Ancient Egypt, Greek & Rome

27 February 2015Assignment of European Fashion HistoryAssignment No: 01 (One)Topic: Ancient Egypt , Greek & Rome

Submitted ToLina RezwanaStudied at Shanto-Mariam University of Creative TechnologyCourse Instructor European Fashion HistoryDepartment of Professional Course of Fashion Design National Institute of Design (NID)

Submitted ByMahfuza Akter [Mili]ID : 020-014-005www.mmr07@yahoo.com (Student of Professional Course of Fashion Design NID)Batch no. 21

National Institute of Design (NID)ABSTRACTTodays civilizations owe an immense debt to the powerful empires and mighty cities of antiquity. Their inventions, techniques and concepts enabled the advancement of humankind and lay the foundation for life in the modern world.The attire fashion and clothing is exclusively human characteristic and is a feature of most human societies. In the most ancient days, humans started to implement clothing system to protect their body from heat, sun, rain, cold, etc. and animal skins and vegetation were mainly used as materials to cover their bodies. Clothing and textiles in different periods and ages reflect the development of civilization and technologies in different periods of time at different places. Sources available for the study of clothing and textiles include material remains discovered via archaeology; representation of textiles and their manufacture in art; and documents concerning the manufacture, acquisition, use, and trade of fabrics, tools, and finished garments.Long sources of mystery, imagination, and inspiration, the myths and history of the ancient Mediterranean have given rise to artistic, religious, cultural, and intellectual traditions that span the centuries. In this unique and comprehensive introduction to the region's three major civilizations, Egypt, Greece, and Rome draws a fascinating picture of the deep links between the cultures across the Mediterranean and explores the ways in which these civilizations continue to be influential to this day.

TABLE OF CONTENT

INTRODUCTION11. ANCIENT EGYPT2

1.1 LIFE STYLE31.2 FAMILY LIFE 31.3 MARRIAGE41.4 FOOD AND COOKING41.5 COSMETICS & MAKEUP 51.6 HAIR61.7 JEWELRY61.8 CLOTHING71.9 CLOTHING MATERIALS81.10 FOOTWEAR81.11 HOUSING AND FURNITURE91.12 ENTERTAINMENT9

2. GREECE102.1 FUNERARY ART112.2 MEN 122.3 WOMEN122.4 CHILDREN122.5 HOMES COURTYARDS132.6 DIET132.7 MARRIAGE - WEDDINGS 132.8 DANCING MUSIC142.9 STORY TELLING142.10 MEN'S AND WOMENS CLOTHING142.11 FABRICS AND DYES152.12 CLOTHMAKING AND WEAVING152.13 HATS AND FOOTWEAR162.14 JEWELLERY/ACCESSORIES172.15 BEAUTY AND COSMETICS 172.16 HAIRSTYLES 182.17 PERFUMES 19

3. ROME203.1 DAILY LIFE IN ANCIENT ROME213.2 FAMILY213.3 ROMAN HOUSES223.4 FOOD223.5 CLOTHING IN ANCIENT ROMAN223.6 CLASS DIFFERENCES223.7 ROMAN MEN233.8 JEWELRY233.9 FABRICS233.10 TYPES OF CLOTHING253.11 ROMAN SOLDIERS273.12 WOMEN'S CLOTHING273.13 WOMEN'S JEWELRY283.14 WOMEN'S HAIR283.15 CHILDREN'S CLOTHING293.16 UNDERGARMENTS 303.17 OFFICIAL CLOTHING303.18 ROMAN FOOTWEAR303.19 ANCIENT ROMAN BEAUTIES AND MAKEUP 313.20 ENTERTAINMENT34

CONCLUTION35ANNEXURE36i inspire dress from ancient Egyptii inspire dress from ancient Greekiiiinspire dress from ancient Rome

INTRODUCTION

Ancient Fashion and Modern Fashion. Within the past few years art in dress has become an accomplished fact, and historic costume as a serious subject of art research has developed new and fascinating possibilities. The far-reaching archaeological connections of the subject have been especially emphasized as recent discoveries and excavations have more and more brought to light the manner of dress in the ancient world.

Beginning with the emergence of the earliest Egyptian civilization around 3500 BC, Charles Freeman follows the history of the Mediterranean over a span of four millennia to AD 600, beyond the fall of the Roman empire in the west to the emergence of the Byzantine empire in the east. In addition to the three great civilizations, the peoples of the Ancient Near East and other lesser-known cultures such as the Etruscans, Celts, Persians, and Phoenicians are explored. The author examines the art, architecture, philosophy, literature, and religious practices of each culture, set against its social, political, and economic background. More than an overview of the primary political or military events, Egypt, Greece, and Rome pays particular attention to the actual lives of both the everyday person and the aristocracy: Here is history brought to life. Especially striking are the readable and stimulating profiles of key individuals throughout the ancient world, covering persons from Homer to Horace, the Pharaoh Akhenaten to the emperor Augustus, Alexander the Great to Julius Caesar, Jesus to Justinian, and Aristotle to Augustine.Generously illustrated in both color and black-and-white, and drawing on the most up-to-date scholarship, Egypt, Greece, and Rome is a superb introduction for anyone seeking a better understanding of the civilizations of the ancient Mediterranean and their legacy to the West.

ANCIENT EGYPTThe ancient Egypt is one of the oldest and culturally richest civilizations in this list. The ancient Egyptians are known for their prodigious culture, the ever standing pyramids and the sphinx, the Pharaohs and the once a majestic civilization that resided by the banks of the river Nile.The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first Pharaoh. But this could not have been possible had there not been early settlers around the Nile valley in the early 3500 BC.The history of ancient Egypt occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age. The ancient Egypt gave us the ever standing pyramids, the mummies that preserve the ancient Pharaohs to this day, the first of the solar calendars, Hieroglyphics and many more. The ancient Egypt reached at its pinnacle towards the New Kingdom, where Pharaohs like Ramsee the Great ruled with such authority that another contemporary civilization of the Nubians also came under Egyptian rule.

LIFE STYLE

FAMILY LIFE The people of ancient Egypt highly valued family life. They treasured children and regarded them as a great blessing. In the lower class families, the mother raised the children. The wealthy and nobility, had slaves and servants that helped take care of the children by attending to their daily needs. If a couple had no children, they would pray to the gods and goddesses for help. They would also place letters at the tombs of dead relatives asking them to use their influence with the gods. Magic was also used as an attempt to have children. In event that a couple still could not conceive a child, adoption was also an option. Although women were expected to obey their fathers and husbands, they were equal to men in many ways. They had the legal right to participate in business deals, own land, and were expected to represent themselves in court cases. Women even faced the same penalties as men. Sometimes wives and mothers of pharaohs were the "real" ruling power in government, though they ruled unknowingly to common people. Queen Hatshepsut was the only woman who ruled out right by declaring herself pharaoh. An Egyptian wife and mother were highly respected in this ancient society. Young boys learned a trade or craft from their fathers or an artisan. Young girls worked and received their training at home with their mothers. Those who could afford it sent their sons, from about the age 7, to school to study religion, reading, writing, and arithmetic. Even though there is no evidence of schools for girls, some were home taught to read and write and some even became doctors. Children were expected to look after their elderly parents. Upon their parents death, the sons inherited the land, while daughters inherited the household goods such as furniture and jewelry. If there were no sons in the family, there was nothing preventing the daughters from inheriting the land. There is evidence of some women inheriting entire nomes. Although women were expected to raise the chldren and take care of the household duties, there were some jobs available to them. Women ran farms and businesses in the absence of their husbands or sons. Women were employed in courts and temples as acrobats, dancers, singers and musicians.

