ANATOMY LAB

LECTURE 1 (Introduction, Skeletal System; Pectoral girdle and Upper Limb)

INTRODUCTION (30 mins)The book for this class is Marieb and Mallatt’s Human Anatomy.You also need a study guide (about $3) and a dissection kit.If you want, you can get any anatomy atlas you like.

The purpose of the lab is to give you hands-on experience in anatomy.In about a month we will be dissecting cats that were strays in the animal shelters, not just for us.We will start with the upper limb on Wednesday.

Lab is 3 hours a week. Look at the material ahead of time and be familiar with the terms.You can come back during open lab hours to learn it better.

You will need to study 10-20 hours a week for this class.The lecture is worth twice as much as lab, but study equally for them.You only get one grade for both.

In the first 2/3 of the semester there is not much overlap of lecture and lab; there will only be two lectures on muscles, but 4 weeks of it in lab.

The lab is all practicals.Spelling counts, and so does legibility.Small errors are ok, but remember, your writing must be able to be read on a patient’s chart.There will be 90 seconds per station, and three questions on each station.

In the beginning of each lab I’ll be giving a lecture that’s anywhere from 2 minutes to one hour. You should bring a video camera for the dissection demonstrations and for the slides that I’ll be showing on the TV monitor. You should also bring a digital camera to take pictures of the structures, then take them home, print them out, and label them.

You’ll need your lab study guide for the next lab period; it has the list of terms that you’ll need to know. You should be able to identify all structures not only on the cat, but also on the plastic models, bones, pictures and x-rays on the table, and palpate what you can on your body.

Having made it into this anatomy class, you are IN to your allied health profession as long as you keep your grades up.

Don’t buy plastic bones; you’ll need to see the landmarks on real bones.Don’t buy flashcards; make them yourself by drawing the structure labeled with just A, B, C, etc. On the back, write the name, origin, insertion, function, and anything else you need to know.

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Make sure you are on time for all lab exams.The lecture and lab schedule is on the syllabus.

SAFETY LECTUREIn case of a power outage, this room goes really black. Don’t move. I will walk to the door and open it to let light in.

In case of an earthquake, try to get under your desk, but there’s not much room. Just stay away from the cabinets.

In a medical emergency, if there are no teachers around, go through the teacher door to use the phone, and dial 9 first, then 911.

Preserved specimens have some formaldehyde. It’s not harmful, but it will make your clothes stink. Wear your own gloves.

You will not need your dissection kit until we start the cat dissections. Cost = $12Bring your textbook and your study guide to all the labs.

Be especially careful of the specimens. Human bones are irreplaceable.NEVER touch a pen or pencil to a bone. Use a plastic pointer.

PECTORAL GIRDLE: That portion of the skeletal system that attaches the upper limb to the rest of the body (Show the upper limb skeleton).Consists of 2 bones:1. SCAPULA (shoulder blade).

Show the bone. It fits onto the humerus like this…It freely moves and has tremendous mobility.It is the most mobile of the major joints of the body.

Scapula Injuries:It is the least broken bone of the body. You’d have to get run over by a car to fx.Place it on a volunteer’s back:

Raise arm slowly. See how bone moves freely?Shrug shoulder slowly. See how it moves?

2. CLAVICLE (collar bone)Show the bone. You can palpate it along its entire length.What does “palpate” mean?The clavicle is a point of FIRM attachment to the scapula.Medially, it attaches to the sternum.Laterally, it attaches to the acromium process (we’ll discuss that more later)There is not much movement with this bone.

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Clavicle Injuries:It is one of the more frequently broken bones.When someone falls on their outstretched hand, the force is transmitted up the arm. The

shoulder moves up, but the clavicle doesn’t, so it breaks.It usually breaks right along this curve (show curve).It usually breaks outward, in a compound fracture, which is good, because just

underneath it are a lot of delicate arteries and nerves.

Injuries of the shoulder:When the ligaments tear between the Scapula and the Clavicle, it’s called a SEPARATED SHOULDER, not a dislocated shoulder, which is when the humerus dislocates.

