fertile Crescentmyth series

Mesopotamia

Levantine myth

Arabian myth

Yazidic religion

Mesopotamian mythologyTopics

Gods

• Anunna & 7 who decreefate

• Enki & Mes• Tiamat & Tablets of destiny• Marduk & fiction

Heroes

• Utnapishtim & world-flood• Tammuz & Ishtar• Gilgamesh & Cedar forest• Enkidu, the man-beast

Monsters

• Zu, the winged lion• Qingu, mankind's blood• Asag, plague and war• Namtar, deadly illness

Related

• Mesopotamian religion• Sumerian religion• Babylonian religion• The Fertile Crescent

Mesopotamian mythology is the collective name given to Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonianmythologies from parts of the fertile crescent, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq.The Sumerians practiced a polytheistic religion, with anthropomorphic gods or goddesses representing forces orpresences in the world, in much the same way as later Greek mythology. According to said mythology, the godsoriginally created humans as servants and freed them when they became too much to handle.Many stories in Sumerian religion appear similar to stories in other Middle-Eastern religions. Gods and Goddessesfrom Sumer have similar representations in the religions of the Akkadians, Canaanites, and others.

Mesopotamian mythology 12

The primary deities for each phase of Mesopotamian religionEach (Sumerian) representing the earth at the E'saggila temple, Eridu, and also at Kish:• Ashur, main sky god of Assyria at Assur• Ninlil or Nillina, goddess of air (possibly the south wind) and wife of Enlil (Sumerian) at the E'kur Temple,

Nippur• Inanna, the goddess of love and war at the E'anna temple, Uruk• Marduk, originally Ea's son and god of light (biblical Merodach, Mordechai was named after him), the main god

of Aya, consort of Shamash.• Ninurta (Sumerian: Lord plough) (panMesopotamian) at the E'Girsu (hence also called Ningirsu) temple, Lagash

An Assyrian relief showing the common iconography of kings(center) and gods (outside).

As social complexity in these cities increased, each godcame to resemble a human monarch (Lugal: lu = man,gal = great), or high priest (Ensi: en = lord, si =country), complete with a family and a court of divinestewards and servants. Wars between cities were seento reflect wars in heavens between the gods.Lesser gods were seen as family members of thesebigger divinities. Thus Ereshkigal (eresh = under, ci =earth, gal = great) came to be seen as the sister ofInanna, and she came to acquire a husband too,originally Gugalanna, the Wild Bull of Heaven, (from gu = bull, gal = great, anu = heaven), and subsequentlyNergal, the Lord of Death, son (Aplu) of Enlil and Ninlil. Servants also became minor divinities, as Isimud the twofaced androgynous Steward of Enki; or Ninshabur (Lady evening) the chief lady-in-waiting of Inanna.

Divinities then proliferated, with there being specific gods of tooth-ache, or aching limbs, goddesses for "Greenery"and "Pasture". Every aspect of life thus came to be surrounded with its own minor divinity that required gifts orplacation, as magic spells multiplied, trying to give people certainty in very uncertain times.

The Sky deitiesIn Cuneiform script, the names of deities are preceded with the determinative sign {DINGIR}. The same sign canrefer to "sky" {AN} or "heaven", or generically to the concept of "god" or "goddess".[1] The principal MesopotamianGods were identified with the sky or celestial bodies:• Sin (aka Sumerian "Nanna/Suen"), the God of the moon• Shamash (aka Sumerian "Utu"), the sun GodThe visible planets were also associated with divinities:• Enki and later Nabu was associated with the planet Mercury• Inanna (Sumer) or Ishtar (Akkad), the Queen of the Heavens and goddess of love and war was a deification of the

planet Venus• Nergal was associated with the planet Mars• Enlil and late Marduk was associated with the planet Jupiter• Ninurta was associated with the planet Saturn

Mesopotamian mythology 13

Mesopotamian cosmologyMesopotamian cosmology seems to have been seen as a genealogical system of binary opposites being considered asmale and female, and, through sacred marriage or hieros gamos, giving birth to successive generations of divinities.The universe first appeared when Nammu, a presumably formless abyss, curled in upon herself, giving birth to theprimary gods. According to the Babylonian Enuma Elish, the primary union divided into Tiamat, (from SumerianTi=Life, Ama=mother, t (Akkadian, a feminine terminal marker)) a salt water divinity, and Apsu (earlier Abzu fromAb=water, Zu=far) a fresh water divinity. These in turn gave birth to Lahamu and Lahmu, called the "muddy" or "thehairy ones", the title given to the gatekeepers of the E'Abzu temple in Eridu, who gave birth to Anshar (Sky Pivot, orAxle) and Kishar (Earth Pivot, or Axle) possibly referring to the celestial poles, and considered the parents of Anu(the Heaven-dome god) and Ki (the Earth god). These Gods gave their name to the Mesopotamian pantheon.The union of An and Ki produced Enlil, who in the Sumerian period eventually became leader of the pantheon. Afterthe banishment of Enlil from Dilmun (the home of the gods) for raping Ninlil, Ninlil had a child, Sin (god of themoon), also known in Sumerian as Nanna - Suen. Sin and Ningal gave birth to Inanna and to Utu (Sumerian) orShamash (Akkadian). During Enlil's banishment, he fathered three "substitute" underworld deities with Ninlil , mostnotably Nergal. [2]Nammu also gave birth to Enki. Enki also controlled the Me until Inanna took them away from Enki's city of Eriduto her city of Uruk. The "me" were holy decrees that governed such basic things as physics and complex things suchas social order and law. Their transfer from Eridu to Uruk may reflect ancient political events in Southern Iraq, in theJemdet Nasr or Early Dynastic Period of Sumer.In the much later Enuma Elish, of Babylon, it describes the chaos status in which Tiamat and Apsu, upset by thechaos of the younger gods, attempt to take back creation, until the son of Enki, Marduk, defeated them and re-createdthe world out of Tiamat's bodies. These myths seem to have in earlier Sumerian versions had Enlil, as god of theWinds and head of the Sumerian pantheon, in the role of Marduk. The purpose of Enuma Elish, composed in theKassite period was to elevate Marduk, god of the city of Babylon, and make him pre-eminent amongst the old gods,thus demonstrating Babylon's political victory over the old cultures of Sumer and Akkad. In Assyrian myth, Asshurtakes the place of Marduk.Other myths tell of the creation of humankind. The younger Igigi gods go on strike, refusing the work of keeping thecreation working and the gods consulted Enki for a solution. He suggested humankind be made from clay, mixedwith the blood of the captured God Kingu, son and consort of Tiamat.The earliest known writings have no author mentioned. One of the first recorded authors was the priestessEnheduanna, said to be the daughter of King Sargon of Akkad. She was the priestess of the moon god, Sin, but wrotetwo very famous prayers to the goddess of love and war, Ishtar.