MARRIAGE Peasant girls usually married around the age 12, the boys were a few years older than the girls. Girls of more affluent families married a few years older. The marriages were arranged by parents of the children although some young people chose their own spouse. While the ordinary man normally had one wife, the kings always had several. Before the marriage ceremony, an agreement was signed by the couple. The pre-nuptial agreement stated that the wife was to receive an allowance from her husband. The contract also stated that any material good the wife brought into the marriage was hers to keep if the marriage ended for any reason. Both could own land separate from each other but the wife usually let her husband administer her land along with his.

Divorce was an option, although it was not common. If a husband treated his wife badly, she would go to her family for help. The wife's family would try to persuade her spouse to change his behavior. If his behavior did not improve the divorce took place. The divorce was a simple procedure consisting of making a simple statement to annul the marriage in front of witnesses. The wife was given custody of the children and was free to remarry.FOOD AND COOKING Cooking was done in clay ovens as well as over open fires. Wood was used for fuel, even though it was scarce. Food was baked, boiled, stewed, fried, grilled, or roasted. What is known about kitchen utensils and equipment is from the items that have been found in the tombs. Storage jars, bowls, pots, pans, ladles, sieves, and whisks were all used in the preparation of food. Most of the commoners used dishes that were made of clay, while the wealthy used dishes made of bronze, silver, and gold. Beer was the most popular beverage, and bread was the staple food in the Egyptian diet. The beer was made with barley. The barley was left to dry, and then baked into loaves of bread. The baked barley loaves were then broken into pieces and mixed with the dried grain in a large jug of water and left to ferment. Wine was a drink that was produced by the Egyptians, however, it was usually found only at the tables of the wealthy. To make the bread, women ground wheat into flour. The flour was then pounded by men to make a fine grain. Sesame seeds, honey, fruit, butter, and herbs were often added to the dough to help flavor the bread.

COSMETICS & MAKEUP Cleansing rituals were very important to the Egyptians. Most people bathed daily in the river or out of a water basin at home. The wealthy had a separate room in their home to bath. Servants would pour jugs of water over their master (the equivalent of a modern day shower). The runoff water drained away through a pipe that led to the garden. Instead of washing with soap, a cleansing cream was used. This cream was made from oil, lime, and perfume. People rubbed themselves daily with perfumed oil. Perfume was made from flowers and scented wood mixed with oil or fat, and was left in a pot until the oil had absorbed the scent. The perfumed oil was used to prevent the skin from drying out in the harsh climate. At parties, servants put cones of perfumed grease on the heads of the guests. As the grease melted, it ran down their face with a pleasing cooling effect. Men, women and children of all ages and classes wore makeup. Mirrors of highly polished silver or copper were used to aid with the application of makeup. Eye paint was made from green malachite, and galena -- a gray lead ore. They were ground into a powder and mixed with oil to make eye color called Kohl. The Kohl was kept in jars and applied to the eyes with a small stick. The upper and lower eyelids were painted with the black cosmetic that extended in a line out to the sides of the face. It was believed the makeup had magical and even healing powers. Some even believed that wearing it would restore poor eyesight. It was also used to fight eye infections and reduce the glare of the sun. Other cosmetics used included colors for the lips, cheeks and nails. A type of clay called red ochre was ground and mixed with water, and applied to the lips and cheeks. Henna was used to dye the fingernails yellow and orange. Makeup was stored in special jars and the jars were stored in special makeup boxes. Women would carry their makeup boxes with them to parties and keep them under their chairs.

HAIR Hair styles were very similar to that of todays. The common folk wore their hair short. Young girlsusually kept their hair in pigtails while boys had shaved heads, except for one braided lock worn to one side. Wigs were worn by both men and women. The wigs were made of sheep's wool or human hair for decoration and for protection from the heat. Wigs were usually worn at parties and official functions. Hair pieces were also added to real hair to enhance it. When not in use, wigs were stored in special boxes on a stand inside the home.

JEWELRY Everyone in Egypt wore some type of jewelry. Rings and amulets were especially worn to ward off the evil spirits and injury. Both men and women wore pierced earrings, armlets, bracelets, and anklets. The rich wore jeweled or beaded collars, called a wesekh, necklaces, and pendants. For the rich, jewelry was made of gold, silver, or electrum (gold mixed with silver) and inlaid with semi-precious stones of turquoise, lapis lazuli (a deep blue stone), and carnelian (a copper or reddish orange stone). The poorer people wore jewelry that was made of copper or faience (made by heating powdered quartz).

CLOTHING Egyptian clothing styles did not change much throughout ancient times. Clothes were usually made of linens ranging from coarse to fine texture. During the Old and Middle kingdoms, men usually wore a short skirt called a kilt. Women wore a straight fitting dress held up by straps. The wealthy men wore pleated kilts, and the older men wore a longer kilt. When doing hard work, men wore a loin cloth, and women wore a short skirt. Children usually ran around nude during the summer months, while in the winter, wraps and cloaks were worn. Noblewomen sometimes wore beaded dresses. During the New Kingdom, noblemen would sometimes wear a long robe over his kilt, while the women wore long pleated dresses with a shawl. Some kings and queens wore decorative ceremonial clothing with feathers and sequins. Most people went barefoot, but wore sandals on special occasions. The king wore very elaborately decorated sandals, and sometimes decorative gloves on his hands. Clothing styles were chosen for comfort in the hot, dry climate of Egypt.

CLOTHING MATERIALS The Egyptian climate with its hot summers and mild winters favoured light clothing made from plant fibers, predominantly linen and in Roman times occasionally cotton, an import from IndiaWool was used to a lesser extent, and seldom by Egyptians proper.

Small amounts of silk were traded to the eastern Mediterranean possibly as early as the second half of the second millennium BCE and traces of silk have been found in Egyptian tombs. Animal skins, above all leopard skins, were sometimes worn by priests and by pharaohs in their role as first servants of the god. Such outfits were found in Tutankhamen's tomb and were depicted quite frequently on the walls of tombs. At times kings and queens wore decorative ceremonial clothing adorned with feathers.

FOOTWEAR

For more than half of the recorded history of ancient Egypt there is almost no record of the use of footwear. The main source of evidence for this period, the pictorial stories found in tombs known as hieroglyphs, showed every class of person, from the ruling pharaoh (king or queen), to the lowly worker, going barefoot. This may not mean that people never wore some foot protection, but it does seem to indicate that footwear was of very little importance.

Historians are not sure why sandals were suddenly introduced but, beginning at the start of the New Kingdom period of Egyptian history in about 1500 B.C.E. , sandals suddenly began to appear on the hieroglyphs depicting scenes of Egyptian life. Egyptians had developed advanced shoemaking skills for their time, and they created sandals woven of reeds or leather that were quite similar in design to many modern sandals.Though the design of Egyptian sandals was simple, the wealthy still found ways to adorn them. Some had buckles on the straps made of precious metals, while others had jewels embedded in the woven soles. Some sandal designs had turned up toes, probably to keep sand out of the shoe as the wearer walked.

There is very little evidence of the use of covered shoes in ancient Egypt. The few that have been found were woven from palm fiber and grass. Such shoes seem to have been prized possessions. Sometimes travelers removed their shoes to keep them safe while they were on the road and then put them on again at journey's end. Other shoes have been found in tombs, indicating that they were important items to the dead person.