UPPER LIMBTHE ARM: What’s this part of the body called? There is only one bone in the arm.1. HUMERUS. (Show the bone).

The head attaches to the scapula, and it has a LOT of mobility.You can really only palpate it at the medial epicondyle of your elbow.

Arm Injuries:It can break anywhere along its length, but one place is at the surgical neck (show).In the elderly with osteoporosis, this is a common area to break.Many nerves run along the length of the humerus, so ANY fx there can damage nerves.

FOREARM (Stress that it is not called arm, and neither is the upper limb).1. ULNA. (Show bone). It has a STRONG attachment to the humerus.

You can palpate your ulna from elbow to the part of the wrist called the Styloid Process. What does the word “stylus” mean? (pen point).

2. RADIUS (Show bone). This bone is more movable. (Hold outstretched forearm and pronate/supinate). That’s the radius that’s moving. It’s well attached to the wrist, but not as much to the humerus.

Forearm Injuries1. One common break is from falling on your outstretched hand, and it’s called a “fractured

wrist”, but it’s not really the wrist, it’s the radius, so it’s actually the forearm.2. Dislocated Elbow: The radius separates from the humerus.

Caused from being pulled on the hand too hard. Many children get this when their parents pull them one way and they pull another. It’s is NOT considered child abuse, so it should not be reported as such.

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WRIST BONESCARPALS (You only need to know the names of 2 of them)1. SCAPHOID (the largest; near the wrist)2. LUNATE (the one next to it)

Wrist Injuries:In a fall, the Scaphoid can break in half.Would you rather have a broken scaphoid, or a broken ulna AND radius?The ulna and radius have a good blood supply, so they’ll heal in 6 weeks.A broken scaphoid has poor blood supply, so may take surgery and 6 MONTHS to heal.

HAND BONES METACARPALS (Show the bones up against your hand). They are numbered 1-5.Beyond them are the finger bones, called phalanges:

Singular: phalanxPlural: phalanges

How many fingers are there? (4 and 1 thumb)Each finger has 3 PHALANGES: proximal, intermediate, and distal.The thumb has 2 phalanges: proximal and distal.

Hand Injuries:1. The most common injury to the phalanx is a crush injury (door slam).2. Jamming injury from volleyball, etc.

STUDY TIPS: Be able to not only name the bone, but tell what happens to cause it to separate, what’s the separation called, and details like that.

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LECTURE 2 (Upper Limb II)Today, we’re going to be looking at the bones, and you will need to use your study guide, pages 7/8.

SCAPULALook at the scapula; notice there are a lot of structures with names on it.Anatomists have no imagination. It’s frowned on to name a structure after oneself.They name things by what they look like and where it is.

If it sticks out and is sharp and pointy = SPINELook at the skeleton vertebral column. Each vertebra has a spine = vertebral spine.One the scapula, it’s called the SCAPULAR SPINE.Look at the flat part of the scapula. A flat area is a FOSSA.On the scapula, there’s an INFRASPINOUS FOSSA and a SUPRASPINOUS FOSSA.A structure that sticks out is a PROCESS (point out acromium process).An area that looks gouged out is a NOTCH.Some bones have BORDERS

HUMERUS Some bones have a HEAD.Holes in a bone are called FORAMEN.Some bones have many small FORAMINA. Special types of foramina are called NUTRIENT FORAMINA to supply blood and

nerves to the bone. That’s why it hurts so much to break a bone.Rounded articular surfaces are called a CONDYLE.What does ARTICULATE mean? To come together or join.The humerus had two condyles; one for the radius and one for the ulna.EPICONDYLES are structures that stick out.Rough areas that stick out are TUBERCLES or TUBEROSITIES.What’s the purpose of all these rough spots and processes? It’s where muscles attach.

Now that you know what terms mean, you can figure out where things are such as the “medial condyle of the humerus”.

LAB WORKLook at each bone of the upper limb and find each structure in your study guide. Be able to identify each structure on a loose bone, on yourself, on a partner, and on the skeleton.Know whether each bone you see is a left or right (except clavicle).Do not hold a pencil or pen in your hand while you are handling a bone.