See also• Ancient Near Eastern religion• Ancient Semitic religion• Family tree of the Babylonian gods• Babylonian mythology• Myths and Legends of Babylonia and Assyria (book)• Panbabylonism• Samuel Noah Kramer• Akhkhazu

Mesopotamian mythology 14

References• Hayes, John L. (2000). A Manual of Sumerian Grammar and Texts. Aids and Research Tools in Ancient Near

Eastern Studies (Second revised ed.). Malibu: Undena Publications. ISBN 0-89003-508-1.• van der Toorn, Karel (1995). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. New York: E.J. Brill.

ISBN 0-80282-491-9.

External links• alt.mythology Sumerian Mythology FAQ [3]

References[1] Hayes, 2000[2] http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk. / section1/ tr121. htm[3] http:/ / www. faqs. org/ faqs/ mythology/ sumer-faq/

Sumerian religion

Fertile Crescentmyth series

Mesopotamia

Levantine myth

Arabian myth

Yazidic religion

Mesopotamian mythologyTopics

Sumerian religion 15

Gods

• Anunna & 7 who decreefate

• Enki & Mes• Tiamat & Tablets of destiny• Marduk & fiction

Heroes

• Utnapishtim & world-flood• Tammuz & Ishtar• Gilgamesh & Cedar forest• Enkidu, the man-beast

Monsters

• Zu, the winged lion• Qingu, mankind's blood• Asag, plague and war• Namtar, deadly illness

Related

• Mesopotamian religion• Sumerian religion• Babylonian religion• The Fertile Crescent

Sumerian religion refers to the mythology, pantheon, rites and cosmology of the Sumerian civilization. TheSumerian religion influenced Mesopotamian mythology as a whole, surviving in the mythologies and religions of theHurrians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and other culture groups.

Worship

A cuneiform temple hymn from the 19thCentury BCE; the hymn is addressed to

the Lugal Iddin-Dagan of Larsa.

Written cuneiform

Sumerian myths were passed down through the oral tradition until theinvention of writing. Early Sumerian Cuneiform was used primarily as arecord-keeping tool; it was not until the late Early Dynastic period thatreligious writings first became prevalent as temple praise hymns[1] and as aform of "incantation" called the nam-šub (prefix + "to cast").[2]

Temples

In the Sumerian city-states, temple complexes were originally small, elevatedone-room structures. In the Early Dynastic Period, temples developed raisedterraces and multiple rooms. Toward the end of the Sumerian civilization,Ziggurats became the preferred temple structure for Mesopotamian religiouscenters.[3] Temples served as cultural, religious and political headquartersuntil around 2500 BCE, with the rise of military kings known as Lu-gals(“man” + “big”)[2] after which point the political and military leadership wasoften housed in separate "palace" complexes.[3]

The priesthood

Sumerian religion 16

Until the advent of the Lugals, Sumerian city states were under a virtually complete theocratic governmentcontrolled by independent groups of En, or high priest. Priests were responsible for continuing the cultural andreligious traditions of their city-state, and were viewed as mediums between humans and the cosmic and terrestrialforces. The priesthood resided full-time in temple complexes, and administered to matters of state including the largeirrigation processes necessary for the civilization’s survival.

CeremonyDuring the Third Dynasty of Ur, the Sumerian city-state of Lagash was said to have had 62 "lamentation priests"who were accompanied by 180 vocalists and instrumentalists.

CosmologyThe Sumerians envisioned the universe as a closed dome surrounded by a primordial saltwater sea.[4] Underneath theterrestrial earth, which formed the base of the dome, existed an underworld and a freshwater ocean called the Apsu.The god of the dome-shaped firmament was named An; the earth was named Ki. The underground world was firstbelieved to be an extension of Ki, but later developed into the concept of Kigal. The primordial saltwater sea wasnamed Nammu, which became known as Tiamat during and after the Sumerian Renaissance.

Creation StoryAccording to Sumerian mythology, the gods originally created humans as servants for themselves but freed themwhen they became too much to handle.[5]

The primordial union of An and Ki produced Enlil, who became leader of the Sumerian pantheon. After the othergods banished Enlil from Dilmun (the “home of the gods”) for raping Ninlil, Ninlil had a child: Nanna, god of themoon. Nanna and Ningal gave birth to Inanna and to Utu, god of the sun.[6]

Gods and goddessesThe Sumerians originally practiced a polytheistic religion, with anthropomorphic deities representing cosmic andterrestrial forces in their world. During the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE, Sumerian deities became moreanthrocentric and were "...nature gods transformed into city gods." Gods like Enki and Inanna were viewed as havingbeen assigned their rank, power and knowledge from An, the heaven deity, or Enlil, head of the Sumerian pantheon.This cosmological shift may have been caused by the growing influence of the neighboring Akkadian religion, or asa result of increased warfare between the Sumerian city-states; the assignment of certain powers to deities may havemirrored the appointment of the Lugals, who were given power and authority by the city-state and its priesthood.[7]

The PantheonThe majority of Sumerian deities belonged to a classification called the Anunna (“[offspring] of An”), whereas sevendeities, including Enlil and Inanna, belonged to a group of “underworld judges" known as the Anunnaki (“[offspring]of An” + Ki). During the Third Dynasty of Ur, the Sumerian pantheon included sixty times sixty (3600) deities.[8]

The main Sumerian deities are as follows:• An: God of heaven/the firmament.• Enlil: God of the air (from Lil = Air); patron deity of Nippur.• Enki: God of freshwater, male fertility, and knowledge; patron deity of Eridu.• Inanna: Goddess of sexual love, female fertility and warfare; matron deity of Uruk.• Ki: Goddess of the earth.[9]

• Nanna, God of the moon; one of the patron deities of Ur.[10]

• Nazi: One of the eight deities born to relieve the illness of Enki.

