Anatomy/Physiology

Part 1

Human Body

• Efficient, organized machine• Disease occurs when the

machine doesn’t function correctly

• Health care worker must understand normal function of body before understanding the disease process

Areas of Study

• Anatomy: Study of the form and structure of an organism

• Physiology: Study of the profess of living organisms, or why and how they work

• Pathophysiology: Study of how disease occurs and response of the body to disease process

Cells

• Basic unit of structure and function in all living things; make of protoplasm – Protoplasm is the basic substance of life that makes up all

living things• Microscopic organisms that carry on all functions of life– Take in food and oxygen– Produce heat and energy– Move and adapt to their environment– Eliminate wastes– Perform special functions– Reproduce to create new identical cells

Cell Membrane• Outer protective

covering of a cell• Superpermeable

: allows certain substances to enter and leave cell while preventing the passage of other substances

Cytoplasm• Semifluid inside

the cell membrane, but not in the nucleus

• Contains water, lipids, carbs, minerals and salts

• Chemical reaction site in cell

Organelles

• Cell structures that help a cell to function

• Located in cytoplasm

Nucleus• Mass in cytoplasm• “Brain of the cell”• Separated from

cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane that contains pores to allow substances to pass

• Controls many cell activities: mitosis, reproduction

Nucleolus • One or more small

round bodies located in the nucleus

• Important in reproduction of the cell

• Manufacture ribosomes and protein

• Ribosomes move to cytoplasm to aid in production of protein

Chromatin/Chromosomes

• Located in the nucleus• Made up of deoxyribonucleic acid

(DNA) and protein.• Chromatin condenses to form rod like

structures/chromosomes during cell reproduction

• Human cell has 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs

• Each chromosome contains 30,000-45,000 genes

Genes • Structure that carries inherited

characteristics• Each gene has a specific and

unique sequence of about 1,000 pairs of DNA– DNA carries genetic coding and

allows for exact duplication of the cell

– DNA sequence is unique for each individual

– Used as a identification tool. It is more exact than fingerprinting.

Centrosome• Located in cytoplasm

near the nucleus• Contains centrioles

important in reproduction

• Thin spindle fibers form between the centrioles and attach to chromosomes

• Creates an even division of the chromosomes in 2 new cells

Mitochondria

• Rod-shaped organelles located in cytoplasm

• “Powerhouse” of the cell

• Break down carbs, proteins, and fats to produce ATP which is an energy source for the cell

Golgi Apparatus

• Stack of membrane layers in the cytoplasm

• Produces, stores, and packages secretions for discharge from the cell

Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Tubular structures in cytoplasm

• Aids in synthesis and storage of proteins

• Rough: uses ribosomes for protein synthesis

• Smooth: assists with cholesterol synthesis, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs

Lysomes

• Oval or round bodies found in the cytoplasm

• Contain digestive enzymes that digest and destroy old cells, bacteria, and foreign materials

Mitosis• Asexual reproduction process used by most cells• Cells reproduce by dividing into 2 identical cells• Skin, blood forming, and industrial tract reproduce

continuously• Muscle cells reproduce only every few years, but

muscle tissue can be enlarged with exercise• Some specialized cells do not reproduce after birth– Nerve cells in brain and spinal cord– If these cells are damaged or destroyed, others are not

formed to replace them

Stem Cells• Scientists are attempting to determine whether

stem cells can be transplanted into the body to cure diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s, spinal cord inj.

• Hope is that stem cells can be programmed to produce new specialized cells that can replace a body’s damaged cells and cure the disease

• 4-5 day embryo is used to obtain cells• Blood from umbilical cord and placenta contain

stem cells• Stem cells exist in adult tissues (bone

marrow/liver) but are unable to evolve into any kind of cell

Tissues

• Cells of same type join together for a common purpose

• 60-99% water with various substances dissolved in it

• Tissue fluid: Fluid in the tissues, slightly salty in nature– Dehydration: insufficient

amount of tissue fluid– Edema: Excess amount of

tissue fluid; swelling

Types of Tissues• Epithelial Tissues– Cover service of body and main tissue in skin– Forms lining of intestinal,

respiratory, circulatory, and urinary tracts and other body cavities

– Forms body glands where it specializes to produce specific secretions for the body, such as mucus and digestive juice

• Supporting fabric of organs and other body parts– Soft Connective Tissue

• Fatty tissue: Stores fat as reserve food/energy, insulates the body, acts as padding

• Fibrous connective tissue: ligaments and tendons that help hold body structure together

– Hard Connective Tissue• Cartilage: Tough elastic material found between bones of spine and at

end of long bones where it acts as a shock absorber and allows for flexibility. Found in nose, ears, larynx-provide shape and form

• Blood and Lymph– Classified as liquid connective tissue or vascular tissue– Blood carries nutrients and oxygen to body cells and metabolic wastes away

from cells. – Lymph transports tissue fluid, proteins, fats, and other materials from the

tissues to the circulatory system.

