Ancient Macedonia THE RISE OF MACEDON · wider socio-political perspective. All the dates and...
Transcript of Ancient Macedonia THE RISE OF MACEDON · wider socio-political perspective. All the dates and...
Basil Chulev
• ∘ ⊕ ∘ •
Ancient Macedonia
THE RISE OF MACEDON
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2014
The intention of this essay is to provide simple and easy to understand overview of periods from
ancient Macedonian history and culture. It avoids substantial and detailed explanations that
consider wider historical background of the events and persons described below, and is written
primarily for those approaching the topic for the first time. It also avoids complex explanatory
comments or insightful footnotes on the citations from the sources. The given explanatory notes
are prevalently etymological.
The introduction comprises the early periods of Macedonian history and presents a brief overall
retrospective of prehistoric Macedonia. The time-frame elaborated as a main theme of this essay
ranges from the beginning of the 4th century BCE and establishing of the rule of Filip II of
Macedon in 360 BCE, until his death in 336 BCE. The interpretations given here are meant to
enhance our understanding and appreciation of a kingdom that became a superpower of the
ancient world. They are focused strictly on the Macedonian aspect of the story disregarding the
wider socio-political perspective.
All the dates and references to centuries are „BCE“ except where indicated otherwise.
Throughout this essay, Macedonia/Macedonians generally refer to the area of the Macedonian
peninsula mainland north of Mount Olymp, southeast of the Mount Shar (lat. Scardus) and west of
the Rhodope Mountains. Macedonian peninsula refers to what is called „Balkans“ as of the 19th
century, occupying the part of southeastern Europe that lies south of the Danube and Sava rivers
and forms a peninsula bounded by the Adriatic and Ionian seas in the west, the Aegean and Black
seas in the east, and the Mediterranean Sea in the south.
Latinized/Anglicized names are given in parenthesis, some names and technical terms are
transliterated and these will be obvious when they appear. All terms and titles (e.g. Iliad/Ilion,
Odyssey/Odi-sé, etc.) have been transliterated directly from their original ancient forms with as
few changes as possible: thus river Strumon rather then Strymon (ancient "Y" was readen "U", not
"i").
The terminology and concepts that are modern inventions (like 'Hellenistic' or 'Greek') are
altogether avoided. Such empirically wrong terms used by modern historiography were unknown
to the ancient world and their continued use perpetuates misleading assumptions.
The modern-historiography 'privileged moments' are largely avoided too. For historians today
one such a privileged moment (of places and monuments as 'clasical') is 'Clasical Athens', the
Athens of the 5th
and 4th
centuries BCE. But when and why it is so regarded? Was 'Clasical Athens
regarded as 'Clasical' already in antiquity? By whom?
The definitions, current meanings and related concepts of the words in English are taken from
the Oxford American Dictionary and Thesaurus (Mac OsX version 1.0.2 PowerPC) and/or
Meriam-Webster online dictionary. For the words in Macedonian are used the online
ENCYCLOPÆDIA MACEDONICA / MAKEDONSKA ENCIKLOPEDIJA Vol. 1 & 2,
makedonski.info and Idividi online Macedonian dictionaries.
The sources that were used are listed in the References at the end of this essay.
Like the Carthaginians and the Spartans, the Macedonians are among the silent
people of the ancient Mediterranean basin. Almost everything that we know about
them derives from the written accounts of others, and – as in the case of the
Carthaginians and the Spartans – those written accounts were either not well-
informed or they were hostile, and occasional - E.N. Borza
Contents:
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Ancient Macedonia in the IV century BCE ..................................................................................... 18
The rise of Macedon ........................................................................................................................ 21
Seize of Halkidiki, peace with Athens and the end of the Holy War ……………………………... 33
Macedonia from the Aegean to Danube and from Ionian to Black Sea .......................................... 37
The fall of the city-states: Battle at Ironea ....................................................................................... 40
References ........................................................................................................................................ 48
Introduction
In book 4, Erodot (lat. Herodotus) distinguishes between three different warring parties in the
Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE): the Peloponnesian City-states (Athens, Thebes, Sparta, etc.),
the Gaul/Illyrian barbarians, and the Macedonians, whom he judges at least in one passage to be
neither part of the city-states world nor barbarians. The new scholarly emphasis on Macedonia
developed in part out of the many linguistic and genealogical researches, and in part from
archaeological findings being revealed almost on a daily basis. Much of our new appreciation of
Macedonian culture and society came from the numerous recently excavated tombs of prominent
Macedonians of the Aegead (Ægead; lat. Argead) dynasty, and the following Antigonid, Ptolem
and Seleukid dynasties of the 3-1 centuries BCE, but also from the modern DNA-Genealogical and
Linguistic researches that had also made a remarkable progress and helped notably our
understanding of the ancient European populations and their origin.
In the Rosetta Stone middle text from the early 2nd century BCE we find a syllable ligature from
that time with the oldest known written name of Macedonians and how they used to describe
themselves in plain Macedonian: "DeTsa-Mo-Dea" [pronounced: Detsa-Mô-Deah] - Children of
the (goddess) Mō, or with yet another simpler name: "Mo-Gya" - the People of Mo [eng. Mo-ther,
mom; mkd. (Lu)gya - folks]. They are still known under this same name until today. This name
remained preserved in Hindi, one of the oldest live languages on the planet earth, where
Makedoniya literally translates: “the world of mother”.1
Macedonians have emerged from the substratum of prehistoric tribes belonging to the huge family
of Pelasgians, Aeols/Boreans2 and Hyperboreans (Anti, Brygii, Danuni, Kiti, Hittiti, Lapiti,
Macedoni, Minyi, Misiani, Mosiniki, Pelasgi, Pelagoni, Paioni, Tiroi, Tyrseni, etc.) that lived and
contributed the creation of archetypical cultures of the second millennium BCE in the central
regions of Macedonian Peninsula and Asia Minor.3 During their migrations these ancestral Aryan-
Macedonic tribes brought with them their culture and contributed to the creation of the civilization
centers in antiquity,4 especially in the region of lower Danube and further toward Ukraine/Russia
(as 'Aryans') and in Central Europe (as 'Veneti' and/or 'Gaul').5 As a result of the progressive
1 https://translate.google.com/#en/hi/world%20of%20mother 2 In Macedonian mythology, Boreas*, was the god of the North Wind of river Vardar, who had a
serpent-shaped tail. The house of Boreas was located north of the river Struma and its protector was
Ophion (mkd. Afion, now name for a poppy). In Macedonia the north wind is the strongest of all winds
and blows across the Hema (lat. Haemus) mountain and along the Strymon and Vardar valleys, causing
storms in the Aegean Sea.
* in plain Macedonian: Bura [pronounced „boura‟] – storm. 3 M.Gimbutas "Old Europe"
4 Lepenski Vir, Vinča, Tripole, Polabia, Pomerania, Sorabia, Sarmatia, etc.
5 Other nations also claimed their Macedonic roots. The Saxons and Frisians traced their origin to
Macedonia and Alexander the Great, survivors of Alexander the Great's army who fled the conquered
lands after the death of their leader. In the 1699 book “The History of the Works of the Learned”,
according to the authors of this book, before they settled among the other peoples in what is now
“Germany”, they used to call themselves Macedonians. The author says that they came from Macedonia
to northern Europe as remains of the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great. Furthermore, he
connects the name „Frisians‟ to „Phrygians‟, also known as Brygians/Bryges - an ancient Macedonic
tribe, ethnically close to the Macedonians. Martin Luther (1483-1546) himself was descendant from the
Macedonic stock of the tribe of Lutići. His ancestral name was Luyt (meaning strong, harsh, tough in
plain Macedonian). Predecessors were forced to Germanize the name to Lutyr, then Luthyr, and finally
to Luther. Born in Lower Saxony in a place which is today called Einsleben, earlier known by its
expansion of the early Macedonians during the archaic period all the other regional tribes fused
together into a larger unit of Macedonians. At the beginning the Orestians (modern Mkd. Gorani;
Eng. 'highlanders', mountainers)6 from Argo (today Kostur region, Aegean Macedonia), in western
Lower Macedonia, together with other neighboring Macedonic tribes living in Eordaia, Elimeia
(Kožani and Grevena), northern Timfaia (Hasia), Lynkestia, Desaretia (Lerin-Prespa-Ohrid
region), Elimiotia, Pelagonia and Paionia (in Upper Macedonia) began to form the Macedonian
state, the first entity of that kind and extent on the European soil.
Passages in the works of leading ancient geographers show their difficulties in describing this
historical process in determining Macedonia as a geographic entity and in defining Macedonia‟s
borders to its neighbors, let alone in defining Macedonian ethnic identity on the basis of a cultural
geography of Macedonian tribes. But it has been convincingly demonstrated by modern scholars
that the independent kingdom of Macedonia – as well as the Roman provincia Macedonia in
republican times (cf. J. Vanderspoel, chapter 13) – essentially remained a clearly distinguished
political (or military) concept, while from a geographical point of view it was almost permanently
a changing entity with unclear borders, but roughly north of Mt. Olymp, spaning to the Shar (Lat.
Scardus) Mountain massive on the northwest, and on east until the Mt. Rodope range.