HOUSING AND FURNITURE Egyptian homes were made from bricks of sun dried mud, called adobe, because wood was scarce. A nobleman's home was divided into three areas: a reception area, a hall, and the private quarters. The windows and doors on the house were covered with mats to keep out the flies, dust, and heat.The inside walls were decorated with wall hangings made of leather, and the floors were covered with tile. Sometimes there was a room on the roof with three walls where the family slept on hot summer nights. The commoners lived in town houses usually two to three stories high. The first story of the town home was usually reserved for businesses, while the second and third floors provided the family living space. Many people slept on the roof during the summer to keep cool. Sewage had to be disposed of by each household in pits, in the river, or in the streets. Most all people had some furniture consisting mostly of a stool, small boxes for jewelry and cosmetics, chests for clothing, pottery jars, and oil lamps. Each home was equipped with at least one fly catcher.ENTERTAINMENT Egyptians spent their spare time doing a wide variety of things, and many of these activities are shown on the tomb walls. Dramatizations were held in the temples, but the most important source of entertainment & relaxation was the Nile river. Activities on the river include fishing, river boat outings, swimming, hunting crocodiles and hippopotamuses, and boat games where two teams of men in boats with long poles, would try to push each other into the water. Hunting in the desert was another great pastime, especially for the noblemen. Men first hunted on foot, however, by the time of the New Kingdom, men used horses and chariots. More friendly gods had celebrations held by the people, and not the priests. Bes is one of the gods the people held a festival for. On the day of Bes, no work was done on the pyramid, and people would parade down the street dressed in masks of Bes, while dancers and tambourine players followed. The townspeople joined in the singing from their rooftops, while the children would run along beside the dancers singing and clapping their hands. The whole town enjoyed the festival and feast.

All these things belonged to theluxurious side of ancient life, butEgyptian art records the humblerphases too. There are figures of darkskinned slaves brought to the Nileports in war-galleys from the Africaninterior, wearing the primitive loincloth, or the short skirt, which werecommonly worn by servants and peasants, and by scribes. Strange foreignfigures are sometimes portrayed, ofAsiatic envoys, and "Philistines" witha distinctive headdress and Europeancast of features. Many different notesin the garb of old Egypt throws lighton the daily life of the people.

GREECEThe pharaohs in ancient Egypt held absolute power. About 500 BCE, the Greeks set up a very different form of government that became known as a democracy. In a democracy the people rule themselves. (Even so, not everyone in Greece was equal since only free men were allowed to vote.) Each Greek city-state was like an independent country because each one had its own government and its own laws.The Greeks made many major contributions to the development of Western civilization. For example, Greek architecture is still copied today. Modern theater is based on the principles established by the Greeks. They also made key discoveries in mathematics, science, and medicine. Euclid discovered the basic rules of geometry. Archimedes found out how to measure the circumference of a circle as well as the law governing floating objects in water. Hippocrates attacked the use of magic in medicine and wrote a code of ethics for doctors.But the greatest contribution of all was in the field of philosophy. The word philosophy means love of wisdom. The ideas of Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, who lived in the city-state of Athens, have shaped and guided the way Westerners have thought through the ages. They asked hard questions about the meaning of life, the true nature of the world, and the proper role of citizens.The golden age of Greek civilization didnt last forever. One reason was that the Greeks constantly fought each other. Sparta and Athens, for instance, waged war against each other for many years. This Peloponnesian War weakened the city-states and made them vulnerable to invasion. In 338 BCE Philip of Macedonia conquered Greece. His son Alexander the Great went on to conquer most of the lands between Greece in the west, Egypt in the south, and India in the east.

FUNERARY ART

The ancient Greeks did not generally leave elaborate grave goods, except for a coin in the hand to pay Charon, the ferryman to Hades, and pottery; however the epitaphios or funeral oration (from which epitaph comes) was regarded as of great importance, and animal sacrifices were made.Those who could afford them erected stone monuments, which was one of the functions of kouros statues in the Archaic period before about 500 BCE. These were not intended as portraits, but during the Hellenistic period realistic portraiture of the deceased were introduced and family groups were often depicted in bas-relief on monuments, usually surrounded by an architectural frame.The walls of tomb chambers were often painted in fresco, although few examples have survived in as good condition as the Tomb of the Diver from southern Italy. Almost the only surviving painted portraits in the classical Greek tradition are found in Egypt rather than Greece.The Fayum mummy portraits, from the very end of the classical period, were portrait faces, in a Graeco-Roman style, attached to mummies.Early Greek burials were frequently marked above ground by a large piece of pottery, and remains were also buried in urns. Pottery continued to be used extensively inside tombs and graves throughout the classical period. The larnax is a small coffin or ash-chest, usually of decorated terracotta.The two-handled loutrophoros was primarily associated with weddings, as it was used to carry water for the nuptial bath. However, it was also placed in the tombs of the unmarried, "presumably to make up in some way for what they had missed in life."The one-handled lekythos had many household uses, but outside the household its principal use was for decoration of tombs. Scenes of a descent to the underworld of Hades were often painted on these, with the dead depicted beside Hermes, Charon or both - though usually only with Charon.Small pottery figurines are often found, though it is hard to decide if these were made especially for placing in tombs; in the case of the Hellenistic Tanagra figurines this seems probably not the case. But silverware is more often found around the fringes of the Greek world, as in the royal Macedonian tombs of Vergina, or in the neighbouring cultures like those of Thrace or the Scythians.

MEN Men ran the government, and spent a great deal of their time away from home. When not involved in politics, the men spent time in the fields, overseeing or working the crops, sailing, hunting, in manufacturing or in trade. For fun, in addition to drinking parties, the men enjoyed wrestling, horseback riding, and the famous Olympic Games. When the men entertained their male friends, at the popular drinking parties, their wives and daughters were not allowed to attend.

WOMENWith the exception of ancient Sparta, Greek women had very limited freedom outside the home. They could attend weddings, funerals, some religious festivals, and could visit female neighbors for brief periods of time. In their home, Greek women were in charge. Their job was to run the house and to bear children.Most Greek women did not do housework themselves. Most Greek households had slaves. Female slaves cooked, cleaned, and worked in the fields. Male slaves watched the door, to make sure no one came in when the man of the house was away, except for female neighbors, and acted as tutors to the young male children. Wives and daughters were not allowed to watch the Olympic Games as the participants in the games did not wear clothes. Chariot racing was the only game women could win, and only then if they owned the horse. If that horse won, they received the prize.CHILDRENThe ancient Greeks considered their children to be 'youths' until they reached the age of 30! When a child was born to ancient Greek family, a naked father carried his child, in a ritual dance, around the household. Friends and relatives sent gifts. The family decorated the doorway of their home with a wreath of olives (for a boy) or a wreath of wool (for a girl).In Athens, as in most Greek city-states, with the exception of Sparta, girls stayed at home until they were married. Like their mother, they could attend certain festivals, funerals, and visit neighbors for brief periods of time. Their job was to help their mother, and to help in the fields, if necessary.Ancient Greek children played with many toys, including rattles, little clay animals, horses on 4 wheels that could be pulled on a string, yo-yo's, and terra-cotta dolls.