Sumerian religion 17

• Ningal: Wife of Nanna.[11]

• Ninlil: An air goddess and wife of Enlil; one of the matron deities of Nippur; she was believed to reside in thesame temple as Enlil.[12]

• Ninurta: God of war, agriculture, one of the Sumerian wind gods; patron deity of Girsu and one of the patrondeities of Lagash.

• Utu: God of the sun at the E'barbara temple[13] of Sippar.

Legacy

AkkadiansThe Sumerians experienced an ongoing linguistic and cultural exchange with the Semitic Akkadian peoples innorthern Mesopotamia for generations prior to the conquest of their territories by Sargon of Akkad in 2340 BCE.Sumerian mythology and religious practices were rapidly integrated into Akkadian culture,[14] presumably blendingwith the original Akkadian belief systems which have been all but lost to history. Sumerian deities developedAkkadian counterparts, and some remained virtually the same until later Babylonian and Assyrian rule. TheSumerian god An, for example, developed the Akkadian counterpart Anu; the Sumerian god Enki became Ea; andthe Sumerian gods Ninurta and Enlil remained very much the same in the Akkadian pantheon.

BabyloniansThe Amorite Babylonians gained dominance over southern Mesopotamia by the mid-17th Century BCE. During theOld Babylonian Period, the Sumerian and Akkadian languages were still used for religious purposes; the majority ofSumerian mythological literature known to historians today comes from the Old Babylonian Period,[1] either in theform of transcribed Sumerian texts (most notably the Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh) or in the form ofSumerian and Akkadian influences within Babylonian mythological literature (most notably the Enûma Eliš). TheSumerian-Akkadian pantheon was altered, most notably with the introduction of a new supreme deity, Marduk. TheSumerian goddess Inanna also developed the counterpart Ishtar during the Old Babylonian Period.

Hurrians and HittitesThe Hurrians adopted the Akkadian god Anu into their pantheon sometime no later than 1200 BCE. Other Akkadiandeities adapted into the Hurrian pantheon include Ayas, the Hurrian counterpart to Ea; Shaushka, the Hurriancounterpart to Ishtar; and Ninlil,[15] whose mythos had been drastically expanded by the Babylonians.

ParallelsSome stories in Sumerian religion appear similar to stories in other Middle-Eastern religions. For example, theBiblical account of Noah's flood resembles some aspects of the Sumerian deluge myth. The Judaic underworld Sheolis very similar in description with the Sumerian and Babylonian Kigal. Sumerian scholar Samuel Noah Kramer notedsimilarities between many Sumerian and Akkadian "proverbs" and the later Hebrew proverbs, many of which arefeatured in the Book of Proverbs.[16]

Sumerian religion 18

See also• Ancient Near Eastern religion• Ancient Semitic religion• Babylonian religion• Mes• Mesopotamian mythology• Sumerian literature

References[1] "Sumerian Literature" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ edition2/ literature. php). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. . Retrieved

2009-06-22.[2] "The Sumerian Lexicon" (http:/ / www. sumerian. org/ sumerian. pdf). John A. Halloran. . Retrieved 2009-06-23.[3] "Inside a Sumerian Temple" (http:/ / mi. byu. edu/ publications/ books/ ?bookid=21& chapid=112). The Neal A. Maxwell Institute for

Religious Scholarship at Brigham Young University. . Retrieved 2009-06-22.[4] "The Firmament and the Water Above" (http:/ / faculty. gordon. edu/ hu/ bi/ Ted_Hildebrandt/ OTeSources/ 01-Genesis/ Text/

Articles-Books/ Seely-Firmament-WTJ. pdf). Westminster Theological Journal 53 (1991), 232-233. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.[5] "Sumerian Myth" (http:/ / faculty. gvsu. edu/ websterm/ SumerianMyth. htm#). Grand Valley State University. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.[6] "Enlil and Ninlil" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 1. 2. 1#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. .

Retrieved 2009-06-22.[7] Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat, (1998). "Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia", 178-179.[8] Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat, (1998). "Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia", 182.[9] "Gilgamec, Enkidu and the nether world" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 1. 8. 1. 4& charenc=j#). Electronic Text

Corpus of Sumerian Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.[10] "A balbale to Suen (Nanna A)" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 4. 13. 01#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian

Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.[11] "A balbale to Nanna (Nanna B)" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 4. 13. 02#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian

Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.[12] "An adab to Ninlil (Ninlil A)" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 4. 24. 1#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian

Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.[13] "A hymn to Utu (Utu B)" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 4. 32. 2#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian

Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.[14] "Mesopotamia: the Sumerians" (http:/ / wsu. edu/ ~dee/ MESO/ SUMER. HTM). Washington State University. . Retrieved 2009-06-22.[15] "Hurrian Mythology REF 1.2" (http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~chris. s/ hittite-ref. html#a2). Christopher B. Siren. . Retrieved 2009-06-23.[16] Samuel Noah Kramer, (1952). "From the Tablets of Sumer", 133-135.

Ancient Semitic religion 19

Ancient Semitic religionAncient Semitic religion spans the polytheistic religions of the Semitic speaking peoples of the Ancient Near Eastand Northeast Africa. Its origins are intertwined with Mesopotamian mythology. As Semitic itself is a rough,categorical term, the definitive bounds of the term "Ancient Semitic religion" are likewise only approximate.These traditions, and their pantheons, fall into regional categories: Canaanite religions of the Levant,Assyro-Babylonian religion strongly influenced by Sumerian tradition, and Pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism.A topic of particular interest is the possible transition of Semitic polytheism into our contemporary understanding ofAbrahamic monotheism by way of the god El, a word for "god" in Hebrew and cognate to Islam's Allah.

Proto-Semitic pantheonThis is a partial list of possible Proto-Semitic deities.(Ac. Accadian-Babylonian; Ug. Ugaritic; Pp. Phoenician; Ib. Hebrew; Ar. Arabic; OSA Old South Arabian; Et.Ethiopic)• *ʼIlu "god" (Overgod: Ac. Ilu, Ug. il, Pp. ʼl/Ēlos, Ib. Ēl/Elohim, Ar. Allāh, OSA ʼl).• *ʼAṯiratu (Ilu's wife: Ug. aṯrt, Ib. Ašērāh, OSA ʼṯrt). The meaning of the name is unknown.

• She is also called *ʼIlatu "goddess" (Ac. Ilat, Pp. ʼlt, Ar. Allāt).• *ʻAṯtaru (God of Fertility: Ug. ʻṯtr, OSA ʻṯtr, Et. ʻAstar sky god).