When we are concerned with the ethnographical conclusions, they are based on linguistic and
archaeological evidence, and here too, as in the case of the discussion on the chronology, we must
adopt a working assumption. This assumption is that Aryan-speaking tribes entered Thessaly and
Peloponnesus from the north or northeast about 2000 BCE, and that the differentiation of the
dialects occurred either outside their northern frontiers, just before the entry, or within the
frontiers immediately after it. Now the frontier is taken to be Mt.Olymp, so that the country
outside (north) is Macedonia and the country inside (south) is Thessaly and Peloponnesus. We
have to enquire therefore whether archaeology and linguists can find traces of a possible Aryan-
speaking tribe or tribes, settled in Macedonia just before that date and in Thessaly just after. As we
have seen, the only civilization which was in fact just north of Mt. Olymp before that date and just
south of it after is the Anatolian-Macedonian civilization of the Neolithic (10,000 BCE) and Early
Bronze Age, which (establishing itself in Chalcidice аround about 2600 BCE) spread gradually in
every direction and, filtering into Thessaly, reached there its limit of expansion about 2000 BCE.
Can this civilization, which to judge from its pottery was primarily Macedonic/Anatolian in
character, have been Aryan?
The answer is yes. The mere fact that it started from Macedonia does not disprove its Aryan
character, and moreover, as Childe has shown, there is very good reason to conclude that there
was a strong Aryan element in Troy II, with the culture of which the Macedonian Early Bronze
Age culture, especially in its later phase, is closely connected. Diacritics of Aryans7 are held to be
high-handled cups, the possession of the horse (in a herding fashion like the Reindeers today), and
finally, after their arrival in Thessaly and Peloponnesus, Minyan pottery. But certainly in its later
phase the Macedonic/Anatolian civilization possesses all these diacritics, except the last and that it
would have possessed of itself, had not the further internal development of Proto-Minyan been in
one case interrupted by other influences, and in the other overlaid by the influx of the new-
developed southern ware. The 'Proto-Minyan' elements (which Childe was also the first to
Macedonic name, Šibenica, which is retained even today in the name of the 'old town' district called
Siebenhitze. By a different genealogical route, the Šwabians also claimed a Macedonian origin. 6 See also Orography - the branch of physical geography dealing with mountains. Macedonian: Orman -
„woods up in the mountain‟. 7 Compare to “Barbarians” i.e. “Barb-Aryans”- „Blubbering Aryans‟ in plain Koine*.
* “Koine”- ancient Macedonic „Esperanto‟, a common language shared by various peoples of the
antiquity; as a lingua franca it was introduced at the close of the classical period, and spread in the
wider Mediterranean area by Filip II and Alexander III of Macedon.
recognize) in the pottery of the 4th Thessalian Period can also now be accounted for as of
Macedonian origin. On the whole the strongest argument for identifying the Macedonian
infiltration into Thessaly with the entry of Aryan-speaking people into Thessaly and Peloponnesus
is that there are no traces of any other civilization which in time and place fulfill the requirements
of the problem, unless we suppose the Aryans passed through Macedonia in a single momentary
wave, leaving no traces.
This initial Aryan element in the Macedonian race would be subsequently reinforced on three
occasions, first by the returning' Minyans' in Chalcidice; next by the foundation of Mycenaean
settlements, and finally by the Lausitz people, who were perhaps Veneti or Gaul and would
reintroduce a fresh Aryan strain into the already Aryanized or Aryan stock.8 This is logical
conclusion based on the archaeological artifacts which proved the communication and economic
migrations along the ancient trading routs, as the Amber Road, and as far as today Anglia (eng.
England).
But, the Macedonic-Aryan homeland remained distinctive unit throughout the Bronze and Iron
Age as well. Archaeologist Antonis Kotsonas in his paper "Why was there no Dark Age in
Macedonia?" explains this fact very clear: "For most of the 20th century, the transition from the
Bronze to the Iron Age over much of Greece and the Aegean was widely referred to as the „Dark
Age‟. Interpretations of the period in Macedonia, as elsewhere, were often colored by stories of
migrations and invasions. Nonetheless, the terminological consensus over the labeling of this
uneasy period as a „Dark Age‟ did not extend to Macedonia; the term Early Iron Age was
systematically – and emphatically – preferred instead. The reasons for this idiosyncratic choice
are not explicitly referred to in relevant literature, but will be shown to depend on: the conceptual
load of the two terms; disciplinary constructs concerning the prehistory of Macedonia; and the
different historical trajectories of Macedonia and the southern Greek mainland in the Late Bronze
Age." 9
The autochthonous Aryan nature of these people was undoubtedly confirmed by the recent genetic
researches. Geneticists, studying the human DNA note that a Y-Chromosome genetic marker
which they named, according to Y Chromosome Consortium, Haplogroup R1a1 (HG3 according
to Rosser 2000 nomenclature), is the most common among the Macedonic-(Barb)Aryan
populations in Europe and Indo-Aryans in India, at 47% and 30% respectively. If we do the math,
using the published statistics, we see that in Europe 61 million Macedonic-speaking males have
this genetic marker, but on the Indian sub-continent, the number is almost four times higher, at
240 million males.
Some may argue that this genetic and linguistic affinity is due to the more recent arrival of the
Vedic Aryans from India into Central Europe, Eastern Europe and to the Macedonian peninsula.
However, such a recent migration from the Southeast Asia would have also picked up and brought
a Finno-Ugric genetic marker Haplogroup N3 (HG16 of Rosser‟s nomenclature) to the
Macedonian peninsula, since it is widely distributed in Russia and Ukraine, between the Black Sea
and the Baltic Sea (Rosser et al. 2000). But that‟s not the case. Haplogroup N3 genetic marker has
not been found either south of the Carpathian Mountains, central Europe nor in the Macedonian
peninsula. More than 20,000 years old Paleolithic Haplogroup I genetic marker was found instead.
The highest frequencies of this even older gene have been found in the Macedonian peninsula, and
is a likely signature of a prehistoric population flourishing after the Last Glacial Maximum
(Marjanović et al. 2005, Peričić et al. 2005). This indicates that the Macedonic populations
carrying the Haplogroup R1a1 have been present in the Macedonian peninsula from at least
8 Walter A. Heurtley: “Prehistoric Macedonia - An Archaeological reconnaissance of Greek Macedonia
(West of the Struma) in the Neolithic, Bronze, and Early Iron Ages” 9 "Why was there no Dark Age in Macedonia?" Antonis Kotsonas, Solun Archaeological Museum.
10,000 years ago, long before the Finno-Ugric or any other known population spread into
Northeastern Europe, Russia and Ukraine.
On the grounds of an overall chronological analysis, in Macedonia have been identified three
stages of the Neolithic era, classified as Early, Middle and Late Neolithic Ages. They are in
relation with the cultural horizons in the Macedonian Peninsula at large, above all with the first
Balkan-Anatolian agricultural communities: Anzabegovo-Vršnik, Porodin, and Zelenikovo, rather
than with the later Starčevo, i.e. Vinča-Tordoš compounds and the compounds at Karanovo, Proto-
Sesklo, Sesklo and Dimini. Each of the second-mentioned cultural compounds has been classified
as later sub-groups, according to their specific development of stylistic features and chronological
definitions.
Nonetheless, worth to mention is, that, along with their ethno-genetic evolution and development
one factor remained always the same for Macedonians – their own ancestral ethnonym and the
ethnonym of their ancestral homeland Macedonia, a name that has endured the ravages of time and
remained unchanged to this day. It is recorded in the Old Testament10
and in all the ancient
sources, spanning across the last 3 millennia, something that cannot be said for any other of
today‟s modern nations or countries.
10
The oldest books of the Old Testament were written in the 5-3 centuries BCE, and they mention the
kingdom of Macedon and its navy, thus testifying the developed Macedonian civilization as from the
1st Millennium BCE.
Macedonia itself was seen in antiquity as divided roughly between the northern highlands, referred
to as Upper Macedonia11
, and coastal plain of the northern Aegean, commonly referred to as
Lower Macedonia12
. It was a land of many natural resources, including rich farmland, abundant
pastoral wealth, large deposits of basic and precious metals, and especially abundant supplies of
timber and its by-products which were in short supply in the southern Aegean.
Its often rugged terrain, continental climate, and its location, „the node of connections between
both north/south and east/west‟, made Macedonia a land that produced a „tough people‟. Already
in the so-called „Classical‟ period the country had an infrastructure of roads and fortresses,
administrative and religious centers in Bela (lat. Pella)13
, Egej (lat. Aegae), and Dion (or Dium),
and a brisk trade in timber and pitch. According to K. Dahmen coinage first appeared in archaic
period Macedonia (800-480 BCE), representing different tribes, myths and cities, and showing
wide-ranging influence on the Peloponnesian, Persian, and Thracian city-states. As from
Macedonia‟s earliest history these resources made the land a target for its neighbors. Macedonia
was surrounded by numbers of often hostile populations, whose frequent incursions were certainly
part of the chemistry that made the Macedonians a „tough people‟.
11
Roughly today Republic of Macedonia. 12
Aegean Macedonia 13
Voicing Assimilation. The /b/ and /p/ are identical in pronunciation (both are bilabial stops), differing
only in their Voice-parameter; /b/ is Voiced, while /p/ is Voiceless (describe/description). In Russian,
for example, it's Regressive Assimilation - the Voice parameter of the final consonant in a cluster
becomes the parameter of the whole cluster. So the Russian preposition в (v), meaning 'in', is
pronounced /f/ when its object starts with a voiceless consonant (example: v‟hotele).