HOMES - COURTYARDSGreek houses, in the 6th and 5th century B.C., were made up of two or three rooms, built around an open air courtyard, built of stone, wood, or clay bricks. Larger homes might also have a kitchen, a room for bathing, a men's dining room, and perhaps a woman's sitting area.Although the Greek women were allowed to leave their homes for only short periods of time, they could enjoy the open air, in the privacy of their courtyard. Much of ancient Greek family life centered around the courtyard.The ancient Greeks loved stories and fables. One favorite family activity was to gather in the courtyard to hear these stories, told by the mother or father. In their courtyard, Greek women might relax, chat, and sewDIETMost meals were enjoyed in a courtyard near the home. Greek cooking equipment was small and light and could easily be set up there. On bright, sunny days, the women probably sheltered under a covered area of their courtyard, as the ancient Greeks believed a pale complexion was a sign of beauty.Food in Ancient Greece consisted of grains, figs, wheat to make bread, barley, fruit, vegetables, breads, and cake. People in Ancient Greece also ate grapes, seafood of all kinds, and drank wine.Along the coastline, the soil was not very fertile, but the ancient Greeks used systems of irrigation and crop rotation to help solve that problem.They kept goats, for milk and cheese. They sometimes hunted for meat.MARRIAGE - WEDDINGS In ancient Athens, wedding ceremonies started after dark. The veiled bride traveled from her home to the home of the groom while standing in a chariot. Her family followed the chariot on foot, carrying the gifts.Friends of the bride and groom lit the way, carrying torches and playing music to scare away evil spirits. During the wedding ceremony, the bride would eat an apple, or another piece of fruit, to show that food and other basic needs would now come from her husband.Gifts to the new couple might include baskets, furniture, jewelry, mirrors, perfume, vases filled with greenery.In ancient Sparta, the ceremony was very simple. After a tussle, to prove his superior strength, the groom would toss his bride over his shoulder and carried her off.

DANCING - MUSICDance was very important to the ancient Greeks. They believed that dance improved both physical and emotional health. Rarely did men and women dance together. Some dances were danced by men and others by women.There were more than 200 ancient Greek dances; comic dances, warlike dances, dances for athletes and for religious worship, plus dances for weddings, funerals, and celebrations.Dance was accompanied by music played on lyres, flutes, and a wide variety of percussion instruments such as tambourines, cymbals and castanets.

STORY TELLINGThe ancient Greeks loved stories. They created many marvelous stories, myths, and fables that we enjoy today, like Odysseus and the Terrible Sea and Circe, a beautiful but evil enchantress. Aesop's Fables, written by Aesop, an ancient Greek, are still read and enjoyed all over the world.

MEN'S AND WOMENS CLOTHING Greek, Macedonian and Roman men favored toga-like garments while ancient Chinese and Persian men often wore trousers. Greek men wore two kinds of clothing: a cloak draped in various ways around the body with "varying degrees of modesty" (the himation ), and a cloak draped around one shoulder and pinned to the other (the chlamys ). Belts were sometimes worn and excess material was stuffed into a pouch. Greek women initially wore a peplos , a garment consisting of two bed sheet-size pieces of cloth, one in the front and one in the back, that were held together with two dagger-like pins, one over each shoulder. According to legend this garment was popular until Athens fought a war with the city-state of Aegina. During the battle every man was killed but one. When the survivor delivered the news to the wives and mothers of dead men, the women took out their anger with their dagger-pins, stabbing the man to death. Greek officials were so outraged by the behavior of women, they forced the women to wear Ionic style chintons . These garments were virtually the same as the peplos except they were fastened together with buttons not lethal pins. [Source: "Greek and Roman Life" by Ian Jenkins from the British Museum,||] As early as 2500 B.C. women in Minoa wore bras that completely lifted the a woman's breasts out of her garments. Greek and Roman women strapped in their breasts with bands of cloth that flattened their chest and reduced their breast size.

FABRICS AND DYES Most cloth was made from wool and linen. Much of it was rather course. Very few remnants of Greek cloth remain. Most of what we know comes from written records, sculptures, bas-reliefs and vase paintings. Penelope's loom was a major feature of the Odyssey . Homer refers to "fair purple blankets" and "thick mantels. The Greeks and Romans used leather and developed fairly sophisticated methods of tanning. Roman soldiers wore breastplates of felt and armies traveled with sheep and looms to clothed their soldiers. Instead of mothballs Romans used bare breasted virgins to fight off wool eating moths. The Romans and Greeks were familiar with silk, but they had no idea how it was made. Pliny the Elder speculated the textile was made from "the hair of the sea-sheep" and Aristotle described the silkworm as a horned worm the size of a cat. Alexander the Great brought silk back with him after his conquest of Persia, and the fabric was all the rage in ancient Rome, where laws were passed to curb demand for the cloth. The Greeks imported from purple cloth from Tyre, embroideries from Sidon and fine linen from Egypt. Silk from China and fine muslins from India began making their way to the wealthy with some regularity after Alexander's conquests. Blue India dye is derived from a blue powder extracted from the indigofera plant. The dye was known to the Greeks and Romans and used by Egyptians to dye mummy cases. The Greeks used brown, red and yellow dyes made from plants, bark and minerals. Many of their garments were bleached white and adorned with hand applied designs with geometric patterns.

CLOTHMAKING AND WEAVING Most cloth was made with relatively simple warp-weighted looms. Women and slaves made cloth at home or bought it in shops, worked by freed slaves or artisans, who used specialized in one process---cleaning and carding, spinning, dyeing or weaving. It is believed that women spent most of their time weaving. Wool was the most common fiber available and flax was also widely used. Cotton was stuffed into the saddles of Alexander the Great's cavalry in India to relieve soreness but that was largely the extent of its introduction to Greece.| [Source: "Greek and Roman Life" by Ian Jenkins from the British Museum,||]

The methods used to make wool and cloth in ancient Greece lived on for centuries. After a sheep was sheared, the wool was placed on a spike called a distaff. A strand of wool was then pulled off; a weight known as whorl was attached to it; and the strand was twisted into a thread by spinning with it the thumb and forefinger. Since each thread was made this way, you can how time consuming it must have been to make a piece of cloth or a sail for a ship.|| To make cloth, threads were placed on a warp-weighted loom (similar to ones used by Lapp weavers until the 1950's). Warps are the downward hanging threads on a loom, and they were set up so that every other thread faced forward and the others were in the back. A weft (horizontal thread) was then taken in between the forward and backward row of warps. Before the weft was threaded through in the other direction, the position of the warps was changed with something called a heddle rod. This simple tool reversed the warps so that the row in the front was now in the rear, and visa versa. In this way the threads were woven in a cross stitch manner that held them together and created cloth. The cloth in turn was used to make cushions, upholstery for wooden furniture and wall hangings as well as garments and sails.HATS AND FOOTWEAR The first known hats with brims were worn by ancient Greeks in the fifth century B.C. The broad rimmed pelasus of ancient Greece is considered by some scholars to be the world's first hat. It was worn while traveling for protection from the weather. They had chin straps that allowed them to hang down on the back when not needed. Sandals were the primary form of footwear in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome. Wealthy Greeks wore sandals decorated with jewels and gold. Roman developed sandals with thicker soles, leather sides and laced insteps. Footwear was mainly the rich. The poor mostly went barefoot. Ancient shoes where generally made from woven palm leaves, vegetable fibre, leather or papyrus and were kept in place on the foot with linen or leather bands. The oldest known shoes are moccasin-like rawhide footwear with laces worn in Babylonia around 1600 B.C. Greek women wore similar shoes around 600 B.C. As early as 600 B.C. Greek women wore socklike slippers called sykhos , the source of the word sock. In the 5th century B.C. actors wore platform shoes not unlike those worn by modern glam rockers. Early Greek actors and comedians wore a light pull-on shoes or sykhos. Developed versions of these were made of leather and wood and had a division between the first and second toes. JEWELLERY/ACCESSORIES

The Greeks had a lot of jewellery, made from gold, silver, and precious stones (mostly for woman). Both the men and woman wore jewellery, but it was not likely to for poor people to wear jewellery because they were very expensive back then and they still are today. Rich people could afford to but elegant earrings which was made of gold. Since it was very fashionable to have pale skin, fortunate people showed their skin off by wearing bold coloured bracelets, but peasants and servants didn't have pale skin because they would always be working in the hot sun. Rich woman also had headbands which were made of gold. The Greeks would also wear lots of brooches. A brooch is a decorative piece of jewellery that is to be attached to a garment. The ancient Greek women would attach their brooches to their chiton for everyday use to make them look fancier and it was something all women did. Over many years, the styles changed during the Archaic Period woman wore their hair long, in a headband. During the Classical Period, hair was worn up with all sorts of ribbons, nets or scarves. In the Hellenistic Period woman had curls that which were in fashion, and the hair was usually worn up.