• ʻAṯtartu (Goddess of Fertility: Ac. Ištar, Ug. ʻṯtrt, Pp. ʻštrt / Astarte, Ib. ʻAštoreṯ). The meaning of the name isunknown and not related to ʼAṯiratu.

• *Haddu/*Hadadu (Storm god: Ac. Adad, Ug. hd, Pp. Adodos). The meaning of the name is probably“thunderer”.• This god is also known as *Baʻlu "husband, lord" (Ac. Bel, Ug. bʻl, Pp. bʻl/Belos, Ib. Baʻal).

• *Śamšu "sun" (Sun goddess: Ug. špš, OSA: šmš, but Ac. Šamaš is a male god).• *Wariḫu "moon" (Moon god: Ug. yrḫ, Ib. Yārēaḥ, OSA wrḫ).

Babylonia and AssyriaWhen the five planets were identified, they were associated with the sun and moon and connected with the chiefgods of the Hammurabi pantheon. A bilingual list in the British Museum arranges the sevenfold planetary group inthe following order:• The moon, Sin.• The sun, Shamash.• Jupiter, Marduk.• Venus, Ishtar.• Saturn, Ninurta.• Mercury, Nabu.• Mars, Nergal.[1]

The pre-Christian religion of the Assyrian Empire (sometimes called Ashurism) centered around the god Assur,patron deity of the city of Assur, besides Ishtar patroness of Niniveh. The Assyrians adopted Christianity in thecourse of the 1st to 3rd century AD,[2] the last recorded worship of Ashur dating to AD 256.[3] [4]

Ashur, the patron deity of the eponymous capital from the Late Bronze Age was in constant rivalry with the patrondeity of Babylon, Marduk. In Assyria, Ashur eventually superseded Marduk even in his role as husband of Ishtar.

Ancient Semitic religion 20

CanaanCanaanite religion was the group of belief systems utilized by the people living in the ancient Levant throughoutthe Bronze Age and Iron Age.Until the excavation of Ras Shamra in Northern Syria (the site historically known as Ugarit), and the discovery of itsBronze Age archive of clay tablet alphabetic cuneiform texts, little was known of Canaanite religion, as papyrusseems to have been the preferred writing medium, and unlike Egypt, in the humid Mediterranean climate, these havesimply decayed. As a result, the highly antagonistic and selective accounts contained within the Bible were almostthe only sources of information on ancient Canaanite religion. This was supplemented by a few secondary andtertiary Greek sources (Lucian of Samosata's De Dea Syria (The Syrian Goddess), fragments of the PhoenicianHistory of Philo of Byblos, and the writings of Damascius). More recently detailed study of the Ugaritic material,other inscriptions from the Levant and also of the Ebla archive from Tel Mardikh, excavated in 1960 by a jointItalo-Syrian team, have cast more light on the early Canaanite religion.Canaanite religion was strongly influenced by their more powerful and populous neighbours, and shows clearinfluence of Mesopotamian and Egyptian religious practices. Like other people of the Ancient Near East Canaanitereligious beliefs were polytheistic, with families typically focusing worship on ancestral household gods andgoddesses while acknowledging the existence of other deities such as Baal and El. Kings also played an importantreligious role and in certain ceremonies, such as the sacred marriage of the New Year Festival may have beenrevered as gods.According to the pantheon, known in Ugarit as 'ilhm (=Elohim) or the children of El (cf. the Biblical "sons of God"),supposedly obtained by Philo of Byblos from Sanchuniathon of Berythus (Beirut) the creator was known as Elion(Biblical El Elyon = God most High), who was the father of the divinities, and in the Greek sources he was marriedto Beruth (Beirut = the city). This marriage of the divinity with the city would seem to have Biblical parallels toowith the stories of the link between Melkart and Tyre; Yahweh and Jerusalem; Tanit and Baal Hammon in Carthage.El Elyon is mentioned as 'God Most High' occurs in Genesis 14.18–19 as the God whose priest was Melchizedekking of Salem.Philo further states that from the union of El Elyon and his consort were born Uranus and Ge, Greek names for the"Heaven" and the "Earth". This closely parallels the opening verse of Genesis 1:1 "In the beginning God (Elohim)created the Heavens (Shemayim) and the Earth (Eretz)", and this would appear to be based upon this early Canaanitebelief. This also has parallels with the story of the Babylonian Anunaki (i.e. = "Heaven and Earth"; Shamayim andEretz) too.

Influence on the Abrahamic religionsMany of the stories of the Tanakh[5] , Bible, and the Qur'an are believed to have been based on, influenced by, orinspired by the legendary mythological past of the Near East. The Enuma Elish in particular has been compared tothe Genesis creation narrative.[6] [7] [8] [9] The story of Esther in particular is traced to Babylonian roots.El Elyon also appears in Baalam's story in Numbers and in Moses song in Deuteronomy 32.8. The Masoretic Textssuggest

When the Most High (`Elyōn) divided to the nations their inheritance, he separated the sons of man (Ādām);he set the bounds of the people according to the number of the sons of Israel

The Septuagint suggests a different reading of this. Rather than "sons of Israel" it suggests the "angelōn theou" or'angels of God' and a few versions even have "huiōn theou" 'sons of God'. The Dead Sea Scrolls version of thissuggests that there were in fact 70 sons of the Most High God sent to rule over the 70 nations of the Earth. This ideaof the 70 nations of Earth, each ruled over by one of the Elohim (sons of God) is also found in Ugaritic texts. TheAslan Tash inscription suggests that each of the 70 sons of El Elyon were bound to their people by a covenant. Thusas Crossan translates it

Ancient Semitic religion 21

"The Eternal One (`Olam) has made a covenant oath with us,Asherah has made (a pact) with us.And all the sons of El,And the great council of all the Holy Ones (Qedesh).With oaths of Heaven and Ancient Earth."

References[1] Mackenzie, p. 301.[2] "Iraqi Assyrians: Barometer of Pluralism" (http:/ / www. meforum. org/ article/ 558). Middle East Quarterly. . Retrieved Summer 2003.

"Modern Assyrians trace their heritage to the ancient Mesopotamians who converted from paganism to Christianity in the three centuries afterChrist."