To the east of Macedonia were the Thracians, whose resources and lifestyle paralleled those of the
Macedonians in many ways. The Thracians appear in Homer's Iliad as allies of Ilion. Thracians
were not different from the other Macedonic tribes, and their historiography is just another post
factum genealogical construct, meant to account for historic divisions among the populations of
later period. Mythology gives us the answer of their origin through their mythical ancestor named
Thrax, son of the war-god Ares, which was of clear Macedonic origin. This was clearly
emphasized in the Alexander III of Macedon‟ proclamation inscribed on stone plate after
subjugating Athens: "If thy strength had only been equal to thy purposes, Demosthenes, never
would the Athens have been ruled by a Macedonian Ares.”
Until the time of Filip II the only wars fought by Macedonians had been to beat off inroads of the
forest folks from along the lower Danube (Scordisci, Triballi, Getae), or raids of the equally wild
Gaul-Illyrians and Scythian horsemen. Northwestern frequent hostility between the collective
group of tribesmen, called in Latin „Gaul-Illyrians‟ by the Romans (these tribes never called
themselves “Gauls” nor “Illyrians” whatsoever), and the Macedonians was not the result of any
long-standing animosity but rather the consequence of periodical proximity. First Gaul-Illyrian
pillaging incursions in Macedonia were noted already in the 9th century BCE. In the 4th century
with the growth of Macedonian power, the Gaul-Illyrians were repeatedly and heavily defeated
several times, and from the vicinity of Macedonia they retreated further northward. Moving back
from Matia and beyond the lake Skadar (Skutari, Scodra) they dwelled into Dalmatia and nearby
regions along the Adriatic coast, thus named as Illiricum by Romans, and spread further northwest
until the Alps, in the region known as Gallia Cisalpina.
On the relations of Macedonians with their southwestern neighbors, the Epirote tribes, little is
known until the 4th century BCE, when it became the policy of the Macedonian kings to ally with
these closest neighbors, especially with the Molossians, in part to forge a common defense policy
from external raids. Olympia, originally named Poliksena (Lat. Polyxena), the mother of
Alexander III of Macedon, was a Molossian princess, daughter of the king Neoptolem (Lat.
Neoptolemus), showing very close relations between Molossians and Macedonians.
In the south Thessalian elite society also maintained close connections both to the Macedonian
kings and to individual Macedonian aristocrats, endowing these relations rooted in the immemorial
times of their ancestral Aryan/Hyperborean/Pelasgian origin. This region, called Magnesia in
archaic times, to the ancient historians was known as part of Macedonia long before the rule of
Filip II and Alexander the Great. The tribe of Magnets (of non-Danaan origin!) was mentioned by
Homer as well.14
The Danaan settlers (later named by the Romans Graecus, i.e. Greex), when they
14 Nelson in “Homer and Mycenae” (London,1933, 58), and Thomson (1954,134), trace the origin of
Magnets somewhere north, from where they came to Thessaly - from the river Vardar by crossing the
Mt. Olymp; while being protected by „Poseidon from the Macedonian city of Petra in Pieria“. They
appear in central Balkans together with Macedoni, Minyi (Miničevo), Lapiti (Lapovo), Tiroi
(Sirakovo), or Flegriti. Blegen (AJA,1897, 32,146), as well as Papastavrou (1972,18), dated them
between 3200-2600 BCE, under the common ethnonym Eols (or Æols, meaning movable, motley,
multiethnic).*
* Macedonians and the Æolian tribes in Æolis (later named Thessaly of which Magnesia was part)
belonged to the one and same Upper Neolithic substratum of so-called Chalcolithic Culture (6500-
3100 BCE), a period of Copper Age, also known as the Eneolithic/Æneolithic, which is a phase of the
earliest Bronze Age, before the time when metallurgists discovered that by adding tin to copper they
can form the harder bronze.
first came from Afrika to Macedonian Peninsula in the second millennium BCE they thought that
the forebears of Macedonians were Kentaurs, men above and horse beneath. Renown horse herders
even in the time of Filip II, the Royal Companions who accompanied and advised him in all
campaigns, were no more than the owners of the biggest horse herds.
According to popular tradition, mythological Macedonian king Karan (Lat. Caranus), the brother
of Fidon, gave a beginning to that first great European kingdom which some politic and warlike
rulers at length rendered so illustrious. Before his time the most numerous and prosperous
Macedonic tribes were the Paiones and Brygians (later Phrygians in Asia Minor), but they were
still a nation disunited by quarrels between the local chelniks15
. He was the one who founded
Aegei, the first capital of Macedon.
After some obscure reigns (Coenus, Tyrimmas) Perdika I (Lat. Perdiccas) mounted the throne.
He is said to have been a brave, able, and fortunate king. But of the particulars of his reign we are
not informed. Argei (Lat. Argaeus), and his son Filip I (Lat. Philipos), were embroiled with the
Gaul-Illyrian invaders from northwest; and the latter prince lost his life in a battle with those
tribes. Macedonians were also severely harassed by Tribalian-Thracian hostilities, but they did not
despair of future success. After another defeat from the Gaul-Illyrians, they carried their infant
king Evrop I (Lat. Aeropus) into the battlefield in a cradle, and were so animated by his presence,
that they routed the enemy with great slaughter, and for the next few centuries these marauding
tribes stayed at large from Macedon.
Alket (Lat. Alcetas) apparently enjoyed a peaceful reign. Thenafter, at the beginning of the late
sixth century and lasting until 479 BCE, Macedonia had been an appendage and tributary of the
Persian Empire, and Macedonian troops had even fought alongside those of Persia during the
Great Persian War (480–479 BCE). This old Macedonic-Persian symbiosis remained very alive in
the fourth century BCE during the Macedonian campaign in Asia: - Alexander‟s own prayer at
Opis in 324 BCE clearly decrees the established coalition between the two ruling classes of 15
“Chelnik” - a „chieftain‟ or „leader‟, literary „frontman‟ in plain Macedonian.
Europe and Asia: Macedonians and Persians.
However, it‟s not until the late 6th century BCE that the first truly historical monarch, Amynta I,
appears, but it is this monarch‟s son, Alexander I, who truly inaugurates Macedonian history. In
the period after this early Alexander, Macedonia is disrupted by internal conflicts, power struggles
between various members of the royal Aegead (Lat. Argead) clan, and was often ravaged by
external forces ranging from the southern Peloponnesian city-states to Asian Persians and
Macedonia‟s tribal neighbors on the north.
Above: the appearance of the Macedonic light cavalry from the region of Paionia (Upper Macedonia)
Alket II (Lat. Alcetas), brother of Perdika II involved himself in a contest with the Athenians, by
encouraging the revolt of Potida; and the Athenians, in response, instigated the Thracian king
Sitalk (Lat. Sitalces) to invade Macedon. Success attended the first efforts of the Thracians; but,
after they had repeatedly experienced the valor of the Macedonians, and the policy of Perdika II
averted the storm. He stipulated a truce with part of Tribali-Thracians, and gave his sister in
marriage with an ample dowry to Sent (Lat. Senthes), a relative of Sitalk, and, employing him as a
mediator, procured the retreat of the Tribali-Thracians. His nephew Aminta II, who had joined the
enemy in the hope of obtaining the crown, was driven into the obscurity of retirement, and did not
again attempt the dethronement of the reigning prince.
Next capable ruler of Macedon was the grand-grandfather of Filip II, Arhelai I (Lat. Archelaus,
413-399).
Arhelai II, a natural son of Perdika II, murdered his legitimate brother and seized the throne.16
He
also put to death his uncle Alketa II and his cousin, from whose pretensions he apprehended
disturbance. The stain of these enormities he endeavoured to remove by attending to the general
welfare of his subjects, and by patronising literature and genius. He studiously provided for the
military defense of the kingdom, and did not neglect the concerns of naval equipment, to which his
predecessors had paid little regard. According to his contemporary Thukydides, historian who
knew the Northern Aegean well, “Arhelai built castles, forths and straight roads, and he invested
in war equipment, horses, armor and other weapons, more then all of his predecessors put
16
This part of the Macedonian history is differently related. Some writers have spoken of two princes of
the name of Archelaus, father and son, but, as far as we may judge from Diodorus, this is an
unauthorised division of one into two. The Archelaus of this historian appears to have been the prince
who is mentioned by Plato.
together.” Having given offence to a favorite courtier, he suffered that fate to which he had
subjected his unoffending relatives. His son Ortse (Lat. Orestes) succeeded to the throne; but
Evrop II not content with the dignity of guardian or protector, assumed the sovereignty.
Pavsanij (Lat. Pausanias), son of the usurper filled the throne for only one year, before he was
assassinated by Aminta III (descendant of the first Alexander), who did not, however, long enjoy
the crown in peace, being driven into exile by the joint efforts of the reappearing Gaul-Illyrian
invaders and the malcontent of the Macedonians under lead of Argei II (Lat. Argaeus), the brother
of Pavsanij. After the usurper had reigned for two years, he was attacked by the Thessalians, who
restored the throne of Macedon to Aminta III.