BEAUTY AND COSMETICS Aristotle once said "beauty is a far greater recommendation than any letter of introduction." Unlike the Egyptians and Romans, who used lots of make-up and perfume and wore flashy hairstyle, the Greeks preferred the natural look. The unadorned male body in particular was glorified in sport and sculpture. Make up was associated courtesans. The customs of make up, coiffed hair and perfume were kept alive by courtesans. They even freshened their breath with aromatic liquids that they rolled around in the mouth and on their tongue. The use of cosmetics was looked down upon on ordinary women. The 4th century historian Xenophon wrote: "When I found her painted, I pointed out that she was being dishonest in attempting to deceive me about her looks as I should be were I to deceive her about my property." The pale complexion a woman received from staying indoors all the time was seen as a sign of virtue and beauty. Some women whiten their faces, bosoms and necks with a white powder made from lead. Greeks and Roman used an arsenic compound to remove hair and cinnabar, a poisonous red sulfide of mercury, for lipstick and rouge. One of the most popular forms of make-up was cheek rogue. Worn by both men and women, it was made from plant substance such as seaweed or mulberry mixed with highly toxic cinnabar.

HAIRSTYLES Minoan woman Greek men had beards and long hair. Shaving didn't become widespread until the Roman era. The razor, in fact, was considered a woman's toiletry article. Women wore their hair long, unless they were a slave or in mourning, then they sported a bob. The long hair of non-mourning women was gathered, curled, tied and bound in bonnets and bows according to fashion. Roman women often spent hours with there hairdressers, creating elaborate coiffures and this indulgent behavior was often satirized in plays. [Source: "Greek and Roman Life" by Ian Jenkins from the British Museum,||] Long hair and fair skin were greatly esteemed by the Greeks. Short hair was associated with barbarianism. Greek actors sometimes wore wigs. Greeks and Romans used a variety of hairpins. Roman men reportedly shaved daily. The Latin word for beard, barba , is the source of the word barber. Upper class Greek culture is the first known culture to prize light or blond hair. It was equated with desirability and innocence. Many Greek heros such as Achilles, Meenelaus and Paris had light hair. Some Greeks lightened their hair with soaps and alkaline bleaches available from Phoenicia. Some courtesans died their hair with a concoction made from apple-scented yellow flowers, pollen and potassium salts. Men it seemed were more found of lightening their hair than women. They used yellow pollen, yellow flour and even gold powder. The 4th century dramatist Menander wrote: "After washing their hair with a special ointment made in Athens, they sit bareheaded in the sun by the hour, waiting for their hair to turn a beautiful golden blond. And it does."

PERFUMES

Greek men scented different parts of their body with different perfumes. Writers in 400 B.C. suggested almond oil for the hands and feet, mint for the arms, thyme for the knees, rose, cinnamon or palm oil for the jaws and chest, and marjoram for the hair and eyebrows. Some politicians found use of these of fragrances to be so obsessive they suggested passing laws banning them. Greeks used perfumed oils based on Egyptian recipes as deodorants. Alexander the Great was fond of perfumes and incense. He had his tunics soaked in the scent of saffron. The ancient Greeks made perfumes and medicines from roses and added lavender oil to public baths. They also used tangerine, orange and lemon as scents and kept perfumes in translucent alabaster flasks. The Romans poured rose water in their baths and released aromas into the air during banquets and orgies with perfumed white doves that dispensed scent as they flew about. Rich Roman aristocrats slept on pillows stuffed with saffron when they suffered a hangover.

Though little is known about theearliest Greek costume and the transitions to the later style, the HeroicAge of Greek story and legend musthave been one of bright-hued garmentsand rich gold ornaments. Modernknowledge obtained from the excavations of Mycenae and Tiryns pointsto a very real background for Homerictraditions. Details are wanting, andwe do not know exactly in what attireto picture the women who lived whenfair Helen is supposed to have beguiledher victims, and Penelope kept herlonely state. For modern representations of old Greek dramas founded onthe Heroic Age, costumes are chosenwith some latitude as to time andplace. Stephen Phillips' modern playof " Ulysses " was first brought out inLondon twenty years ago, and authorities of the British Museum lent theiraid in designing the superb settingand costumes according to the latestknowledge then available. Architectural details were based on the discoveriesat Mycenae, but the characters weredressed from artistic suggestions of alater date. A little more informationis available nowadays, and producershave made some experiments in accuracy.There are late Greek fashions ofthe era when Oriental influences inthe wealthy and flourishing Greekcolonies must have produced changes,and these have not been so thoroughlyinvestigated as more ancient modes.

ROMEThe great Roman Empire had a humble beginning. Farmers in about 750 BCE first settled the region around the present-day city of Rome. A northern tribe, the Etruscans, soon overran these settlers. The Etruscans improved the land by draining swamps. They also built excellent roads, established trade, and developed new architectural techniques including the arch.In 509 BCE the Romans drove the Etruscans and their king out of the city. The Romans did not like a monarchy so they established a new type of government called a republic. In the Roman republic, the voters elected representatives to run the government. These elected officials served in the Roman Senate. But Rome was not a true democracy. Only the most wealthy and powerful citizens were allowed to serve in the Senate.Soon Rome grew more powerful and began conquering its neighbors. The Greeks in southern Italy fell first, and then the Romans defeated Hannibal and the Carthaginians from northern Africa. The Romans added additional provinces in France (called Gaul), Britain, and the Middle East. The genius of the Romans was their ability to govern their far-flung republic well. They did this through a unified set of laws, a skilled civil service, and a well-disciplined army. The Romans also built roads that connected Rome to every other part of the republic. The peace they established throughout their vast territory lasted many years and was called the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace.All was not so peaceful back in Rome, however. Powerful army generals could control elections. One such leader was Julius Caesar, who defeated his rivals and made himself the sole ruler of Rome. On March 15 (the Ides of March) in 44 BCE, a group of rivals assassinated Caesar. This led to a long line of emperors. The old republic was dead.

DAILY LIFE IN ANCIENT ROMEFAMILYFamily had had a very solid social position since the beginnings of Rome. The Roman familia was organised as a patriarchy - it means that the whole authority rested in fathers hands. The usual family consisted of: father, mother, single daughters and those, who were married but still lived with their parents and siblings, unmarried and married sons with their wives and children, and slaves. Fathers authority ranged over all members of family; in remote past he could even decide about children's life and death (if he found neonate child illegitimate, he could not accept it and order to ditch it). It is interesting that the son, even if he was married or came of age, was unable to have own estate. He couldnt inherit and own till the time when the father died. In relation to the slaves paters authority was absolute: he could sell, kill, leave or set them free. There were two sorts of marriage in Rome: in manum, when a woman wasnt incident to paters authority and depends only on her husband, and sine conventione in manum women was still subject to her father, lived with her parents and siblings, and kept the succession right. The age border needed to contract marriage was very low girls had to be just 12 and boys 14 (in fact, this border, especially for boys, was much higher). During the engagement ceremony, which took place before the wedding, a groom handed a coin or an iron ring to his future wife. The marriage ceremony was usually the same. In witnesses presence groom and bride gave hands to each other, and assented to marriage, then gods were asked for blessing. When the first star appeared on the sky, bride left the feast and made for her new house. After her husband, who was waiting on the doorstep, had given water and fire to her. The births of the children were the most important events in familys life. After a child had been born, it was brought and put in front of the father. If he picked it up, it symbolised that he had found it legitimate. A child was named when it was 10 days old. At first Roman names consisted of 2 parts, then, in the times of the Republic and later, of 3: name, kind of surname and alias. There were few names in ancient Rome, so Romans replaced them with acronyms