There’s a quiz Monday on everything we’ve studied so far in lecture (not lab), as well as what’s in your study guide material p2, 3, 4.Know the singular/plural forms of everything. Know terms and planes.

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LECTURE 3 (Skull)THE SKULL (p. 11 in Study Guide)

The skull is made up of two major sections:1. The CRANIUM provides good enclosure for the brain2. The FACIAL bones

CraniumCALVARIUM: The part that has been sawed offThe bone in front is the FRONTAL boneThe bones on the sides are the PARIETAL bonesThe bone in back is the OCCIPITAL boneThe bones on the sides near the temple is the TEMPORAL bone (means “time” because

the hair at the temple is where time shows itself first)The bones are fused at their articulations, called SUTURES.CORONAL SUTURE: in the coronal planeSAGITTAL SUTURE: in the sagittal plane

(Open the cranium, show lower, then upper surfaces.).Indentations in here are from blood vessels. Bone is a living tissueThe frontal bone is thick, and so is occipital.The temporal bone is very thin (see the shadow of my finger behind it?). If someone is

hit here, it could be fatal.

(Missed the rest of the lecture)QUIZ ONE.

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LECTURE 4 (Histology) 15 minsGo over quiz scores; encourage those who flunked to drop.Finish looking at the skull and be able to identify all the structures in the study guide.

HISTOLOGY = “tissues”We will be looking at epithelial tissues today, and connective tissues next week.Here’s one question you will see on the lab exam: NAME THIS TISSUE.Each of these slides are sections of an entire organ.The slices are about 10 µm thick.They are also stained with various chemicals to highlight certain features.We don’t care what kinds of stains were used; we’re interested in seeing the structures.

Put slides under microscope to display on TV screen:Trachea/esophagusSmall intestineKidneySkin (scalp)

Epithelial cells always have two things in common:1. They form a separating layer2. Their cells are touching

The dark areas are the nuclei of the cells; the pink areas are connective tissue.1. Find the lumen, so you know where the apical cells are.2. How many layers of cells are there?

a. One = simple b. Many = stratified

3. What shape are they?a. Flat = squamousb. Cube = cuboidalc. Rectangle = columnar

4. Look at the apical cells: a. No nucleus = keratinized

Trachea/esophagus: has cilium. This is pseudostratisfied epithelium

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LECTURE 5 (Histology) 15 minsToday we’re going to identify some more connective tissue types, and you can spend the rest of the lab finishing the skull and identifying connective tissues.

SLIDE: Skin of scalpThis is Fibrous connective tissue. Find the cells.What’s the main cell type? FIBROBLASTS.The dark spots are nuclei. Not all of the cells are touching, so it’s not epithelium; must be connective tissue.The pink areas are COLLAGEN fiber bundles.This is DENSE IRREGULAR connective tissue.

Here is another area on the slide that has large cells that stain clear. Inside they are filled with fat.So what type of cells are these? ADIPOSITES.What kind of tissue is this? ADIPSOSE TISSUE.

SLIDE: Trachea/esophagusAll the cells here are going in a line.Not all of the cells are touching, so it’s not epithelium; must be connective tissue.This is DENSE REGULAR connective tissue.The Extracellular matrix is clear and glassy: this is HYALINE CARTILAGE.

SLIDE: Can anyone guess what tissue this is? BLOODThe red cells are erythrocytes. The dark spots are LEUKOCYTES.So what is the clear spaces the cells are sitting in? PLASMA.SLIDE: Ground human boneThis is COMPACT BONE. We’ll talk more about this next week.The dark spots are cells. What kind of cells? OSTEOCYTES.The big openings are central canals.

NOTE: The only kind of cartilage we’ll look at in lab is HYALINE CARTILAGE.The only kind of bone we’ll look at in lab is COMPACT BONE.Make sure you USE BOTH WORDS for each tissue, or you’ll get it wrong.

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LECTURE 6 (Vertebral column)

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN- 15 mins(Show the table model). Don’t call this the spine.The vertebral column is made up of a number of individual vertebrae separated by VERTEBRAL DISCS. (Show hand-held model)There are different types of vertebrae: 7 Cervical, 12 thoracic and 5 Lumbar vertebrae.Each one is numbered from superior-inferior.