[3] "Brief History of Assyrians" (http:/ / www. aina. org/ aol/ peter/ brief. htm#Religion). AINA Assyrian International News Agency. .[4] Parpola, Simo (1999). "Assyrians after Assyria" (http:/ / www. nineveh. com/ Assyrians after Assyria. html). Assyriologist (Journal of

Assyrian Academic Studies, Vol. XIII No. 2,). . "The gods Ashur, Sherua, Istar, Nanaya, Bel, Nabu and Nergal continued to be worshiped inAssur at least until the early third century AD; the local cultic calendar was that of the imperial period; the temple of Ashur was restored in thesecond century AD; and the stelae of the local rulers resemble those of Assyrian kings in the imperial period.".

[5] "Assyria" (http:/ / www. jewishencyclopedia. com/ view. jsp?artid=2046& letter=A& search=Assyria). Jewish Encyclopedia. . "The officialand to some extent the popular religion of Judah was greatly affected by Assyrian influence, especially under Ahaz and Manasseh."

[6] http:/ / www. crystalinks. com/ enumaelish. html[7] http:/ / www. crivoice. org/ enumaelish. html[8] http:/ / www. stenudd. com/ myth/ enumaelish/ enumaelish-4. htm[9] Sharpes, Donald K. 'Lords of the scrolls: literary traditions in the Bible and Gospels'. Peter Lang, 2005. ISBN 0820478490, 9780820478494

• Moscatti, Sabatino (1968), "The World of the Phoenicians" (Phoenix Giant)• Ribichini, Sergio "Beliefs and Religious Life" in Maoscati Sabatino (1997), "The Phoenicians" (Rissoli)• Donald A. Mackenzie, Myths of Babylonia and Assyria (1915). (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ ane/ mba/ index.

htm)• Thophilus G. Pinches, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, The World Wide School, Seattle (2000) (http:/ /

www. worldwideschool. org/ library/ books/ relg/ non-christiancomparative/ TheReligionofBabyloniaandAssyria/toc. html)

• van der Toorn, Karel (1995). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. New York: E.J. Brill.ISBN 0-80282-491-9.

See also• Religions of the Ancient Near East• Mesopotamian mythology• Abrahamic religions• Arabian mythology• Ancient Egyptian religion• Panbabylonism• History of Judaism• Names of God in Judaism• Proto-Indo-European religion• Prehistoric religion• Semitic Neopaganism

Ancient Semitic religion 22

Enûma Eliš

Fertile Crescentmyth series

Mesopotamian

Levantine

Arabian

Mesopotamia

Primordial beings

7 gods who decree

The great gods

Demigods & heroes

Spirits & monsters

Tales fromBabylon

Enûma ElišAtra-HasisMarduk &Sarpanit

Nabu, NintuAgasaya, Bel

Qingu

The Enûma Eliš (Akkadian Cuneiform: ለ�ሦ�ሢ�ለ�ሟ�) is the Babylonian creation myth (named after its opening words). Itwas recovered by Austen Henry Layard in 1849 (in fragmentary form) in the ruined Library of Ashurbanipal atNineveh (Mosul, Iraq), and published by George Smith in 1876.[1]

The Enûma Eliš has about a thousand lines and is recorded in Old Babylonian on seven clay tablets, each holdingbetween 115 and 170 lines of text. Most of Tablet V has never been recovered, but aside from this lacuna the text isalmost complete. A duplicate copy of Tablet V has been found in Sultantepe, ancient Huzirina, located near themodern town of Şanlıurfa in Turkey.This epic is one of the most important sources for understanding the Babylonian worldview, centered on thesupremacy of Marduk and the creation of humankind for the service of the gods. Its primary original purpose,however, is not an exposition of theology or theogony, but the elevation of Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, aboveother Mesopotamian gods.The Enûma Eliš exists in various copies from Babylon and Assyria. The version from Ashurbanipal's library dates tothe 7th century BCE. The composition of the text probably dates to the Bronze Age, to the time of Hammurabi orperhaps the early Kassite era (roughly 18th to 16th centuries BCE), although some scholars favour a later date of ca.1100 BCE.[2]

Enûma Eliš 23

SummaryWhen the 7 tablets that contain this were first discovered, evidence indicated that it was used as a "ritual", meaning itwas recited during a ceremony or celebration. That celebration is now known to be the Akitu festival, or Babyloniannew year. This tells of the creation of the world, and of Marduk's triumph over Tiamat, and how it relates to himbecoming king of the gods. Then is followed by an invocation to Marduk by his fifty names.[3]

The title, meaning "when on high" is the incipit. The first tablet begins:

e-nu-ma e-liš la na-bu-ú šá-ma-mu

šap-liš am-ma-tum šu-ma la zak-rat

ZU.AB-ma reš-tu-ú za-ru-šu-un

mu-um-mu ti-amat mu-al-li-da-at gim-ri-šú-un

A.MEŠ-šú-nu iš-te-niš i-ḫi-qu-ú-šú-un

gi-pa-ra la ki-is-su-ru su-sa-a la she-'u-ú

e-nu-ma dingir dingir la šu-pu-u ma-na-ma

When the sky above was not named,

And the earth beneath did not yet bear a name,

And the primeval Apsû, who begat them,

And chaos, Tiamat, the mother of them both,

Their waters were mingled together,

And no field was formed, no marsh was to beseen;

When of the gods none had been called into being.

The epic names two primeval gods: Apsû (or Abzu) and Tiamat. Several other gods are created (Ea and his brothers)who reside in Tiamat's vast body. They make so much noise that the babel or noise annoys Tiamat and Apsû greatly.Apsû wishes to kill the young gods, but Tiamat disagrees. The vizier, Mummu, agrees with Apsû's plan to destroythem. Tiamat, in order to stop this from occurring, warns Ea (Nudimmud), the most powerful of the gods. Ea usesmagic to put Apsû into a coma, then kills him, and shuts Mummu out. Ea then becomes the chief god, and along withhis consort Damkina, has a son, Marduk, greater still than himself. Marduk is given wind to play with and he usesthe wind to make dust storms and tornadoes. This disrupts Tiamat's great body and causes the gods still residinginside her to be unable to sleep.They persuade Tiamat to take revenge for the death of her husband, Apsû. Her power grows, and some of the godsjoin her. She creates 11 monsters to help her win the battle and elevates Kingu, her new husband, to "supremedominion." A lengthy description of the other gods' inability to deal with the threat follows. Marduk offers to savethe gods if he is appointed as their leader and allowed to remain so even after the threat passes. When the gods agreeto Marduk's conditions he is selected as their champion against Tiamat, and becomes very powerful. Mardukchallenges Tiamat to combat and destroys her. He then rips her corpse into two halves with which he fashions theearth and the skies. Marduk then creates the calendar, organizes the planets, stars and regulates the moon, sun, andweather. [4]

The gods who have pledged their allegiance to Tiamat are initially forced into labor in the service of the gods whosided with Marduk. But they are freed from these labors when Marduk then destroys Tiamat's husband, Kingu anduses his blood to create humankind to do the work for the gods.[4] Babylon is established as the residence of the chiefgods—the chief gods who made much babel or noise. Finally, the gods confer kingship on Marduk, hailing him withfifty names. Most noteworthy is Marduk's symbolic elevation over Enlil, who was seen by earlier Mesopotamiancivilizations as the king of the gods.