ROMAN HOUSES Roman streets were filled with the crowds of people making their way to work, school, or just walking, even in the early morning. The poor lived in dilapidated cottages or rented rooms and flats in tenement houses. These narrow and high tenements were built in a quick and dirty way, and they often collapsed or became destroyed by fire. Storeys of such buildings stuck out toward the street, thats why Cicero said about the Rome as about a city hung in air on houses storeys. Therefore, it isnt surprising that poorer citizens avoid staying in their own homes and spend their time in the city, which offered a lot of entertainment to them. Wealthy Romans couldnt complain about their houses - they lived in luxury villas, surrounded by vast gardens and ponds. Roman houses consisted of three parts: a front one and a middle, which was covered with tiles and of a peristyle. There were lots of columns, flowers, pictures and a fountain in it. Under a peristyle there was a cellar. Atrium was a kind of a presentable lounge, family life concentrated in peristyle and nearby rooms. Slaves lived close to the atriumFOODAncient Romans ate three meals during the day: breakfast, lunch and dinner that was eaten late in the afternoon. Breakfast consisted of cheese, fruit, bread, milk or wine. Lunch wasnt served. Romans usually ate leftovers from the yesterday meals. This meal contained meal dishes, fish, fruit, cheese and wine. The most important and generous was dinner. Romans used to eat it lying on sofas and a lots of slaves had to serve them. Dinner consisted of different sorts of meat, fish with vegetables, snacks, fresh or dried fruit and wine. Ancient Romans didnt care the tidiness during the mealtime, for example they unscrupulously threw rests of the food on the flooCLOTHING IN ANCIENT ROMAN

CLASS DIFFERENCESRoman dress differed from one class to another. The tunic was worn by plebians (common people), herdsmen and slaves was made from a coarse dark material. The tunic worn by patricians was made from white wool or linen. Magistrates wore the tunic augusticlavia, and senators wore a tunic with broad strips, tunica laticlavia. Military tunics were shorter than those worn by civilians.ROMAN MENWigs were worn by men as a disguise and to hide baldness. Hairstyles and beards varied with the times. In early Roman times, men wore long hair and full beards. For a while, they were clean-shaven with short hair. About 1 Century AD, they had started to style their hair, and wear beards again.

JEWELRYRings were the only jewelry worn by Roman citizen men, and good manners dictated only one ring. Of course, some men did not follow "good taste", and wore as many as sixteen rings. Most early Roman jewelry resembled Greek and Etruscan jewelry, but Roman styles eventually developed. The Romans were fond of colored stones such as topaz, emeralds, rubies and sapphires. Pendants, especially cameos in gold frames, were popular.

FABRICSWoolWool, the most commonly used fibre, was most likely the first material to be spun. The sheep of Tarentum were renowned for the quality of their wool, although the Romans never ceased trying to optimise the quality of wool through cross-breeding. The production of linen and hemp was very similar to that of wool and was described by Pliny the Elder. After the harvest, the material would be immersed (most probably in water), it would be skinned and then aired. Once dry, the fibers would be pressed mechanically (with a mallet) and then smoothed. Following this, the materials were woven. Linen and hemp both are tough and durable materials.

Silk and Cotton Silk and cotton were imported, from China and India respectively. Silk was rare and expensive; a luxury afforded only to the richest. Due to the cost of imported clothing, quality garments were also woven from nettle. Wild silk, that is, cocoons collected from the wild after the insect had eaten its way out, also was known. Wild silk, being of smaller lengths, had to be spun. A rare luxury cloth with a beautiful golden sheen, known as sea silk, was made from the long silky filaments or byssus produced by Pinna nobilis, a large Mediterranean seashell. These different fibres had to be prepared in different ways. According to Forbes, their wool contained around 50% fatty impurities, flax and hemp were about 25% impure, silk was between 19 and 25% impure, while cotton (the most pure of all the source fibers) contained only 6% impurities.

Dyeing The Romans had to turn their material with a manual spinner. Iron alum was used as the base fixing agent and it is known that the marine gastropod, Haustellum brandaris, was used as a red dye, due to its purple-red colorant (6,6'-dibromoindigotin); the color of the emperor. The dye was imported from Tyre, Lebanon and was used primarily by wealthy women. Cheaper versions were also produced by counterfeiters. A more widely used tint was indigo, allowing blue or yellow shades, while madder, a dicotyledon angiosperm, produced a shade of red and was one of the cheapest dyes available. According to Pliny the Elder, a blackish color was preferred to red. Yellow, obtained from saffron, was expensive and reserved for the clothing of married women or the Vestal Virgins. There were far fewer colors than in the modern era. Archaeological discoveries of Greek vases depict the art of weaving, while writers in the field of antiques mention the art of weaving and fibre production. Some clothes have survived for several centuries and, as clothing is necessary, examples are numerous and diverse. These materials often provide some of the most detailed and precious information on the production means used, on the dyes used, on the nature of the soil where the materials were grown and, therefore, on trade routes and climate, among many other things. Historical research in the area of ancient clothing is very active and allows researchers to understand a great deal about the lifestyle of the Romans. The materials used were similar to those used by the ancient Greeks, except the tilling process had been ameliorated and the tilled linen and wool were of a far superior quality.Hides, Leather, and Skins The Romans had two main ways of tanning, one of which was mineral tanning, or "tawing" - making hide into leather without the use of tanning, especially by soaking it in a solution of alum and salt. The Romans used tools that resembled those that would be used in the Middle Ages. The tanned leather then was used to fashion heavy coats to keep Roman soldiers warm during travel, and in more frigid areas of Rome, it was used during cold seasons. The leather was not given to the soldiers by the military commanders or overseers, but rather from the soldier's wives and family before the soldiers left for a campaign. Although leather sometimes was used for protection against poor weather, its primary use was in footwear and belts. Animal skins were worn over the helmet with bearskins being popular among legionaries and feline among with Praetorians. Ancient Roman taxidermists would retain the entire body and the head, with the front legs tied to fasten over the armor. The animal's head would fit over the soldier's helmet, and mostly was worn by the Roman aquilifer, who carried the symbol of Rome into battle. The Romans rarely used goatskin for their leather, preferring pig or sheepskin, although the ideal would be the preferred leather was that most readily available - cattle skin. The thickest and most durable leather was used for shoe soles - they had to be durable to endure war.TYPES OF CLOTHINGThe act of putting on outer garments such as the toga or pallium, was described as amicire, which led to any individual outer garment sometimes being identified as an amictus without it being thought necessary to specify which outer garment was referred to. The equivalent term for the donning of undergarments,such as the tunica, was induere (indutus).Looms and Their Effect on ClothingIn general, individual clothes were woven on vertical looms during antiquity. This contrasts with the medieval period when cloth was produced on foot-powered horizontal looms that later was made into clothes by tailors. Evidence for the transition between these two distinct systems, from Egypt, suggests that it had begun by 298 AD but it is likely that it was very gradual. The weaver sat at the horizontal loom producing rectangular lengths of cloth which never were wider than the weaver's two arms could reach with the shuttle. Conversely, a weaver who stood at a vertical loom could weave cloth of a greater width than was possible sitting down, including the toga, which could, and did, have a complex shape.TogaThe variations of clothing worn in Rome were similar to the clothing worn in Greece at the same time, with the exception of the traditionally Roman toga. Until the 2nd century BC, the toga was worn by both genders and bore no distinction of rank - after that, a woman wearing a toga was marked out as a prostitute. The differentiation between rich and poor was made through the quality of the material; the upper-classes wore thin, naturally colored, wool togas while the lower-classes wore coarse material or thin felt. They also differentiated by colors used:

the toga praetextata, with a purple border, worn by male children and magistrates during official ceremonies the toga picta or toga palmata, with a gold border, used by generals in their triumphs trabea - toga entirely in purple, worn by statues of deities and emperors saffron toga - worn by augurs and priestesses, white with a purple band, also worn by consuls on public festivals and equites during a transvectio A Roman could tell how important or wealthy a person was from their toga. Free Roman men wore the toga instead of a cloak. It was originally an Etruscan garment worn in earlier times by both men and women of all classes. The toga was made from white wool or white Egyptian linen. It was square or rectangular in shape and was worn draped around the body. The toga was worn often during state occasions. Consuls and senators wore a toga edged with purple. Some Roman senators wore white tigas that were ten meters long. Some emperors' togas were made entirely from either purple or black cloth. Black togas, though, were usually only worn in times of mourning. Togas looked like a white sheet 9 yards long. They were arranged very carefully, in a stylish way. Togas fell out of style rather early. (The toga was inconvenient, and people felt the cold when they wore it.) To get anyone to wear them, even very early emperors had to legislate the wearing of togas by at least senators. Eventually, the emperors gave up.Tunics The Romans switched to comfortable tunics, which looked like long tee-shirts. They were far more practical. Tunics were made of cool linen, for summer wear, and warm wool, for winter wear. Sometimes, they worn trouser like garments.

Roman Soldiers

It's interesting to note that most Roman armor probably did not shine. They used a lot of chain mail (a sort of cloth made of circular links), which doesn't shine. They also made scale armor (metal plates about 3 inches long and about an inch wide, sewn together on a linen/leather backing.) Scale armor shines a little, but not much. And, they made leather armor, with the metal on the inside, or at least under the leather, probably again on a backing of linen, to make three layers. So, although the ancient Romans loved the ornate and glittery, their armor most probably did not shine!Women's ClothingAfter the 2nd century BC, besides tunics, women wore a simple garment known as a stola and usually followed the fashions of their Greek contemporaries. Stolae typically comprised two rectangular segments of cloth joined at the side by fibulae and buttons in a manner allowing the garment to drape freely over the front of the wearer. Over the stola, women often wore the palla, a sort of shawl made of an oblong piece of material that could be worn as a coat, with or without hood, or draped over the left shoulder, under the right arm, and then over the left arm. The palla covered the respectable matron when she went outside. It is often described as a cloak.Women wore a tunica which was adapted from the Greek chiton. The tunica was usually knee-length. Over this the women wore a stola which was a full length from neck to ankle, high- waisted and fastened at the shoulders with clasps. The stola was usually either white, brown or grey, though some were brightly colored with vegetable dyes. A shawl, called a palla, was worn wrapped around the shoulders and arm, or could be draped over the head. Cloaks were worn to keep warm.Hats were not worn except by slaves but women were expected to cover their heads when walking outdoors.Women's Jewelry

Women enjoyed gazing at themselves in mirrors of highly polished metal (not glass). The ancient Roman women loved ornate necklaces, pins, earrings, bracelets and friendship rings. Pearls were favorites. Women often dyed their hair, usually golden-red.Black obsidian mirrors were also used by oracles in a form of divination called mirror scryingWomen's HairThey used false hairpieces to make their hair thicker or longer. Sometimes, Roman women wore their hair up, in carefully arranged styles, held with jeweled hairpins. Sometimes they wore it down, curled in ringlets. Fashionable women wore hair-pieces that were often made from the hair of slave girls.Parasols were used, or women might carry fans made of peacock feathers, wood or stretched linen. Women's street shoes were made of leather, like a man's. In the house, most Romans (men and women) wore sandals. Women's sandals were brightly colored. Some were even decorated with pearls.

CHILDREN'S CLOTHING

Roman GirlsGirls wore a simple tunic with a belt at the waist. When they went outside, they wore a second tunic that reached their feet.Roman BoysBoys wore a tunic down to their knees. It was white, with a crimson border. Once a boy became a man, he put aside his childish clothes, and wore an all-white tunic. A boy became a citizen at age 16 or 17. The year was selected by choosing the date which came closest to March 17th. Coming of age, becoming a citizen, was quite a celebration. On a boy's sixteenth or seventeenth birthday, the boy dressed himself in a white tunic, which his father adjusted. The day ended with a dinner party, given by the father, in honor of the new Roman citizen.BullaChildren wore a special locket around their neck, given to them at birth, called a bulla. It contained an amulet as a protection against evil and was worn on a chain, cord, or strap. Girls wore their bulla until the eve of their wedding day, when their bulla was set aside with other childhood things, like her toys. Boys wore their bulla until they day they became a citizen. Boys bullas were put aside and carefully saved. A boy's bulla could be wore by the owner again, if he won special honors. For example, if he became a successful general, and won the honor of triumph, he would wear his bulla in ceremonial parades, to protect him from the evil jealously of men or gods. Roman girls often wore nothing more than a tunic hanging below the knees or lower, belted at the waist and very simply decorated, most often white. When a girl went out she sometimes wore another tunic, longer than the first, sometimes to the ankles or even the feet.

Undergarments The basic garment for both sexes, often worn beneath one or more additional layers, was the loincloth, tunica or tunic. This was a simple rectangle sewn into a tubular shape and pinned around the shoulders like a Greek chiton. Women might also wear a strophium or breast cloth. Garments to cover the loins, known as subligacula or subligaria, might also be worn, especially by soldiers. The Vindolanda tablets found in Great Britain confirm this fashion at the time of the Roman Empire, when a subligaculum might be made of leather. Farm workers wore loincloths.Official ClothingThe dress code of the day was complex and had to reflect one's position accurately in the social order, one's gender, and one's language.

Roman Footwear Roman men and women often wore the same types of shoes. There were lots of different options available to the Romans and the style they went for would have been affected by the weather and whether or not they were inside or outside. The calcei was an outdoor shoe made from soft leather. It was worn by most Romans. Sandals were thought of as indoor shoes. Rich Romans would employ a slave to carry his sandals for him so that he could change into them when he stepped inside a building. The Romans also wore a type of slippers when they were indoors. Footwear also defined a person's position in society. Women wore closed shoes that were either white, green or yellow. Men wore sandals. Patricians wore red sandals with an ornament at the back. Senators wore brown footwear with black straps which wound round the leg to mid-calf, where the straps were tied. Consuls wore white shoes, and soldiers, heavy boots. Roman soldiers wore the caliga a type of military boot / sandal. It had hobnails and was very hard-wearing.