CERVICAL VERTEBRAEThere are two special cervical vertebrae with their own names:The superior one is the ATLAS. It holds up the head.The one under it is the AXIS. It has a projection on it called the DENS, which acts as an axel for the rotation of the head. In severe injury where the head is thrown back, the dens can actually puncture the spinal cord and cause death.See how thin these cervical bones are? They are easily broken.Breaking C1, 2, or 3 can be fatal. Breaking C4, 5, 6, can cause paralysis.All cervical vertebrae have foramina called the TRANSVERSE FORAMINA. This is where an artery goes, called the VERTEBRAL ARTERY.

THORACIC VERTEBRAEEach one articulates with a rib.

RIBSThe ribs function as protection for the thoracic and abdominal organs.They attach to the STERNUM via COSTAL CARTILAGES.STERNUMMade up of three parts: the MANUBRIUM, BODY, and XYPHOID PROCESS.

(Show individual rib bone)There are 12 pairs of ribs, and they can move up and down when breathing.It’s easy to tell left from right: hold the proximal end, and it will curve downwards.When you inhale, the rib goes up to increase the volume of the lungs.

The superior 7 ribs are called TRUE RIBS because they have a direct articulation with the sternum via their costal cartilage. The 5 inferior ribs are called FALSE RIBS because they do not articulate with the sternum; their costal cartilages articulate with the next most superior rib. The two most inferior ribs are called FLOATING RIBS because they have no costal cartilage.

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Each rib has 3 points of articulation with vertebrae via a FACET.What is a facet? It’s a small face, like you see on a gem.

Fractured ribs are common because they are easy to break. There’s not much to do for them; they are encased in muscle, so they are held in place. Breaking 1-2 ribs, you may just wear a removable cloth rib brace, but breaking 3 or more on one side sometimes requires more attention. Of course, if you break a rib from a severe force, you can get a punctured lung.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE(Show hand-held model)Notice that the size of each bone is increasing; that’s because they have to support more of the body’s weight. That means they are going to be prone to problems with the discs.

SACRUMThis is actually part of the pelvic girdle.The COCCYX is called a tail bone. It can easily be broken when you fall on it. It’s very painful, but not much can be done for it; you just have to wait for it to heal.

CURVATURES IN THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN(Show stand-up model)Notice there is a normal S-shaped curve in the spine.(Show table model and make lateral curve)What’s it called then the bones are laterally displaced? SCOLIOSIS.Even though school children are all screened for it, there’s not much to do for that, either.Sometimes the spinal column is curved forward. This is what people call a hunchback; it’s proper term is KYPHOSIS. It’s often seen in the elderly who have loss of bone calcium, and the vertebrae become weakened and deformed.

HYOID BONEThis is the only named bone in the body that does not articulate with any other bone. You can feel your hyoid bone on your throat.It is very important. It has more muscles attached to it than any other bone. We’ll talk more about it later in the section on muscles.

Each of you have your own set of disarticulated bones, and there are skeletons around the room to look at.

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LECTURE 7 (Pelvic Girdle) PELVIC GIRDLE (10 mins)It Supports the lower limbs, and consists of three bones:One sacrum, and two INOMINATE bones or OS COCCA.

OS COCCA: The fusion of 3 bones during childhood:1. ILLIUM2. ISHIUM3. PUBIS

The structures here are named after the bone they are on, for example, iliac crest, anterior superior iliac spine, ishial tuberosity, and pubic symphysis.

All three bones come together at the socket of the femur called the ACETABULUM (name means “cup” like the finger bowl used in Roman times to rinse one’s fingers so they won’t get fish brains mixed in with the eye of newt!)

There is a large hole here called the OBTURATOR FORAMEN, where some important structures pass through.Bone marrow biopsies are taken from the illium, at the crest.