Below is the list of the Macedonian kings from the Aegead (Lat. Argead) dynasty, spanning from
9th to 4th century BCE:
Macedonian kings from the Legendary Period:
Karan (Lat. Caranus) 808-778 BCE
Koen (Lat. Coenus) 778-? BCE
Tirima (Lat. Tyrimmas) around 700 BCE
Perdika I (Lat. Perdiccas) ?-678 BCE
Argej I (Lat. Argaeus) 678-640 BCE
Filip I (Lat. Philipos) 640-602 BCE
Evrop I (Lat. Aeropus) 563-533 BCE
Alket I (Lat. Alcetas) 533-503 BCE
Aminta I (Lat. Amyntas) 503-498 BCE
Macedonian kings from the Historical Period:
Alexander I “Philhellene”, 498-454 BCE
Perdika II, 454-413 BCE
Alket II ruled 411 BCE
Arhelaj I (Lat. Archelaus) “Philhellene”, 413-399 BCE
Krater (Lat. Craterus), 399 BCE
Ortse (Orestes), 399-397 BCE
Evrop II, regent 399-397 BCE; king 397-395 BCE
Arhelaj II, 395-394 BCE
Aminta II (Lat. Amyntas) “the Small One”, 394-393 BCE
Pavsanij (Lat. Pausanias), 392 BCE
Argej II, 392-391 BCE
Aminta III, 390-370 BCE
Alexander II (Philhellene), 370-368 BCE
Ptolem Alor (Lat. Ptolemy Alorus), 367/6-366/5 BCE
Perdika III, 365-360 BCE
Aminta IV “the Horse-breeder”, 360-359 BCE
Filip II, 359-336 BCE
Alexander III (the Great), 336-323 BCE
Filip III Aridej (Lat. Arideus), 323-317 BCE
Alexander IV, 317-309 BCE
…
For much of its history Macedonia was a land dominated by aristocratic elites. Nevertheless, the
role of the women was emphasized and important, reflecting the past prehistoric ages and the
worship of the female Mother-Goddess Mō(Ma), that left deep traces in the later patriarchal
Macedonian society. Examples of the strong female influence in Macedonian society of the
antiquity was drastically shown through personalities like Evridika I (lat. Eurydike, Euridice, Filip
II‟s mother)17
, Olympia (i.e. Polyxena, Alexander‟s mother) or Kleopatra VII (lat. Cleopatra) the
Queen of Egypt. Macedonian Queens of ancient times with their executive power had no equal
among the female figures in the rest of the ancient world. For comparison, the city-states and later
Roman women had no property, no rights to vote, nor rights to decide in any of the public affairs
and social structures, and were treated as mere slaves.
17
Evridika I (lat. Eurydike, Euridice) Linkestian princess, wife of the Macedonian king Aminta III,
mother of Filip II of Macedon. She fell in love with her son-in-law Ptolem of Alor (lat. Ptolemy
Aloros, her daughter‟s husband) and killed her own daughter to keep him for herself. She is the main
suspect in the death of her husband Aminta III (poisoned). Then she eliminated her son Alexander II
too, who became the king at the place of his assassinated father.
ANCIENT MACEDONIA IN THE FOURTH CENTURY BCE
Macedonia was rich area with vast plains filled with grain, with herds spread across the pastures,
gold and silver mines, and its population in the first millennium BCE was increasing very
rapidly. The Macedonianс wеre soldiers and furnished with physical strength and courage
chiefly, despising the cunning Danaans and Persians, who did the trade work and who returned
the contempt with interest. But its military power at the beginning of the 4th century BCE was
still far from corresponding to Macedonian demographic size and overall capabilities. This
discrepancy was partly due to the backward social structure, where the noble cavalry was quite
numerous and well trained, while the bourgeoisie peasants in Macedonia still played a
supporting role because of their disproportionally smaller numbers within the army (unlike the
ancient city-states on the Peloponnese where they formed the core of the hoplite armies), and
partly because of the king and nobles who neglected their military significance.
The weakness of Macedonia was also due to its internal divisions and quarrels - smaller local
dynasties from Upper Macedonia (those in Timfaia, Elimiotia, Lynkestia, Paionia, Pelagonia,
Antigona, etc.) often refused to obey the authority of the Aegead (lat. Argead) dynasty from the
capital in Aegae and later in Bela (lat. Pella), as well as Aegead‟s themselves who suffered from
frequent dynastic quarrels. The history of Macedonia until the rise of Filip II (lat. Philip) is
described as random shift of periods of unity and periods of anarchy. When a king from the
powerful Aegead (lat. Argead) dynasty will succeed to eliminate or overcome all his rivals and
quelle the power of dynasties in Upper Macedonia - the country experienced higher stability,
progress and increasing development. Then it had a greater impact on neighboring and distant
regions of Macedonia, the Macedonian coast, and the entire Macedonian Peninsula. But when the
powerful king would‟ve die, often killed, many candidates fought for the throne and weakened the
power of Macedonia, which in such situations was threaten and frequently ridded by external
marauders.
Macedonia proper, same as today (only with different invaders), in the 4th century BCE was under
threat from all four sides: from Getiae and Triballian Gauls from north, by the Thracians led by
king Berisad from the east, the Gaul-Illyrians from the north/west, and the Peloponnesian city-
states from the south. Since the death of Archelai the Decisive in 399 BCE until the rise of Filip II,
Macedonia experienced a very gloomy period of its history, marked by internal instability and
frequent attacks from external enemies. The biggest immediate threat was from the northwest,
when the Gaul-Illyrians united under the rule of king Bardil (lat. Bardilis). To repeal the Gaul-
Illyrians, who repeatedly managed to take large chunks of his kingdom, the father of Filip, Amynta
III, in 393 and 383 BCE had to seek assistance from the neighboring Halkidian Alliance, led by the
city of Olint (lat. Olynthus). But that proved as unwise and temporary solution, given that in 383
BCE the Halkidians wanted to keep a part of liberated territory. Amynta III managed to unite his
kingdom again only thanks to the help of the then leading force, Sparta, which was unhappy with
the growing power of Olint. After the death of Amynta III of Macedon, in 373 BCE, the Halkidian
Alliance supported the pretender from the other branch of the dynasty, so Alexander II, the elder
brother of Filip, defeated his opponent only thanks to the help of Ifikrat, strategist-in-law of
Thracian king Kote (lat. Cotys). Alexander II then believed that he‟s strong enough to intervene in
Thessaly, but collided with Thebes, the new driving force in the south of the Macedonian
peninsula. The famous Theban warlord Pelopida halted the military advance of Alexander II of
Macedon and demanded from him hostages as warranty, especially the young Filip, who at his age
of 14 to 18 years had in this way an opportunity to observe and learn directly the political and
military skills in Thebes. In 386 BCE Alexander II was killed by his brother-in-law Ptolem Alor
(lat. Ptolemy Aloros), who was also lover of the queen-mother Evridika (lat. Eurydice). Ptolem
became governor, but he was killed too when Perdika II, the second son of Amynta and Evridika,
reached maturity in 365 BCE. In 363 BCE Athens strategist Timotey occupied several fortified
places in the Thermaic gulf, especially Pidna and Metone, very close to the Macedonian capital
Bela (lat. Pella). Perdika was forced to accept peace-treaty that dwindled his kingdom. But he
partly revenged by supporting the city of Amfipolion (lat. Amphipolis) against Athens, and
managed to introduce a stationary Macedonian military detachment in this town. However, the
most imminent danger still remained the Gaul-Illyrians from northwest. In 360 BCE the
Macedonian army was beaten by king Bardil (lat. Bardyllis) in a battle in which some 4,000
Macedonian soldiers were killed together with their king Perdika II.
Filip, then 23 years old, at the urgent General Assembly of the Macedonians Under Аrms was
proclaimed king and protector of his nephew Aminta IV.
THE RISE OF MACEDON
Filip II at the beginning of his reign had to face a particularly difficult situation, as the very survival
of the kingdom of Macedon was threatened. All the neighbors were eager to gain benefit from this
moment of Macedonia's weakness: the Gaul-Illyrians from northwest already held parts of
Macedonian territory under their occupation, from north the Geti (lat. Getiae) and Triballians
started to pour thrugh the valley of river Morava toward Macedonia, the Thracian king Kote (lat.
Kotis) of Odrisia threatened Eastern Macedonia, Halkidian city-states flanked by Athens throw an
eye on Amfipoliton (lat. Amphipolis) and supported Argej, opponent of Filip, who had promised
them to hand over the city.
But Filip exhibits exceptional resourcefulness and astonishing diplomatic skills, and in this
extremely desperate situation immediately introduces urgent military reforms. Faced with several
external threats he realizes that first he‟ll need time, in order to fix the internal conflicts within his
own kingdom, and then to face the external hazards. He begins with the rapid removal of all its
opponents, including his very dangerous mother Evridika I (who previously assassinated his sister
and brother Alexander II, and presumably his father Aminta III), and Argej II (lat. Argaeus), the
most direct opponent for the Macedonian throne (which was also supported by Athens with a
detachment of mercenaries). And most importantly – he immediately approached the gathering and
training of new units for the Macedonian army. His ultimate purpose was to weld them into a
professional military force, without attachment of race or domicile, and loyal to himself alone. He
was able to create an army that was not restricted to campaigning seasons, and could operate and
train all-year round. For his men this meant many miles of forced marches and extensive drilling.