Connective Tissue

More Tissues• Nerve tissues– Made of special cells called neurons– Control and coordinates body activities by transmitting

messages through the body– Nerves, brain, and spinal cord are composed of nerve tissues

• Muscle Tissue– Produces power and movement through contraction of

muscle fibers• Skeletal: attaches to bone and provides movement• Cardiac: causes the heart to beat• Visceral (smooth): in walls of the respiratory, digestive, urinary

tract, and blood vessels

Organs and Organ Systems

• Organ: Two or more tissue join together for a specific function– Heart, Stomach, Lungs

• Organ System: Organs and other parts that join together for a particular function– Integumentary, skeletal, muscular,

circulatory, lymphatic, nervous, respiratory, digestive, urinary or excretory, endocrine, and reproductive

Summary

• Protoplasm is basic substance of life

• Protoplasm forms structural units called cells

• Cells combine to form tissues• Tissues combine to form organs• Organs and other parts combine to

form systems• Systems work together to create

miracle of human body

Body Planes

• Special terms used when body is in anatomical position– Body is facing

forward– Standing erect– Holding arms at

sides with palms of hands facing forward

Body Planes• Imaginary lines drawn through

the body at various parts to separate the body into sections

• Directional lines are create by these planes

• Transverse Plane: – Horizontal plane dividing the

body into top and bottom halves• Superior: body parts above• Inferior: body parts below• Cranial: body parts near head• Caudal: body parts near the sacral

region or “tail”

Body Planes• Midsagital/Median Plane– Divides body into right and left

• Medial: Body parts close to midline or plane

• Lateral: Body parts away from midline or plane

• Frontal/Coronal Plane– Divides body into front and back

sections• Ventral/Anterior: body parts in

front of the plane or body• Dorsal/Posterior: body parts on

the back of the body or plane

Directional Terms

• Used to describe the relationship of one part to the point of reference

• Proximal: Body part close to the point of reference

• Distal: Body parts away from the point of reference

Example: Wrist is disital and elbow is proximal to the shoulder

Abdominal Regions• Quadrants

– Right upper quadrant (RUQ)

– Left upper quadrant (LUQ)– Right lower quadrant (RLQ)– Left lower quadrant (LLQ)’

• Regions– Epigastric– Umbilical– Hypogastric/Pelvic– Hypochondriac– Lumbar– Illiac/Umbilical

Skin• Skin has been called a membrane because it covers

the body• Also called an organ because it contains several kinds

of tissues• Most studies call it a system because it has organs

and other parts that work together for a particular function

• On average, Adult skin covers over 3,000 square inches of surface area and accounts for 15% of body weight

Skin Layers• Epidermis: Outermost layer

– Made up of 5-6 smaller layers

– Contains no blood vessels or nerve cells

• Dermis: “true skin”– Elastic connective tissue– Contains blood vessels,

lymph vessels, nerves, sweat and oil glands, and hair follicles

• Subcutaneus/Hyperdermis: Innermost layer of skin– Elastic fibrous connective

tissue and fatty tissue– Connects skin to muscle

Parts of Skin• Glands– Sweat glands

• Coiled tubes that extend through dermis

• Open on surface of skin at an opening called a pore

• Eliminate sweat or perspiration that contains water, salts and some body wastes

– Sebaceous/Oil Glands• Usually open onto a hair

follicle• Keep hair from becoming

dry/brittle

Other parts of Integumentary System

• Nails– Protect fingers and toes from injury– Made of dead keratinized epidermal epithelial cells which are

packed closely together to form a thick, dense surface– Cells will regrow if lost if nail bed is not damaged

• Hair– Helps protects the body– Covers all body surfaces except the palms of the hands and

soles of the feet• Alopecia or baldness

– Permanent loss of hair on the scalp– Genetic condition

Functions

• Protection– Barrier for ultraviolet rays– Protects against pathogens and germs

• Sensory Perception– Nerves present in skin respond to pain,

pressure, temperature and touch• Regulation of body temperature– Blood vessels retain or loose heat by dilating

or constricting

Functions• Storage– Temporary storage of fat which can later be used as a

source of energy• Absorption– Allows for some substances to be absorbed into the

skin (transdermal)• Excretion – Helps body eliminate salt and moisture through sweat

• Production– Skin helps in the production of vitamin D

Skin Eruptions

• Macules: Flat spots on skin (freckles) • Papules: Firm raised areas (pimples, chicken pox)• Vesicles: Sacs of fluid (blisters)• Pustules: Sacs filled with pus (black head)• Crusts: Areas of dried pus or blood (scabs)• Wheals: Itchy elevated area with irregular shape

(hive, bite)• Ulcer: Deep loss of skin surface that may extend

into the dermis

Skin Diseases and Abnormal Conditions

• Athlete’s foot– Contagious fungal infection usually on the feet

• Symptoms: Skin itches, blisters, and cracks into open sores• Treatment: Antifungal medication, keep area clean and dry

• Dermatitis – Inflammation of the skin caused by a substance that irritates

the skin• Contact dermatitis: contact with substance like poison ivy, oak , sumac• Frequently caused by allergic reactions to pollen, cosmetics, foods• Symptoms: Dry red skin, itching, edema, macular-papular rash, scaling• Treatment: Eliminate cause, anti-inflammatory ointments,

antihistamines, steroids

More Skin Disorders• Eczema:– Noncontiguous inflammatory skin disorder

• Caused by reaction to irritant, soaps, medication, emotional stress• Symptoms: Dryness, erythema, edema, itching, vesicles, crusts, scaling• Treatment: Remove irritant and apply corticosteroids

• Ringworm– Highly contagious fungal infection of skin or scalp

• Symptoms: flat or raised circular area with clear central area surrounded by an itchy scaly or crusty ring

• Treatment: Antifungal medication

• Verrucae/warts– Viral infection of skin that form rough, hard, elevated skin surface

• Removed with electricity, liquid nitrogen, acid, chemicals, or laser