HOW TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE PELVIC GIRDLE

MALE FEMALEIllium straight up angled outwardInlet heart shaped ovalSacrum curved, extends to outlet straightPubic bones 90˚ angel much larger than 90˚

You can see how a neonatal skull gets stuck in the male pelvic girdle, but there’s plenty of room in the female.

NEONATAL BONES (5 MINS)These are very fragile, so keep them on the cotton as you look at them. Don’t set them on your desk.

Notice that the neonatal skull has two frontal bones, two parietal bones, two mandibles, and two of everything.

You can see the fontanels; the anterior fontanel is the largest, and is there until 1 year.

Also notice the inferior of the skull is quite flat. There are no styloid processes, no occipital condyles, etc. That’s because the neonate is not holding the head up or moving it yet, so there’s no pulling of the muscles on the bones to create the boney processes.

See how thin the maxilla and mandible are; there are no teeth yet (same with adult who loses teeth: jaw bones thin out). Neonates also have no sinuses until about 1 year old.

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LECTURE 8 (Lower Limb)LOWER LIMB (5 MINS)FEMURThe FEMUR is the largest bone in the body.The head fits tightly into the acetabulum in a ball-and-socket joint, so it almost never dislocates.It can, however, fracture, especially in the elderly. When someone gets a broken hip, it’s actually a broken neck of the femur.It articulates with the TIBIA.Here, you see the PATELLA

LEGConsists of a medial bone called the TIBIA, and a lateral bone called the FIBULA.On the distal ends are the medial and lateral MALLEOLUS, which you can palpate as your ankles. Malleolus means “little mallet or hammer”.A fracture of the lateral malleolus is common = broken ankle.The tibia articulates with one of the tarsal bones, called the TALUS.

FOOTThe only two tarsal bones you need to know are the TALUS and the CALCANEUS, which is the heel bone.There are also METATARSALS (like metacarpals in the hand) and PHALANGES, numbered the same as in the hand.There are two arches in the foot. One is along the length of the foot, and the other is across the ball. These allow for spring and recoil, giving shock absorption.

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LECTURE 9 (X-rays)There are sign-up sheets for the lab exam times. Record which exam you’re taking, and don’t come late! Today we’re going to look at x-rays, and there will be x-rays on the exam.

X-RAYSAP KNEESee patella, femur, tibia, and fibulaLAT KNEESee same bonesAP CHEST Dark area is lungs. See clavicle, and thoracic vertebraeELBOWName this structure (medial epicondyle of humerus)Radial tuberosityMRI MID-SAG BRAINSee the frontal sinus, ethmoid, sphenoid sinusesAP ANKLES OF CHILD Epiphyseal plateTibia, fibula, epiphyseal plate, diaphyseal bone, talus.Need to do L and R to compare.This one has a left ankle sprain (see increased soft tissue)AP ANKLE OF ADULTSee faint white line = epiphyseal lineMedial and lateral malleolus, tibia, fibula, talusLAT CERVICALCervical vertebrae, intervertebral discs, spinous processesLAT ANKLECalcaneus. See trabecula is spongy, but spongy bone is still very strong. The trebecula are aligned with the direction of the forces. Can support whole body weight.AP PELVISSymphysis pubis, acetabulum, femur, lumbar vertebraeLAT ELBOW, CHILDAcromium processLAT SKULL, LABELEDSella turcica, occipital bone, temporal bone, mastoid air cellsAP CHESTCalcification in lung = TB or cancerAP HANDCarpals, metacarpals, phalanges, sesmoid bonesLAT LEG, CHILDEpiphyseal plate, fractured tibia, what kind? (Spiral)AP/OBL HAND (CHILD)Compression fracture. Look at diaphyseal plates: distal metacarpals are open, but proximal ones are closed. This child is about 1-2 years away from finishing growth of hand. If child is short, you can x-ray the hand to see how many years of growth are left. This ring indicates a girl; she’ll be about 11 years old.