The transformation of the Macedonian Army with its regionally based units could not have been
more complete.18
At the centre of his army was a Macedonian core fired by nationalism and
personal loyalty to the monarch. This was one of Filip's greatest ambitions (and successes) -
organizing an army that was loyal to the king, and not to the Macedonian aristocrats. To achieve
this, he took several measures. In the first place, he created new noblemen, so that the privileges
became more common and less prestigious. The old aristocrats were compensated with dubious new
privileges and land. This land was typically given in one of the newly conquered parts of
Macedonia, so that the nobleman could no longer spend all his time in his native county, and
loosened the ties with his own people. Thus, Filip created and surrounded himself with military
aristocracy of the soil, a nation that is an army, an army that is of one nation - his own.
Among the privileges of the noblemen was the right to send one's sons to the royal court, where
they would serve as pages of the king. The boys received an excellent education and learned to
know people from all over Macedonia. At the same time, they served as „hostages‟ and guaranteed
the loyalty of their fathers. He used these well-trained men for frontal attacks. In a wedge-shaped
formation ("like a flight of cranes", in the words of Polyaenus), they fiercely attacked their enemies.
The commander was always in the first rank, and casualties among Macedonian officers were much
higher, and it is no coincidence that Filip was lame at the end of his life. On the other hand, the
cavalry men were inspired by this type of leadership and fought better. These noblemen („Royal
Companions‟) were to serve as cavalry men, and these army units were called Itaeroi19
, i.e. "fast-
heroes" (lat. Hetairoi). When Filip became king, there were about 600 royal companions of Itaeroi;
when he died, more than 3,000. From these devoted noblemen Filip appointed seven „Royal
Bodyguards‟, who acted as the army‟s senior staff officers. These most trusted men were drawn
from the elite unit of personal „bodyguards‟, who aside from guarding the king‟s tent, also appear to
have served as the general staff of the army. They were probably what we call today the “Deep
State” of ancient Macedonia, the closest advisers and decision-making personal associates of Filip.
The exact status of these „bodyguards‟ is unclear, since on occasions they are mentioned as a 18
“Conquest and Empire” by A.B. Bosworth, p. 273. 19
“Ita” – fast pass, „running‟ in plain Macedonian; Eroi – heroes.
fighting unit in some actions. Moving further down the hierarchy from the Royal Bodyguards, we
come across the Strategoi (generals), who commanded individual units and, on occasion, divisions.
Finally, there is mention of the Hegemones, who act as subdivisional officers. All of the above were
explicitly recruited from the Macedonian nobility. Then after there were the Hyparchs (commander
of a brigade of two, three or four Ile squadrons; from 400 to 1000 men), Ilarch (commander of 200
horsemen “Ile” squadron), Tetrarchs (commander of 49 horsemen unit), Lochagos (commander of
512 men company, or 1 Falanka), Dekas (16 men - one file of foot-soldiers in the Falankas), until
the very sole units of the common infantry soldiers - Peshetairoi.20
But, Filip needed time to conclude his army preparations. Thus his first international move was a
peace treaty that he was forced to conclude with Athens. The peace treaty from 359 BCE
acknowledged Athens supremacy over the two major harbors on the Macedonian coast, and gave to
Athens full freedom to expand into Thrace and the possibility to retake their ex-colony Amfipoliton.
This diplomatic move freed the Macedonian king from immediate major threat from south, despite
the temporary loss of Pidna and Metone, two strategically very important cities. Especially Metone,
only twenty kilometers from the old Macedonian capital Egei, on the road that connects Macedonia
and Thessaly. This unfair treaty shows the overall weakness of Macedonia in that moment. But this
uneven deal will not be honored for long...
The pace of restoring of the Macedonian power under Fillip's command was incredibly fast and
efficient. For two years he gathered and trained exhaustively his new-model army with the best
equipment and the best training of that time. The Pesheitairoi (literary "feet-runners" in plain
Macedonian), which were founded by Filip's brother Alexander II, had been rearmed with a long
spear with a length of up to 6 meters - Zarissa, a sword, light shield (Pelta), helmet, shin guards,
and armor. The sheer offensive power of the six battalions of 1500 men was the unit's best defense.
The falankas derived all it‟s efficacy from concentration. They fought in close battle arrays, which
could not be defeated in any way, as long as they kept their formation intact.
20
“Pesh” - 'on feet' in plain Macedonian; “Peshadia”- 'infantry' in modern Macedonian.
Filip improved their force further by simply making it deeper with more rows and wider by more
files. Then he introduced the dreaded Zarisa, a 5 to 6 meters long lance, that had to be carried with
two hands, and therefore, the Macedonian shield was inevitably less heavy. The body armor could
be lighter too, because the Zarissa, being longer than anything the enemy would present, offered
protection through its length. However, in a sense the Zarissa restricted offensive action as well.
Obviously, a 5-6 meter pike could not be held in an overarm position and thrust downwards at the
enemy. Rather, the Macedonian Falankas advanced at a steady walking pace with the aim of
forcing back the enemy with a cohesive hedge of spearheads. These substantial changes in
equipment required a much tighter and more disciplined falankas formation. On its own, the
Macedonian Falanka was a relatively slow-mowing inadequately armored and vulnerable
formation. But, as an integral part of a combined arms army it was an impenetrable iron wall, a
grinding war-machine ideally suited to its task.
With these essential modifications Filip created an undefeatable tool of war of the Macedonian
military power - the Macedonian Falankas (lat. Phalanx), a military formation composed by
professionally trained elite infantry corps that will represent and will be the backbone of
Macedonian empire in the next two centuries.21
Nonetheless, Filip, for the first time in history, saw
the great potential of joint and coordinated action of infantry and cavalry, and introduced new
auxiliary military units, such as the engineering and communication corps. Many of these
specialized units were formed of allies and neighboring tribesmen, tributaries to Macedon. The
armies of Macedon were in fact a composite army, with a strong Macedonian core and trained
auxiliary units, a much more complex and versatile force than any of the armies before. Still,
Macedonian Army was tactically anchored around the Falanka‟s elite infantry formation, which
was complemented and assisted with cavalry and various types of light infantry, light cavalry,
engineering, communication units, etc.
21
At the beginning the soldiers of Macedon were equipped with a Phrygian helmet, painted in the colors
of the ilè (i.e. squadron, a 200 men unit). The elite cavalry was called „Agema‟, and counted also 200
men per squadron. Only the Agema under the direct command of Alexander counted 400 units. Later,
they were equipped with a more simple Boeotian helmet, a shield, a double ended lance, the xyston, and
a curved asymetric sword, the Kopis or Machaira.
Much of the historical literature places a great deal of emphasis on the use of the heavy cavalry
(the „Royal Companions‟) as the instrument of decision in battle. Whilst it is true that it was the
cavalry that would penetrate the enemy‟s line, and thereby inflict the killing blow, it is simply
inaccurate to describe just one force as the instrument of decision in combined arms operations.
The instrument of decision was the Filip‟s superb army in its entirety, not just one section of it.
The revolutionary measures taken at the beginning of his reign changed fundamentally the overall
situation and total combat level of the Macedonian Army. What he achieved in the first months of
his reign Filip II could put to test already in the spring of 358 BCE, when he penetrated along the
valley of the river Vardar in Upper Macedonia (then again an independent kingdom of Paionians).
This first consolidating move of Filip secured the northern borders, and significantly strengthened
the Macedonian Army with numerous and excellent Paionian cavalry from the cities of Belazora,
Antigona and Belagonia (i.e. Pelagonia). Upper Macedonians, which after the death of the king
Agis for practical reasons of defensive alliance were eager again to accept the centralized rule of
Aegead (lat. Argead) dynasty and re-unite with Lower Macedonia with capital in Bela (lat. Pella).
Until the 8-7 centuries BCE Paionians were the major Macedonic tribe, and rulers of the whole
central Macedonia and Thermaic Gulf, with their homeland along the river Vardar valley. But, 5th
century Persian invasion drastically weakened their independent Paionian kingdom and favored
more southwestern Orestians instead.
Thus, after the first step of reuniting the Upper and Lower Macedonia, Filip moved toward west, to
even his personal debt with the Gaul-Illyrians. As reported by the ancient sources, in a terrible and
bloody battle that ensued afterwards, Filip had won decisively, and the king Bardil was killed on
the battlefield. Gaul-Illyrians very tight, but passively-defensive square formation, was no match
for the perfected war-machine that Filip unleashed on them. Under tremendous impact of
disciplined Macedonian Falankas the Gaul-Illyrian front lines crumbled, and whole detachments
on their side were annihilated. It is said that some 7,000-9,000 Gaul-Illyrian soldiers remained
slaughtered on the battlefield together with their king.
Right after this magnificent victory Filip II ordered the construction of two fortresses in Engeleia
and on the hilltop above Lychnid (today city of Ohrid). The remnants of the cyclopean walls of
these two strongholds can be seen even today in the recently excavated archaeological sites.
Long after this determining battle in the ancient sources there will be almost no notion of the Gaul-
Illyrians whatsoever. They practically retreated and disappeared from the close vicinity of the
Macedonian borders, and after this defeat resettled more northward, to Dalmatia and Istria.
Alexander the Great, for their misfortune, will have to deal with them pretty soon, when on the
notice of Filip‟s death once again they‟ll try to plunder in Macedonia. But, they discovered with
dire price that the Alexander was the real inheritor of Filip II. Gaul-Illyrians will actually reappear
only much later in the Roman sources, when the invading Romans from the west will came in
contact with them. With this great victory the old Macedonian western border was firmly re-
established along the mountain range west of the lake Ohrid, and Filip II manifested once again the
firm and undisputed rule of Macedon in the western parts of his kingdom.