Enûma Eliš 24

Relationship with the BibleThe Enûma Eliš was recognized as bearing close relation to the Jewish creation in Genesis from its first publication(Smith 1876), and it was an important step in the recognition of the roots of the mythology found in the Bible inearlier Ancient Near Eastern (Canaanite and Mesopotamian) myth.The ancient Mesopotamians believed that the earth was a flat circular disc surrounded by a saltwater sea. Thehabitable earth was a single giant continent inside this sea, and floated on a second sea, the freshwater apsu, whichsupplied the water in springs, wells and rivers and was connected with the saltwater sea. The sky was a solid diskabove the earth, curved to touch the earth at its rim, with the dwelling of the gods above the sky or on top of the solidsky, and sometimes the gods were denizens of the heights between the earth and the sky. So far as can be deducedfrom clues in the creation story in the Bible and in the New Testament's Matthew 4:8, the ancient geography wasidentical with that of the Babylonians: a flat circular earth floating above a freshwater sea, surrounded by a saltwatersea, with a solid sky-dome (raqia, the "firmament") above. It is the creation of this world which Enûma Eliš andGenesis 1 describe.[5] [6]

Genesis 1:1-3 can be taken as describing the state of chaos immediately prior to God's creation:[7]

"In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was without form and void, anddarkness was over the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God was hovering over the face of the waters.And God said, ‘Let there be light,’ and there was light. "[8]

In both Enûma Eliš and Genesis, creation is an act of divine speech; the Enûma Eliš describes pre-creation as a time"when above, the sky or heights had not been named, and below the earth had not been called by name", while inGenesis each act of divine creation is introduced with the formula: "And God said, let there be...". The sequence ofcreation is similar: light, firmament, dry land, luminaries, and man. In both Enûma Eliš and Genesis the primordialworld is formless and empty (the tohu wa bohu of Genesis 1:2), the only existing thing the watery abyss which existsprior to creation (the god of Tiamat in the Enûma Eliš, təhôm, the "deep", a linguistic cognate of tiamat, in Genesis1:2), as with the one of the Egyptian creation myths, the watery abyss being a deity named Nu. In both, thefirmament, conceived as a solid inverted bowl, is created in the midst of the primeval waters to separate the sky orheights from the earth (Genesis 1:6–7, Enûma Eliš 4:137–40). Day and night precede the creation of the luminousbodies (Gen. 1:5, 8, 13, and 14ff.; Enûma Eliš 1:38), whose function is to yield light and regulate time (Gen. 1:14;Enûma Eliš 5:12–13). In Enûma Eliš, the gods consult before creating man (6:4), while Genesis has: "Let us makeman in our own image..." (Genesis 1:26) – and in both, the creation of man is followed by divine rest.

Editions and translations• The Seven Tablets of Creation [9], The Babylonian Legends of Creation, by E. A. Wallis Budge, [1921], at

sacred-texts.com• Seven Tablets of Creation, Luzac's Semitic Text and Translation Series, No 12 & 13, ISBN 978-0404113445

(1973).• L. W. King, Enûma Eliš: The Seven Tablets of Creation, London (1902); 1999 reprint ISBN 978-1585090433;

2002 reprint ISBN 1402159056.• Anton Deimel, Enûma Eliš (1936).• W. C. Lambert, S. B. Parker, Enûma Eliš. The Babylonian Epic of Creation, Oxford (1966).• D. D. Luckenbill, The Ashur Version of the Seven Tablets of Creation, The American Journal of Semitic

Languages and Literatures, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Oct., 1921), pp. 12-35 .

Enûma Eliš 25

See also• Religions of the Ancient Near East• Mesopotamian pantheon

References• F. N. H. Al-Rawi, J. A. Black, A New Manuscript of Enūma Eliš, Tablet VI, Journal of Cuneiform Studies (1994).• H. L. J. Vanstiphout, Enūma eliš: Tablet V Lines 15-22, Journal of Cuneiform Studies (1981).• B. Landsberger, J. V. Kinnier Wilson, The Fifth Tablet of Enuma Eliš, Journal of Near Eastern Studies (1961).• Arvid S. Kapelrud, The Mythological Features in Genesis Chapter I and the Author's Intentions, Vetus

Testamentum (1974) (jstor link [10]).• Alexander Heidel, "Babylonian Genesis" (1951) (google books link [11])

External links• The Theogonies of Damascius [12]

• http:/ / wikisource. org/ wiki/ Enuma_Elish• The full surviving text of the Enûma Elish [13]

• Genesis and Enûma Elish creation myth comparisons [14]

• A cuneiform text of Tablet I with translation and explanation in detail [15]

References[1] G. Smith, "The Chaldean Account of Genesis" (London, 1876).[2] Bernard Frank Batto, Slaying the dragon: mythmaking in the biblical tradition, Westminster John Knox Press, 1992, ISBN 9780664253530,

p. 35.[3] Jacobsen, Thorkild "The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion".[4] See:

• Foster, B.R. (1995). From Distant Days : Myths, Tales, and Poetry of Ancient Mesopotamia. vi. Bethesda, Md: CDL Press. p. 438.• Bottéro, J. (2004). Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia. x. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.• Jacobsen, T. (1976). The Treasures of Darkness : A History of Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 273.