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AP HAND, ADULTFractured styloid process of the radiusSee scaphoid and lunate, and sesmoid bones.AP TIBIAFracture (spiral)AP SHOULDER (CHILD)Fractured clavicle. See the head of the humerus is still in two parts, and there’s the epiphyseal plate.AP PELVIS WITH ARTIFICIAL HIPStem is pounded into the medullary cavity.AP CHESTThis is a pacemaker. Here’s the battery, the electronics, and the wires, which are threaded through the subclavian vein, into the heart, and the leads are embedded into the heart tissue. New pace makers come with an auto defibrillator.AP HIPThis is called a broken hip, but what is broken? The neck of the femur. This is fixated with a metal plate and screws. See how little bone there is, it is very light compared to the others we’ve seen. That is osteoporosis, which is why it broke.AP LEGFractured fibulaLAT SHOULDERHumerus, scapula, clavicle (separated from scapula). This is a separated shoulder.AP BACKWhat kind of vertebra is this? Lumbar, because you see the ribs above it.AP/LAT BACKHerniated intervertebral discs. Metal braces were put in to separate the bones.MRI LOWER VERTEBRAL COLUMNBodies of vertebrae, nucleus pulposis of intervertebral disc. These two dark spots are the spinal nerves, and here’s the herniation, pressing on the nerves. Very painful.

AP ELBOWSevere fracture. The epiphyseal bone is peeled away from the humerus, and the epiphyseal plate is shattered. The doctor will pin this, but it won’t grow anymore from that plate. However, the other end of the bone can still grow.AP FEETBunion, sesmoid bonesAP FEET3 sesmoid bones

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AP CHESTKnife in abdomen, tip of blade is in liver. White area is blood.AP PELVIS, CHILDA little boy shoved this thing up his rear end. Illium is separate from ishium/pubic bones, so the child is about 4-5 years old.

LECTURE 10 (Review on your own) LAB EXAM I

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LECTURE 11 (Head and Neck Muscles)Study Guide p. 15 (10 mins)Before we talk about individual muscles, we need to understand movement.If you raise your shoulders, what movement is it?What’s the movement of raising your arm to the side verses the front?Start in Anatomical position. Feet on the floor, palms up.

FLEXION: reduces the angle of the joint from the anatomical position. Flex elbowEXTENSION: movement that returns you to anatomical position. Extend elbow.All these terms refer to either a body part or a joint. Can flex elbow or flex joint.HYPEREXTENSION: extension beyond anatomical position; wrist, neck.Some terms relate only to certain areas, such as the ankle:DORSIFLEXTION: lift up toesPLANTARFLEXION: move toes downINVERSION: when sole of foot points inwardEVERSION: sole of foot points outward.ABDUCTION: move body part away from midline; arm, fingers, thumbADDUCTION: bring back to midline; arms, fingers, thumbROTATION: pivot on an axis; shake head “no”; can rotate head and shoulderCIRCUMDUCTION: to draw a circle with body part; shoulder, headPRONATION (to lie prone is on stomach). Turn hands downward.SUPINATION: refers to arms; want a bowl of soup, supinatePROTRACTION: to move anteriorily; shoulders, mandibleRETRACTION: to move part posteriorlyELEVATION: to raise part superiorly; shouldersDEPRESSION: to lower part; open mouth.

p. 16 Major Surface Landmarks (7 MINS)It’s important to know these so you can communicate and chart the location of injuries. Can’t say the laceration is 3cm from the spleen, because you can’t see the spleen.Page 16 is a partial list; the boney landmarks we already know; lateral malleolus, occipital condyle, acromium process, etc.GLABELLA: space between eyebrowsBRIDGE: between eyesDORSUM OF NOSE: superior surfaceALA OF NOSE: (Ala = wings)NOSTRILSPHILTRUM: ridge between nose and lipAURICLE: (PINNA): outer earHELIX: ridge of outside of earTRAGUS: flap on ear that covers auditory canalEAR LOBETHYROID CARTILAGE (Adam’s apple)JUGULAR NOTCH: ridge between two clavicles above manubriumNIPPLEAREOLA: pigmented area around nipple

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COSTAL MARGIN: edge of ribcageUMBILICUS (NAVAL): belly buttonINGUINAL REGION: the crease between abdomen and thigh; ant sup iliac crest pub symphGLUTEAL CLEFT (NATAL CLEFT): butt crackPERINEUM: between genitals and anus

p. 17 MUSCLES SECTION (10 mins)There are hundreds of muscles, but we are only going to learn about 75. Why these 75 muscles? Three reasons:

1. The most important ones (a physical therapist will need to know all muscles)2. The most superficial and obvious ones, easy to dissect3. The most interesting ones

p. 18 Need to know origin, insertion, and action. Will be on test.Why dissect cats? Seeing a dissected cadaver is a waste of time. You learn during the dissection. It takes a year to properly dissect a human. Cat anatomy is a lot like a human’s.The cats we dissect are stray cats that were picked up by the pound and put to sleep. There are 3 million stray dogs and cats put to sleep a year. A few thousand are bought by companies that inject them with latex and sell them to schools. No cats died just for this class.

For every muscle, need to know it in the human. Use these plastic models, and use photographs of body builders (they use steroids which cause hypertrophy of the muscles). Problems with steroid use:

1. Cause enlargement of the heart, so it doesn’t work as efficiently2. Increases risk of cancer3. Injecting testosterone, so body stops making its own testosterone, genitals shrink

MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION (10 mins)These are cutaneous muscles; their insertion in the skin, so they move the skin; smile, etc.We will only learn six (there are dozens)

1. FRONTALIS: raise eyebrows. Wrinkle forehead. Origin is tendonous sheath over scalp.a. Galea Aponerosis (aponeurosis = thick flap). The scalp is not attached to the

skull. You can take your hands and move it back and forth (try it now). The scalp is highly vascularized; if you cut it, it bleeds profusely. If you cut this muscle, the entire scalp peels away. In a car accident, a person can cut his entire forehead on the dashboard, and the scalp will peel away. During brain surgery, you just need to make a small incision in the hairline, and you can lift the scalp to expose the bone to cut.

2. ORBICULARIS OCULI: circular muscle around the eyes. When it contracts, eye closes; blinks

3. ZYGOMATICUS: muscle for smiling. It runs from the zygomatic arch to the corner of the mouth. Some muscles are not under direct voluntary control. If you fake a smile, the corners of the mouth go back. When you mean it, the corners come up.

4. OBICULARIS ORIS: circular muscle around mouth; purse lips, kissing5. BUCCINATOR: in cheek; sucks in cheek; important in chewing to prevent food from

going into the cheek pockets.

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6. PLATYSMA: this is not on the plastic model because it’s so big, it would cover up too many other things. It goes from the chest up the anterior half of neck, and inserts into the skin along the jaw. Try to clench your teeth and push your neck out, and you can see it. Its function is to make you look scary by having a bigger neck. When you get angry, you clench your teeth and your neck flares out and looks bigger.

MUSCLES OF MASTICATION (15 mins)1. MASSETER: put hands on your cheek and clench teeth to feel it.2. TEMPORALIS: put hands on parietal bone and clench teeth to feel it.

Both of these muscles elevate the jaw. Why do you need two muscle to do one job? They do different things.Masseter operates 2nd Class lever systemTemporalis operates 3rd Class lever system.

What’s the advantage of a 2nd class lever? More force.What’s the advantage of a 3rd class lever? More distance.

When the mouth is open all the way, the initial movement to close it is by the Temporalis muscle. It doesn’t need a lot of force. Once it’s mostly closed, the masseter can take over. They are synergists.

If you decide the medical field is not for you, you can become a lion tamer now, because you know how lion tamers get away with sticking their head in a lion’s mouth… when the mouth is opened wide, it only takes a little force to keep it open.

TMJ: tempomandibular joint (show on skull skeleton)

This is both a hinged joint and a gliding joint. Look at the condyles on the temporal bone. They are shallow. That means they can become dislocated slightly = TMJ Syndrome. This can lead to problems that are hard to find the cause of, like pain in the neck, headaches, etc. Dentists are supposed to check for this at every single visit. They put their hand on the TMJ and have you open and close your mouth to check for dislocation.