In 358 BCE Filip already feels powerful enough to step-in south, in Thessaly. Macedonians entered
there in the autumn of 358 BCE, on the request of their Macedonian relatives and kin from the city
of Larisa, who asked assistance for defense from the warlords of Fere. Having solved the problems
in the relations between Larisa and Fere, Filip II retreated back to Macedonia. But during this short
stay in Thessaly he also married Filina of Larisa, and with her he got the son Arhidei.
Filip II of Macedon was indeed a great general, a visionary statesman, but also a very clever
diplomat. A man, who seems to have lived for his ambitions, and apparently had no real private life.
Except, perhaps, for his final marriage, every woman in his life served a political aim. His grand
strategy indistinctively encompassed all the instruments at the state‟s disposal: social, diplomatic,
intelligence, military, economic. At this juncture it is worth while to remind ourselves of Liddell
Hart‟s concise definition: “The role of grand strategy - higher strategy, is to coordinate and direct
all the resources of a nation, or band of nations, towards the attainment of the political object of the
war - the goal defined by fundamental policy.” The final result was the most powerful state Europe
had ever seen.
These were precisely the Filip‟s strengths and supreme virtues, as the first great European monarch
that knew how to combine all the resources at his disposal for achievement of the fundamental
policy. It‟s been altogether largely underestimated, and was quite amazing how seriously Filip took
his duties as supreme arbiter, or how strong was the tradition that the King of Macedon‟s subjects
had a right to an audience, at any time of day or night, when circumstances justified it. However, he
fulfilled these and other of his duties with vigor. And, like all Macedonians, he was also a ferocious
drinker, one of those dangerous drunks who doesn‟t show it on the surface one bit. Undoubtedly he
was all threat, he radiated danger as the sun radiates light, and everyone who stood near him knew
he was in danger of his life. That he was representing a very immediate danger for their bare
existence, the city-states on Peloponnesus saw this coming through their diplomats and spies,
because he was Filip, from whom nobody and nothing in the world was safe in that moment.
Above: the giant statue of Filip II of Macedon in the downtown of the modern Macedonian capital city of Skopje
Meanwhile Athenians have failed to retake Amfipolion, despite they had free hands because of the
peace agreement with Macedonia. Their calculation that they‟ll have enough time to take over the
city with long grueling war showed wrong. In 357 BCE an unforeseen war erupted with their allies
in the Peloponnese, so Athenians were forced to move their principal forces back in the south. Filip,
who had eliminated his immediate northern and western opponents, and who already had a sizable
and tempered army, sees the occasion and instantly crosses the river Strumon, takes the place of
Athenians and seizes the Amfipolion. Although it was well-fortified city, after persistent and
systematic siege Amfipolion could no longer resist the attacks of disciplined Macedonian Army.
Once freeing this Macedonian city Filip actually succeeds in expelling completely the foreign
occupiers from Macedonia, and gave all the land to his royal companions.
Adjacent and still independent cities of Halkidian Alliance saw what was happening and quickly-
quickly changed the side and folded pact with Macedonia. But Filip didn‟t had any intention to stop
there. Immediately after the liberation of Amfipolion he took further military action against Pidna in
the late 357 BCE, and by freeing it liberates completely the Macedonian coastal Pieria district from
Athenian presence.
Immediately after this attack Athens declared war to Macedonia, but Filip wasn‟t disturbed at all,
because he knew that it will remain just a declaration of war for a long time, since at that time
Athens wasn‟t able to assume any military action on the other side until it settles its accounts with
the warring neighbors. So, in just three years of effective ruling, already in 356 BCE Filip II of
Macedon was king of a powerful state, able to protect its borders and expand its influence on the
whole Macedonian Peninsula. Macedonia was united again under a capable ruler from the Aegead
(lat. Argead) dynasty, and in a short time became once again a world superpower.
In the early spring of 356 BCE relentless Filip makes siege and captures Potidea. When Athenians
saw what is happening they tried immediately to forge new alliance with the Triballians north of
Macedon, Odrisians in Thrace and the Gaul-Illyrians of king Grabej (lat. Grabeos), but in vain.
In 356/355 BCE Filip quickly and in one move defeats king Kersoblept of Western Thrace, the
Odrisians, Grabej, another king of the Gaul-Illyrians, and Lipej, king of the Tribalians. Also, at the
request of residents from Thasos and Krenide (lat. Crenides), he puts one Macedonian garrison in
the inland colony of Krenide, that was to became Fillipi,22
and immediately returns south to attack
the last Athens stronghold on the Macedonian coast – the city of Metone. In these actions comes to
the fore full professionalism, discipline and mobility of the Macedonian army, which already has
the capability to act fast and simultaneously on different locations. Years of training and marching
of his new model army have shown more than utile.
Filip did not limited his actions on rebuilding the natural boundaries of the Macedonian kingdom.
According to the traditions of Macedonian ruler he got involved in the affairs of its neighbors as far
as the south of Thessaly. Foreign interferences in Thessaly are frequent as of 369 BCE, and gain
22
Filip II of Macedon uses the extension of Macedonian administrative institutions, including the
application of the Macedonian as opposed to local calendars, as an indicator of true Macedonian
political consolidation in the region.
momentum and clear international dimension when the Third Holy War erupts in the spring of 355
BCE. The independent city-states on Peloponnese were divided in two major camps: on one side
were the Thebans, Lokridians and most of the Thessalians; on the other were the tyrants of Fere,
Foča (lat. Focis), Athenians, and the Spartans (although restrained). Filip has no intention to stay
out and to miss the opportunity that he clearly sees. The all-out war between his enemies was
immediately seen by him as perfect chance to utterly defeat and subdue them.
In 354 BCE the war between Athens and Macedonia in principle continues, but without any military
engagement, for one simple reason: Athens was completely kicked out from the areas near
Macedonia.
353 BCE, on appeal from the old friends of Macedon in Thessaly, the Larisa Aleuaditi, Filip II
interferes once again against the tyrants of Fere, Fočans, and their allies. First a winner in a partial
engagement, he is then beaten hard twice by the Fočan leader Onomarh. The unexpected defeat was
taken difficult because of the heavy Macedonian losses, but also because it ruse the doubts about
the real capabilities of Filip and his military power. Filip‟s dignity was hurt, and if he wanted to
preserve its allies in Thessaly and to bolster its reputation among his loyal Falankas he had to return
tit for tat as soon as possible. Once returned back in Macedonia, in the winter 353/352 BCE, he
picked and trained new army and invaded Thessaly again as early as next spring. First he occupied
the harbor of Pag (lat. Pagas), thus preventing the landing of additional troops led by strategist
Hares from Athens. Then Filip II washed down with blood the humiliation received by Onomarh.
At the place called Krokopole (lat. Crocus-field) he inflicts him a tremendous defeat. According to
sources Fočans lost between 6000 and 8000 people, Onomarh corpse was crucified, and 3000
prisoners were thrown in the sea. Filip occupies Pag and Fere and establishes himself as the leader
(Archont) of Thessalian Confederation. For this purpose, among others, he marries Nikesipoli of
Fere. After arranging these things Filip goes further and partakes a march to the south toward the
strait that connects Thessaly to Boeotia, Attica and Peloponnese – Thermopylae. But here he founds
the pass blocked by military units of Athenians and Spartans, who rushed to the spot when they
heard about the campaigning of Filip to the south. In this situation Filip wisely refuses to deplete his
military forces by attacking Thermopylae and to inflict definitive blow to Foča (lat. Phocis). This
act will extend the duration of the Holy War with inevitable further weakening of both warring
sides, primarily Thebes and Foča, but also of course Athens. He leans back and retreats in Thessaly
and then north to Macedonia.
In just a few months Filip moved the war with Athenians from the neighborhood of Macedonia in
the neighborhood of Athens. The first part of his plan for domination of the Macedonian peninsula
through the strengthening of his position in Thessaly was fully realized. But he is not calmed, as
everyone would wish, and immediately sets on a march to the eastern Macedonian front, in Thrace
and Propontida…
SEIZE OF HALKIDIKI, PEACE WITH ATHENS AND THE END OF
THE HOLY WAR
At the beginning of 351 BCE Filip conquers Heraion, fortress on the coast of Prepontida.
Athenians, seeing that Macedonians are endangering their colonies in the east and their supplies
of grain from Skitia (Ukraine) through the Dardanelles, immediately make a decision to send 40
ships and 10,000 hoplites, almost the entire military capable population of Athens. Then the plan
and the number of ships was reduced to 30, and then to 10, and the motion at the end it was
completely neglected. Thus, in the summer of 351 Filip had already achieved something that had
not happened by then on the Macedonian Peninsula - one kingdom that had under its rule so
large area: north of Thermopylae, and from Epirus and the Ionian Sea on the east to the
Prepontida on the west. With the outbreak at the coast of the Marmara Sea, Macedonian Army
definitely announced the coming of the new era of Macedonian domination in the Aegean.
The following year Filip devoted to the strengthening of his authority in Thessaly and Epirus.
But already in 349 BCE he was forced to put under his control the remaining independent cities
on Halkidiki, because of the city of Olint (lat. Olynthus), which decided to terminate the pact
with the Macedonians. So, in the beginning of the summer in 349 BCE Filip sets ultimatum to
the residents of Olint, asking them to hand over his half-brothers Arhidej (lat. Arrhidaeus) and
Menelaj that as traitors and former allies of Athens were hiding there. Olint refused to do so and
requested military assistance from Athens. This time Athenians, who were anyway officially at
war with Macedonia, forged an alliance with Olint and decided to send military aid of 38 ships
and 2000 hoplites and 300 cavalry across the Aegean Sea, and ordered another 18 ships with
4000 hoplites from the Hellespont in Asia Minor to transfer to Halkidiki.