[5] Seeley The Geographical Meaning of "Ëarth" and "Seas" in Genesis 1:10, Westminster Theological Journal 59 (1997), p.246 (http:/ / faculty.gordon. edu/ hu/ bi/ Ted_Hildebrandt/ OTeSources/ 01-Genesis/ Text/ Articles-Books/ Seely_EarthSeas_WTJ. pdf)

[6] Paul H. Seely, The Firmament and the Water Above, Westminster Theological Journal 53 (1991) (http:/ / faculty. gordon. edu/ hu/ bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/ OTeSources/ 01-Genesis/ Text/ Articles-Books/ Seely-Firmament-WTJ. pdf)

[7] Harry Orlinsky, Notes on the New JPS Translation of the Torah: Genesis 1:1-3 (1969), at voiceofiyov.blogspot.com (http:/ / voiceofiyov.blogspot. com/ search/ label/ Torah)

[8] Richard Elliott Friedman, The Bible with Sources Revealed, HarperOne, 2003. ISBN 0060530693[9] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ ane/ blc/ blc07. htm[10] http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0042-4935(197404)24%3A2%3C178%3ATMFIGC%3E2. 0. CO%3B2-0[11] http:/ / books. google. com. kh/ books?id=ge3AT4SewpgC& dq=heidel+ alexander+ babylonian+ genesis& pg=PP1& ots=0Ww_aokgVb&

sig=LOJgKz9ThCzI7pTHQLorgxVCgWg& prev=http:/ / www. google. com. kh/search%3Fq%3DHeidel%252C%2BAlexander%2BBabylonian%2BGenesis%26ie%3Dutf-8%26oe%3Dutf-8%26aq%3Dt%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26client%3Dfirefox-a& sa=X& oi=print& ct=title& cad=one-book-with-thumbnail

[12] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ cla/ af/ af12. htm[13] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ ane/ enuma. htm[14] http:/ / www. meta-religion. com/ World_Religions/ Ancient_religions/ Mesopotamia/ genesis_and_enuma_elish_creation. htm[15] http:/ / www. sron. nl/ ~jheise/ akkadian/ cftexts. html

Family tree of the Babylonian gods 26

Family tree of the Babylonian gods

Primalwasteland

Apsu Tiamat Mummu

Lahmu Lahamu ... ...

Anshar Kishar

Ea Anu Antu

Asaru Asarualim Asarualimnunna Asaruludu En-Ki Namru Namtillaku Tutu 42 otherchildren...

Marduk Kingu Dust Skyarch

Worldof men

Sarpanitum Man

Nabu Tashmetum

Fertile Crescentmyth series

Mesopotamia

Levantine myth

Arabian myth

Yazidic religion

Mesopotamian mythologyTopics

Family tree of the Babylonian gods 27

Gods

• Anunna & 7 who decreefate

• Enki & Mes• Tiamat & Tablets of destiny• Marduk & fiction

Heroes

• Utnapishtim & world-flood• Tammuz & Ishtar• Gilgamesh & Cedar forest• Enkidu, the man-beast

Monsters

• Zu, the winged lion• Qingu, mankind's blood• Asag, plague and war• Namtar, deadly illness

Related

• Mesopotamian religion• Sumerian religion• Babylonian religion• The Fertile Crescent

See also• Family tree of the Greek gods• Mesopotamian mythology• Semitic gods

References• Armstrong, Karen ([1993] 1999-01-07). A history of God: from Abraham to the present: the 4000-year quest for

God. Vintage. p. 528. ISBN 0-09-927367-5.• Anunnaku• Nabu

Article Sources and Contributors 28

Article Sources and ContributorsReligions of the Ancient Near East  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386420552  Contributors: 2ct7, ABF, AKeen, Achillobator, AdelaMae, Anyep, Barticus88, Bobo192,Bradeos Graphon, Carlog3, Categorystuff, Charles Matthews, Commander Keane, Dawn Bard, Dbachmann, Deville, Djnjwd, Dngnta, Dougweller, Eden Tate, Egyegy, Esimal, Espoo, Fratrep,Fullstop, Gaius Cornelius, Hut 8.5, IceCreamAntisocial, J04n, JForget, Jrcla2, Knyght27, Kozuch, Lacrimosus, Luk, MER-C, Marumari, Mashford, Mentifisto, Neelix, Novangelis,Open2universe, Pietru, Pigman, Prof saxx, Radagast83, Rickyrab, Rrburke, SamEV, Schwael, Shoeofdeath, SiobhanHansa, Smoove Z, Sumerophile, Suzieq181, The Haunted Angel, Theme97,Theodork, Tslocum, USchick, Wikiklrsc, WikipedianMarlith, Šarukinu, 123 anonymous edits

Mesopotamian religion  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=385684797  Contributors: A Moth in Lace, Alatari, Andre Engels, BD2412, Beland, Castanea dentata, Chansonbird,Cuchullain, Dbachmann, Dcoetzee, DreamGuy, Elireburg, Ellmist, Garlicbreadboi, Hephaestos, Jallan, Kafziel, Khoikhoi, Kinneyboy90, KnowledgeOfSelf, Mel Etitis, Midnightblueowl,Mwazzap, Naturenet, Notcarlos, PM Poon, Patrick, Pigman, R'n'B, Radagast83, Revived, Revth, Rob117, RobertG, RoyBoy, Sargonious, Schwabc1, Search4Lancer, Shanedidona,Theoldanarchist, Thiseye, Vagodin, Wikignome0530, Wrp103, 51 anonymous edits