Ancient Roman Beauties and Their Makeup Bag

In ancient times, beauty was as relevant as it is now and makeup was a real luxury.Diva or Empress, what was in your makeup bag two thousand years ago in Ancient Rome?Keeping up appearances in ancient Rome was a controversial mission. Today the Italian word for make up is trucco, which means trick. Make up is magic, in a way! In ancient Roman times, it was considered by many as mere manipulation. Ancient Roman poet Juvenalwrote that ''a woman buys scents and lotions with adultery in mind'' and philosopher Seneca thought that wearing cosmetics led to the decline of the Roman morality.Of course, there are no texts written by women indicating the female attitude towards cosmetics at the time.However, historians found evidence that espcially for the wealthy patricians, the goddess Venus - department of beauty - was really on speed dial. We know that women went to extreme measures to maintain their beauty.Even two thousand years ago being beautiful included some degree of pain and the saying 'no pain, no gain' applied. And, boy was the importance of beauty placed highly upon that list of must haves back in the day! Some things never go out of fashion. Whether you were a Vestal Virgin or Goddess, a must was having a well dressed tress!Bathing, pruning and making oneself up was an important ritual in day to day life. And bathing Roman style was not a simple affair, as there were three types of bathing (Caldarium - hot, Tepidarium - tepid, Frigidarium - cold).However, the diva par excellence was from Egypt, Cleopatra. Cleo brought a touch of glam to Rome upon her visit in 46 B.C. bringing the smoky eye to the masses way before makeup web tutorials. She was also known to like a red lip. Back in Egypt, red lips were as damn right de rigueur as they are now.Make-up and beauty products were made from a delightful blend of chemicals and excrement, to put it mildly. A blend of nature and science kept bad hair days at bay, much like today. Us girls might enjoy a mint face mask today, which is exactly what the ancient roman beauties did too. MirrorYes! Compact mirrors existed. Well, more a hand mirror usually made from polished metal or mercury. Wealthy women bought expensive mirrors and make up palettes to match - which were available in wooden, bone or gold boxes.Beauty MasksBeauty masks were a pre-makeup must do. Those included a mix of sweat fromsheeps wool, placenta, excrement, animal urine, sulphur, ground oyster shells and bile. And before you start judging in disgust, check the list of ingredients on your favourite creams, I am sure you will find things have not changed much! Bathing in asses milk was favoured by Cleopatra. And this is before you would whiten your skin with marl, dung and lead. Swans fat was a bestseller to rid of wrinkles. More tempting ingredients used in beauty masks and treatments were rose water, eggs, olive oil, honey, anise, almond oil and frankincense.

Eye shadows No mascara? No problem!Burnt cork was the lash thickener, back in the day.Roman women liked their lashes long, thick and curly, as a sign of beauty brought from Egypt and India. There might have been an even more important reason to enhance long eyelashes. Roman author and natural philosopher Pliny the Elder wrote that they fell out from excessive sex and so it was especially important for womento keep their eyelashes long to prove their chastity. Kajal mixed to soot and antimony was used to line the brows and eyes, and applied using a rounded stick, made of ivory, glass, bone, or wood. Charred rose petals and date stones were other products used to darken the eyes. Green and blues were also popular colours for eye shadows, usually made from a mix of minerals. Frida Kahlo would have been totally fashionable in ancient Rome as they liked dark eyebrows that almost met in the centre and tried to achieve this by darkening their eyebrows with antimony or soot and then extending them inward.Red LipsRed lips were achieved using bromine, beetle juice and beeswax, with a dollop of henna. Plus a helping hand from the cosmetae (female slaves that adorned their mistresses) who worked hard to beautify their wealthy roman mistresses.

BlusherMartial (ancient Roman author) mocked women who wore rouge because of the baking hot climate, causing the makeup to run down the cheeks. Blusher was anything from the expensive imported red ochre, or rose petals, to the poisonous red lead. The budget end of the blusher colour spectrum was made with dregs of wine and mulberry.Roman ladies would also rub brown seaweed on their faces as rouge, which achieved the desired effect whilst being reassuringly harmless.

Scent of a womanMake up smelt so bad that Roman divas wore a pungent perfume to deliver a promise of rose over lead. Perfumes were so heavily used that Cicero claimed that, The right scent for a woman is none at all."They came in all sort of forms, liquid, solid and sticky, and every occasion had a specific scent. Deodorants made from alum, iris and rose petals were quite common. They were mostly made using a maceration process with flowers or herbs and oil. Distillation technology, as well as most of the imported ingredients, originated in the east.ENTERTAINMENTRich Romans spent their spare time on feasts. This activity was treated almost like a sort of sport. Public lectures and literary sets were very popular. Sports and circus games also provided great amusement to thousands of Roman. A lot of time was spent in terms, which were in fact a cultural centre of a city.Roman entertainment is totally different than the entertainment we see today. Modern society has things like debit card and credit card processing to buy them things that they can't afford at the time. In Roman times, you didn't see this type of thing, you needed the funds to get what you wanted or what you wanted to do.Near the entrance to the terms there was a man called capsarius, who had to preserve visitors property such as money, jewellery and documents. Usually terms had three parts: a room with an arched ceiling and pools with cold water, a small heating room and a room where people could have a cold bath. Besides simple baths Romans had a possibility to go to a special room and have a vapour bath. Within term area there were also courts and playing fields, restaurants and porticoes, where visitors could rest and discuss with other people.Everybody could go to the terms and have a bath, even the poorest, because there were no entrance fees or they were very low. Women also visited terms, but after numerous scandals they had to do not at the same time as men did

The Romans followed the Greekstyle of dress so generally that theircostume does not present many featuresof special interest. We picture theRoman lady as a conventional, dignified figure, in her stola, falling inample folds from neck to feet, adjustedby a girdle. The palla was an outergarment, and a fold of it was used tocover the head out-of -doors, by matronsof high degree; further protection wasafforded by the parasol or umbrellacarried by slaves. The famous togaof the Roman citizen is an appallinggarment for the modern man to contemplate, though we do not questionits ancient dignity. In magnificenttriumphal processions there must havebeen varied costumes. The proudEastern beauty, Zenobia, walked inchains as a captive in such a triumph.The hero of the occasion rode standing in a chariot, clothed in tunic andtoga of purple embroidered with gold,and he carried an ivory scepter toppedwith an eagle, while over his laurelcrowned head a slave held a goldwreath. The slave had also anotherduty to perform-at intervals he whispered in the car of the hero the strangewarning: "Look behind. Rememberthat you are but a man." The triumphal chariot was preceded by dancersand singers, and followed by soldiersin brilliant military trappings, theirspears garlanded with laurel. Ineveryday life the proverbial Romanluxury and lavish expenditure werefor the accessories of dress--jewels,elegant foot-gear, and the elaborateequipments of the toilet and bath.Silk was used in Rome as a costlymaterial difficult to obtain, but it iswell known that the secrets of silkculture, and the weaving of silkenfabrics, reached Europe from Chinaby way of the Eastern Roman Empirein Byzantium. China was advancedin the textile arts far back in antiquity.Sculptured figures of the T'ang periodhave clinging draperies in gracefullines that are Greek in suggestion,though more complicated in style.Recent archaeological explorations inthe mysterious and debatable landson the western borders of China, andnorth of India, have disclosed anancient art showing varied Orientaland Classical influences. Interestingnotes on costume are to be gatheredfrom the decoration of cave templesof this region.

CONCLUTION

Egypt, Greece and Rome are regarded as one of the best general histories of the ancient world.In a more general sense, however, there's no doubt that ideas were exchanged between Egypt and Greece. Cleopatra's dynasty was Greek, and she visited Rome. The eastern and central Mediterranean was by no means isolated culturally, even if fashions evolved slowly.If we look back into history, really back into history, we will find interesting styles hairstyles, dressing styles and concepts. What is even more interesting is to see why people dressed the way they did. There were rules, hierarchies, obnoxious beliefs and interesting stories. History is a very interesting topic. It is so fascinating to know how people lived in olden times. And just think of it, there was a time when there were kings-queens, not a world of normal, working adults. All of it is really fascinating, and magical, to some extent.But guess what, history repeats. Designers have taken inspiration regularly from olden times art and costumes. Some influences are blatant, while some are subtle. I like both of them. For my first assignment in the History of Fashion class, I was allotted Medieval Ages (300 1500 BC); so the costumes are not ornate. Just interesting. And I can just go on and on. There are so many beautiful costumes and their modern day designs that it is really inspiring.

ANNEXURE