Although it seemed that this time Athens seriously tries to respond to the growing foreign power
of Macedon, the circumstances didn‟t allow it. At the same time against them rose also one of
their allies in Evbeia (lat. Euboeia). Athenians unexpectedly suffered heavy losses, and Evbeia
will regain its independence, as well as their military aid to Olint which arrives too late, the city
has already been captured by the Macedonian Army and Filip. It was indeed his first great
victory over a powerful city-state, and so ardent and hostile was his revenge that the very
foundations of Olint couldn‟t be traced only a few years later, according to a statement of
Demosthenes (in his 3rd Philippic). At the end of this campaign Athens once again suffered a
serious defeat, on both fronts, in Evbeia and Olint.
After the fall of Olint all its inhabitants were sold as slaves, and the city was razed to the ground
and was never rebuilt. It was also a strong and clear message sent to all communities around the
Macedonian Peninsula – Macedonia will not tolerate hypocrisy and has all the means to punish
traitors and anyone who threatens its integrity. This action of the Macedonian king would prove
completely justified – the lesson was sent, and Macedonia and her undecided opponents will be
spared of enormous human and material loses in the near future.
After englobing the rest of Halkidiki into his empire, Filip II estimated that in the best interest
for Macedonia was to offer a peace to Athenians. That would allow him to utterly strengthen his
positions and boost Macedonia as a central power of the Macedonian peninsula without risking
larger military confrontation. Also he considered further weakening of the Peloponnesian city-
states as they were still in war with each other. Remarkably skillfully, he continued to bolster the
agony of Athens, Foča (lat. Phocis), and other warring parties on Peloponnese. Athens, which in
reality was no longer able to make war with Macedonia, in the spring of 346 BCE tacitly
accepted the peace offer from Filip II of Macedon.
The Fočans, seeing that the Athenians with this peace agreement got a huge advantage, followed
the procession and they too decided to offer a pact to Macedonia. Macedonian king gladly
accepted it, thus gaining the far most convenient and the most powerful position in the finals of
the Holy War. After various negotiations and agreements, he was the only one who benefited
from the desperate position of the warring parties, by forcing them to accept the hegemony of
Macedon. In brief, the end of the Holy War was brought around without military operations and
shedding blood, by simply allowing the enemies of Macedon to surrender to Filip and the
superior Macedonian state. To him belonged the final honor "to officially free" the Oracle at
Delphi, which was actually the cause for this Holy War.
With the formal end of the Third Sacred War and the creation of the Amfiktion Council (lat.
Amphictyonic League), ended the first phase of the reign of Filip II of Macedon. He consolidated
the borders of Macedonia in all directions and fit it in her natural boundaries, which further will
allow the elevation and expansion of Macedonia on cultural, economic and military plan and its
full stabilization as nation and state. This was also the first ever kingdom of that size and kind in
the history of Europe and beyond. The rest could only watch aside as their former regional
powers slowly faded infront of the rise of Macedon, and how their once important and wealthy
cities become peripheral provinces of the Macedonian empire. These peace agreements, that
were extremely unfavorable for Athens and Foča, gave to Filip enough time to prepare his
mighty Macedonian Army for the final campaign of conquest that will follow soon upon the rest
of Peloponnese and the remaining city-states…
MACEDONIA FROM AEGEAN TO DANUBE & FROM IONIAN
TO THE BLACK SEA
After returning to Macedonia, Filip made some necessary changes and rearrangements in his
internal policy. These regulations were followed by another military expedition toward
northwest, against the Gaul-lllyrians. Filip seems (says an ancient historian) to have cherished
an hereditary hatred to these marauder tribes who killed his older brother, and, either from this
permanent animosity alone, or for some new offense, of which no particulars are recorded, he
invaded Gaul-Illyrians, reduced many of it's villages to ashes, and returned with copious spoils.
In the spring of 342 BCE Filip II finally began the vast invasion on the rest of Eastern Thrace,
until the Danube delta on the Black Sea. His intentions were to conquer and connect the
maritime and river routes throughout and around the Macedonian peninsula, from the Aegean
to Danube, and from the Ionian to the Black Sea into wide communication and commercial net.
While conquering the rest of Thrace he also sent troops at the coast of Herson (lat.
Chersonnesе)23
and occupies this part of the Aegean coast. Then he comes and occupies the
European coast of Marmara Sea. In the meantime the Macedonian fleet, with its accelerated
construction pace and modernization, conquered the island of Halones, a very important
stronghold on the maritime route to Dardanelles. This was also a military exercise for the fast-
growing and massively enhanced new corps of the Macedonian Army, the Navy.
In 340 BCE Filip tries to take-over Perint (lat. Perintus) and Vizant (lat. Byzant-ium), but
without success. These two well-fortified city-states got a full and strong military and naval
support from Athens, this time prompt to act, seen that the trade routes eastward, without which
23 Today Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsula in Russia; on the northern coast of the Black Sea.
they could not survive - were directly threatened. Thus, the peace treaty from 346 BCE between
Athens and Macedonia now was officially broken. And this time, fighting for their very survival,
Athenians will come with all the remaining and available means at war with Filip II of Macedon.
Here, for the first time in the 4th century BCE will interfere Persia too, which across the
Dardanelles and Bosphorus openly helped the city of Perint and Vizant, determined to resist.
The strong military aid by sea from Athens and Persia provided the means for defense and to
resist the siege of the Macedonians. For the first time since 352 Filip suffers severe setback, if
not defeat. And once again the Macedonian king must urgently rebuild his reputation in the eyes
of his army and allies, and to show to the enemies that he didn‟t lost his military power. While
still under the walls of Perint, he sees an opportunity for revenge and recovering of his image on
Bosphorus, where some 230 merchant ships filled with harvest waited for the immediate danger
to pass and to continue their sailing to Peloponnese. The Macedonians engaged in an
amphibious military operation across the Bosphorus strait and captured the entire commercial
fleet of Peloponnesian city-states. The surprise and unbelief of Athens was tremendous and this
action helped Filip to cover the losses suffered at Perint and Vizant.
This sudden and unexpected blow had far-reaching consequences for the overall military and
political moral of Athens, and crashed their last hopes that they nurtured with their relative
success in helping Perint and Vizant defenses. Their fleet was practically gone, and their former
naval supremacy was irreparably destroyed. Unlike them, that of Macedonia was rapidly
growing. Filip ordered the construction of a great number of war-ships that will sale later under
command of his son Alexander around the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea.
The fleet that Filip II managed to capture at the end made him the winner of the day. With the
considerable treasures and merchant goods from this war-trophy he succeeded to sustainably
reduce the heavy loses of his army suffered under the walls of Perint and Vizant. And also to
mobilize fresh troops for the upcoming events.
THE FALL OF the city-states: BATTLE of IRONEA
In 339 BCE Filip is again warring north, against the tribes of Geti (lat. Getae) near the Danube
delta. A Macedonian army advanced toward the Danube, against the tribes lead by a Getian king
Atea (Lat. Atheas), and in the battle that ensued, discipline prevailed over strength and
superiority of number. It is said that 20,000 men, women, and children, were made prisoners on
this occasion, but they were in all probability dismissed by the victors. The spoils, which
consisted chiefly of cattle, tempted the neighboring Tribalians to attack the king on his return,
and he was wounded in the thigh. The assailants were repelled, but the Macedonians could only
save a part of the spoil. This attack was the more unpleasing, as it was wholly unexpected.
But Filip had no time to properly recover. On the south, Amfisa and Thebes, which were until
then subjects to the Amfiktionic Council and under Macedonian hegemon, unexpectedly
switched the sides and declared war to Filip. On their side promptly joins Athens, seeing new
hope for greater alliance against threat of Macedon. Thus began the Fourth Sacred War or also
called "Amfiktionic War". Thebes attacked immediately the Macedonian garrison at Nikea. So,
already in November 339 the mighty Macedonian Army led by Filip II appeared again in
Thessaly, on their way to Beotia. This time the Macedonian king had no intention of stepping
back – he passed around the strait of Thermopylae, which was once again readily blocked by
Athenians and Beotians, who previously joined the Theban revolt, then he crushed the resistance
at Elatea and broke in the plane of Kefis (lat. Kephisus) which stretches from Foča (lat. Phocis)
to Beotia. After dividing strategically Thebes and Athens with his Macedonian Army, Filip sent
an ultimatum to the Thebans to submit to his will and surrender to the Macedonian army. But
the Thebans refused and decided to keep their side with Athens. Their decision was affected and
caused mostly because of the general depreciation that the city-states from Peloponnese has
always had toward the Macedonians - as foreigners and alien to them.
In the prevailing circumstances Filip decided categorical military show-off with invasion on
Grevena and Amfisa, which he concludes successfully. Then he toke the Navpakt too.
Nevertheless, despite the fierce demonstration of his determination Filip II will try again to
reach peaceful resolution without unnecessary and heavy casualties, and again sends his deputies
to Athenians and Thebans with proposals for submission without war. All these negotiations
toke a while of several months (?), and at the end his offer was refused again.