Mesopotamian mythology  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386991023  Contributors: AliZanzavaar, AlotToLearn, Alphachimp, Anandchowdhary123, Angelo,Anonymous44, Anthony Appleyard, Arakunem, Astatine-210, BD2412, Belovedfreak, Bomac, Calvin 1998, Cander0000, Carlsotr, Castanea dentata, Celsiana, Cush, Cyfal, Dbachmann, Ddlamb,Discospinster, Diyforlife, Dpv, DreamGuy, Edward321, El C, EliasAlucard, Enki H., Enlil Ninlil, Entropy81, Eric-Wester, Essjay, Frecklefoot, Gardar Rurak, Glengordon01, Goethean,Goldenrowley, Griswaldo, Gscshoyru, HamburgerRadio, Hede2000, Heliocentric, IansAwesomePizza, Icairns, Igorberger, Infinite.ki, IsaactheNPOVfanatic, Izzedine, JackSparrow Ninja, Jagged85, Janejellyroll, Japeo, John D. Croft, Katalaveno, Kazakital, Keenan Pepper, Kintetsubuffalo, Kubigula, LAX, LeaveSleaves, Lesyemm, Loupeter, M-le-mot-dit, MegX, MeltBanana,Mephistophilus, Mightymousesavestheday, Migratus orientalis, Mimihitam, Morgan Leigh, NJMauthor, Naphureya, Nepenthes, Netalarm, Nightstallion, Noctis, Nonphixion, Novangelis, Ntsimp,Olivier, One-dimensional Tangent, Open2universe, P Ingerson, Pgk, Philip Trueman, Phoenixis, Pigman, Pjamescowie, PotatoSamurai, Radagast83, Radon210, RexNL, Richbank, Rob117,RobertG, Rursus, Samuel Sol, Sargonious, Shrivenzale, Sid xx, Skryinv, Sumerophile, Summer Song, TKTuttle, Tainic, Tanthalas39, Thegingerone, Thomas Purnell, Tom harrison, Tremilux,Tschel, Ttiotsw, Twenex, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, Uncle Dick, Utcursch, Vsmith, Wassini, Wavelength, Wikidenizen, Wikigrrl100, Zoeperkoe, 219 anonymous edits

Sumerian religion  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387879189  Contributors: 203.109.250.xxx, Abdishtar, Acather96, Alan D, Alan_D, Anthony Appleyard, AnthonyRischard, Atif.t2, Bryan Derksen, Castanea dentata, Ccacsmss, Christopher Mahan, Conversion script, Danno, Dbachmann, Dougweller, Ed Poor, Eequor, Enki H., Enviroboy, FinnWiki, Forseti,Graham87, J Heath, JoaoRicardo, John Hyams, JohnOwens, Josh Grosse, Keenan Pepper, Ketsuekigata, Koyaanis Qatsi, Larry Sanger, Lighttrek, Lilac Soul, MartinHarper, Mav, MichaelTinkler,Minimac, Mulad, NJMauthor, Nightscream, Nixdorf, NorwegianBlue, Overdrivecow, Pedant17, Pjacobi, R'n'B, Raven in Orbit, Rich Farmbrough, SJK, Sae1962, Sanxiyn, Sceptre, Superyetkin,TUF-KAT, The Epopt, Una Smith, Wikipelli, WojPob, Zoeperkoe, 44 anonymous edits

Ancient Semitic religion  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387195196  Contributors: ***Ria777, AGToth, Abdishtar, Akhilleus, Al-qamar, Alansohn, AnonMoos, BD2412,Cashie, Castanea dentata, Dbachmann, Dimmuborgir1066, Dreadstar, EastTN, Embryomystic, Enki H., Esimal, Ghelae, Heron, Ishmaelblues, JForget, Jheald, John Hyams, JohnCD, Kozuch,Kwamikagami, LeaveSleaves, LincolnDouglas, Luwilt, Mallerd, Midnightblueowl, Moumine, Mwazzap, NJMauthor, Pigman, RadioFan2 (usurped), Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton(1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Sameboat, Schneidmaster, Shenme, Shrew, Stevertigo, Sumerophile, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, Tydaj, VAcharon, Vanished User 0001, Veren, Warrior 1 uk, Wmahan,Woohookitty, Yom, Ziusudra, 91 anonymous edits

Enûma Eliš  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386805190  Contributors: (jarbarf), ***Ria777, 271828182, Akhilleus, Albmont, Amizzoni, Anclation, Ando228,Awayforawhile, Az1568, Bomac, Breakfastfordinner, CRGreathouse, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Castanea dentata, Chrisle, ClamDip, Cohesion, Cyfal, Damnreds, DarklyCute, DavidSchaich, Dbachmann, Digitalme, Dislocate, Dolda2000, Eanudimmud, Ehamby, El C, Elembis, Em-jay-es, Enki H., Gabbe, Gaius Cornelius, Glistenray, GoTeamVenture, Goethean, Goustien,Griswaldo, Im teh lord, Ivan Štambuk, J.delanoy, Jeffwright, KHM03, Kbh3rd, Kevinbasil, KnightRider, Luriso, Man vyi, Mani1, MarkHudson, Mhaesen, Mjw65, Mmcannis, Mordicai,NJMauthor, Naphureya, Nixdorf, Omicronpersei8, Onlim, PiCo, Pixie2000, PloniAlmoni, Professor marginalia, Quadell, Qxz, Rd232, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Rl, Rob117,Rognvald, Rursus, RyJones, SE7, Salgueiro, Sam Spade, SamuelTheGhost, Satanael, Shii, Skipsievert, Slrubenstein, Smack, Smalljim, Stevertigo, Sumerophile, Swift as an Eagle, Teben,Thanatosimii, Thomas Kaemmerer, Tomtom9041, Trusilver, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, Unfree, Vanished User 0001, Voretus, Vp loreta, Weyes, Wikidudeman, Wmahan, XKV8R, Xinpheld,Yonderboy, 186 anonymous edits

Family tree of the Babylonian gods  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387208571  Contributors: BomBom, Cowgod14, Dbachmann, Evil-mer0dach, Issmeinhirn, Jeandré duToit, John D. Croft, N3philim, Otto4711, Sumerophile, Wdflake, Zzyzx11, 7 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 29

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Khashkhamer seal moon worship.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Khashkhamer_seal_moon_worship.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Photo: Mansell.Image:HittiteSeatedDeityAnatolia13thCenturyBCE.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HittiteSeatedDeityAnatolia13thCenturyBCE.jpg  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: User:PHGCOMImage:Marduk and pet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marduk_and_pet.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gospodar svemira, JoJan, Mattes, RuM,Túrelio, 1 anonymous editsImage:Mesopotamia.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mesopotamia.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DenghiùComm, Electionworld,Mahahahaneapneap, 1 anonymous editsFile:Ishtar vase Louvre AO17000-detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ishtar_vase_Louvre_AO17000-detail.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: unknown ancient artist, photographed by User:JastrowFile:Marduk and pet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marduk_and_pet.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gospodar svemira, JoJan, Mattes, RuM, Túrelio, 1anonymous editsImage:Stitched an.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stitched_an.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Nonphixion, Šarukinu, 1 anonymous editsImage:Hymn Iddin-Dagan Louvre AO8864.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hymn_Iddin-Dagan_Louvre_AO8864.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:JastrowImage:Palm tree symbol.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palm_tree_symbol.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:DarkEvil

License 30

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/