It was clear to all that the decisive battle is approaching fast. After years of tactical and strategic
warfare and outmaneuvering, the decisive outcome was about to be revealed. And the
showdown it finally happened in the summer of 338 BCE, in the locality called Ironea (lat.
Chaeronea). This was the culmination of the Macedonian belligerent 339-338 BCE campaign in
the south. There were certainly some long months with preliminary skirmishes until it came to
this final confrontation, as Demosthenes alludes to a "winter battle" and "battle on the river" in
his speeches, but no other details are preserved. Finally, on 2 August in the Kefis field, Filip
deployed an army of 30.000 Macedonian Falankas infantry and 3000 Horsemen. He finally got
what he came for – the chance to eliminate once for all the last enemies and the last pockets of
resistance in the farthest south of the Macedonian Peninsula, and to demonstrate the ultimate
superiority of the Macedonian Army. Therefore, in order to underline the achieved of his men, in
the composition of his army was not even one military unit of his ally states, all soldiers under
Filip‟s command were Macedonians.
On the other side he faced 35.000 Athenians, Beotians and Theban hoplites, and approximately
2000 horsemen.24
Below is the rough sketch of the two warring parties:
Details of the ensuing battle are scarce, but from different ancient sources it was possible to
roughly reconstruct this for Macedonians great event. Macedonian army marched straight down
the main road from Foča to Boeotia, to assault the main allied army defending the road at Ironea
(Lat. Chaeronea). Thus, on the 2nd of August 338 BCE the decisive battle started. In final
showdown two enemy nations of the antiquity clashed in a bitter and agonizing struggle.
Northern Macedonians confronted in a face-to-face battle the southern city-states from
Peloponnesus. The clash was by every probability tremendous and extremely brutal, where one
literary must‟ve slay and trump over the body of the opponent in front of him in order to
advance. In all that confusion and mess, at the peak of the battle, with iron discipline
Macedonian Falankas under direct command of Filip II performed a maneuver of fake retreat of
their right flank, in order to disrupt the enemy lines. Athenian hoplites, seeing easy victory,
rushed to charge forward following the apparently-retreating Macedonians, which actually
without breaking their formation and in perfect order bent the Falankas around itself. Then, as
they stretched around the twisting, but still impenetrable Macedonian Falanka, in the Boeotian
weakened center showed gaps. The left wing of Macedonian cavalry from Thessaly, lead by
Filip‟s son, Alexander III of Macedon, in that moment hurled in wild charge exactly in that
point. They attacked the enemy with furious charge and cut their way right through the Beotian
24
No source provides exact numbers for the city-states army, although Justin suggests that they were
“far superior in number of soldiers”.
center, then after passing through the enemy lines they turned around with decisive action and
attacked them from the back.
Filip II then ordered a full-scale charge and under his command the Macedonian Falankas
promptly pushed into final attack. By losing their integrity in the center, the city-states lines of
hoplites fall apart, and in the disorder and panic that ensued Macedonians won the battle, and
the war. The city-states allied army then dissolved into a rout. The formidable Theban „Holy
legion‟ was slain to the last one, forces of Athens and Thebes were entirely defeated, and any
continued resistance was impossible.
The battle has been described as one of the most decisive of the ancient world, and the long
awaited triumph of Filip II was fully achieved. His „anvil and hammer‟ tactic was perfected and
applied with outmost success in the battlefield, and the Macedonians have won in a complete
and final victory. The Athenians had over 1000 dead, the Thebans over 2000, and on the losses
of Beotians and other mercenary-hoplites there are no records left, but they surely must‟ve
suffer at least the same number of casualties as their allies. City-states armies, and what
conventional western historiography incorrectly defines as “Ancient Greece”25
, ceased to exist.
Thebes which was located in the vicinity of Ironea faced the immediate and unconditional
surrender. Filip II imposed very severe occupation with 300 loyal oligarchs and a Macedonian
garrison that occupied the fortified center of Thebes - Kadmea. According to the Macedonian
custom Filip together with his Macedonian companions celebrated the victory with drinking
25
The ethnogenesis of the so-called “ancient Greex” is based on the composition of the participants
in the Trojan War such as the Dannans, Achaeans, Argaeds, etc., who were mentioned by Homer
in his “Iliad”. By modern Hellenists they were presumed to be all “Greek people” or “Hellenic
people”, but this is nonsense because according to history the “Hellenes” did not colonize the
Peloponnesus until 80 years after theTrojan War.
and feasting. In the battle of Ironea participated and distinguished himself by bravery his son
Alexander III of Macedon, then on age of 18. Just a few years later he will come back and
finish off Thebes, the city where once his father was held hostage, by razing it to the ground. At
Ironea, the last Peloponnesian city-states not only lost the battle and the war, but also their
independence and future, and they actually disappear from the history stage.26
The era of
Macedonian domination began.
After effectively eliminating all his enemies Filip II engaged in a military parade throughout
Peloponnese. Every tribe and city worshiped him and obeyed the Macedon. Well, all except the
Spartans. Therefore Filip with swift military expedition overrun Laconia and punished their
disobedience, after which he separated several areas from the Lakedaemonian territory as well.
Then, after summoning all the subordinate and defeated parties to meet in Korint, Filip II
26 Their demise at the end of the 4th century BCE enacted in the lost of the confidence and self-
determination and they slowly perished, decimated by inexplicable cultural, material and
demographic crisis which occurred during the following centuries and at the beginning of the new
era. This conscious dying out of the population on Peloponnesus has been called by the science
"Endogenous Psychosis of the I-III centuries" - a mass pathology and loss of meaning for continued
existence. The overthrow was complete. Unable to recover from their consternation, they laid down
their arms, and in the 116-th Olympiad, during the arconship of Anthieus, in 146 BCE, Lucius
Mummius laid Corinth in ashes and sealed the destruction of the last ancient city-state.
proclaimed what is to be known as the Common Peace (i.e. „Koine Eirene‟)27
, and all but
Sparta unconditionally approached and bound by oath, and Filip II was unanimously "elected"
the hegemon of the Common Peace. The principal terms of this agreement were that all
members became allied to each other and obedient to Macedon, which remained as an external
ruling force.
In the spring of 336 BCE Filip sent to Asia Minor the first Macedonian army detachments led
by Parmenion and Atal (lat. Attalus). This vanguard was to prepare the way for a major military
campaign scheduled for the summer of 335 BCE. But his agenda was suddenly interrupted.
During the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Alexander of Epirus, Filip II of Macedon was
assassinated. The next day, from Aegae and Bella agents of the Phoenician merchant houses,
the Peloponnesus city governments, couriers of visiting ambassadors, and spies of the Gaul-
Illyrian barbarians slipped away along the roads, carrying the news of the end of the
Macedonian regime. How wrong they were – on the history stage he was consistently
succeeded and surpassed by his son, Alexander III of Macedon.
27
„Koj-ne-miren-e“ in plain Macedonian; today modern Macedonian "Koj-ne" - 'who-doesn't', and
"Miren/Smiren" - 'calm, peaceful' (Anglicized 'Irenic'); ѕее:
https://recnik.off.net.mk/recnik/makedonski-
angliski/%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD*
Afterword
There had been an increasing tendency amongst historians to view Filip II of Macedon not
simply as the father of his famous son, but, in his own right, as one of the greatest Macedonian
monarchs, if not the greatest, and perhaps one of the most important historical figures of the
ancient world. His significance for the history of Macedonia is beyond doubt. In 22 years of
reigning Filip II of Macedon have fought at least 20 conflicts of greater or smaller magnitude
across the Macedonian Рeninsula, in Asia Minor and Skitia (today Dobrudja) coasts. His
engagement on the international scale was something unseen in the previous periods of
European history. When he came to power, his country had recently suffered considerable
territorial losses, it was politically fragmented, militarily on its knees, and culturally depressed.
Within the space of a quarter of a century he restored and extended its frontiers, welded the
state into a political unit, made it the mightiest military power of the period and, as becomes
clearer with every new archaeological discovery, raised the cultural level of Macedonia above
that of much of the rest of Europe. Before that all the affairs of the various rulers or
communities were of regional character (apart from the Persian invasion in 5th c. BCE) and
lasted for very brief periods. This on contrary was the first large state and first empire on the
European soil, with proper army, state institutions, legislation and economy, the empire that
lasted for centuries and expanded on three continents. Filip is, therefore, the Great Man of his
time, mediating the Macedonic folk-soul with the world-spirit, and carrying Macedonia over
into the next world-historical stage. Whatever stood in the way of reuniting, or we may say, of
nationalizing Macedon, was ruthlessly set aside or trampled under foot. It is still unknown if
Filip truly realized or just unconsciously created that first deep Macedonic aspiration for
nationality, but he made it evidently in the sole possible way at his time. Willingly or not, he
managed entirely to reinforce the primordial Macedonic folk-soul, which was both civilized
and barbarian, and to reconcile it with the movement of the world's history. Filip created and
organized a new world-historical nation, the one that still exists until today – Macedonia.
Finally, and this is often forgotten – he was one of the most attractive personalities of his time,
for all the violence and passion of his nature. Somewhat oriental or rather Trojan in his
household, he had one chief wife, like Hecuba; yet he, like Priam, had other lesser wives.
“Europe has never known a man the like of Filip, son of Amyntas” wrote his contemporary
Theopomp in the preface of his monumental history dedicated to Filip (Hatzopoulos 8).
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