Another problem is total dislocation of the jaw, caused from opening the mouth all the way. When would someone open their mouth all they way? In a yawn. Often occurs when drunk, because the muscle control becomes poor. Saturday night they wind up in the emergency room, unable to close their mouth, in a lot of pain, with their buddies laughing at them. The nurse just puts her thumbs on the molars and pushes down really hard, and the jaw should snap back into place.

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MUSCLES OF POSTERIOR NECK (we’ll cover anterior ones next time)1. SPLENIUS CAPITIS: pulls and rotates the head2. SEMISPINALIS CAPITUS: contraction hyperextends the neck

Now go look and find all the muscles we talked about today.

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LECTURE 12 (Skin the cats)Today, we’re going to skin our cats. Snip a corner of the plastic they’re sealed in, and we’ll be putting them back in a larger bag afterwards. Get a dissecting pan and a pad for underneath to protect the table and keep the pan from sliding.

Each group needs two tags. Write in pencil the names of everyone in the group, and write “am” or “pm” for which lab you’re in. One tag goes on the foot of the cat, and one goes on the outside of the bag.

Put them back on the ______ shelf of the cart. You can come in at any time and look at anyone’s cat, but you can’t dissect someone else’s. Put the cat parts in the trash can. Clean the desk afterwards, and nothing goes down the drain. Go get your cats!

Contrary to what they say, there is only one way to skin a cat.If you have a male cat, leave the skin around the genital area alone.Start with the cat prone, and take your scissors and make an incision at the back of the skull. Look at the thickness of the skin; the dermis is strong from the dense, regular connective tissue. Use a probe or your fingers to separate the skin from the muscle layers, and after you’ve opened up a plane, use the scissors to cut.

Cut down the back to the tail, go in a circle around the tail.Cut down to the ankles, and circle around them.Flip the cat over and cut to the mandible.Leave the skin at the genitals of the male cats.

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LECTURE 13 (Muscles of the Anterior Neck)Muscles of the anterior neck, p.18These are a good place to start; although they are small, they are easy to see and id, and their name tells you about them. The majority of these are originating or inserting on the hyoid bone. This is a very important bone. There are more muscles on that bone than any other bone in the body: 18 muscles. Why so many? You need to understand the function of the hyoid bone. It forms the base of the tongue. The tongue muscles originate on the hyoid bone. To allow the flexibility of the tongue, the tongue needs a platform from which it can elevate, depress, retract, protract, flex, extend, and tilt. Most muscles of the anterior neck move the hyoid bone.

1. DIGASTRIC muscle has two bellies. They can work together (synergistic) or separately. They are the primary depressor of the mandible. When you open your mouth, both bellies contract synergistically. When the posterior belly only contracts, the hyoid is elevated, which is needed to swallow. Try to open your mouth and swallow. Can you? No. When your mouth is open, both of the muscles are contracting.

2. MYLOHYOID originates from the mandible, and meets at the midline. When it contracts, it elevates the floor of the mouth.

3. STERNOHYOID originates from the sternum and inserts on the hyoid. It runs from here to here (demonstrate on self). When this muscle contracts, what’s going to move, the sternum? No. The hyoid depresses.

4. THYROHYOID depresses hyoid, and tilts it a little to the side5. STERNOTHYROID depresses or fixates the hyoid.6. STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID: This muscle does not belong. It moves the head.

It originates on the clavicle and inserts on the mastoid process. See the bulge on the side of your neck? When one side contracts, it rotates the head. When both contract, they flex the head.

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LECTURE 14 (Heart)We’re going to stop with the muscles this week so we can cover the heart and blood vessels before the test. Get a sheep heart out of the bucket, and use a small dissection pan today.

This is the PARIETAL PERICARDIUM and the VISCERAL PERICARDIUM.The sheep heart is different from ours on the outside, so look at the outside of the heart on the plastic models.

Cut the heart in two using a CORONAL section. You’ll only see three of the four heart chambers because of the angle of the cut.Take the scalpel blade off and on properly, cut away from yourself, rinse it, put on the cover, and put it back in your kit. Remember, it’s designed to cut human flesh, so be careful!

Note the VENTRICULAR SEPTUM.There are two sides of the heart; right and left.The left side here is thicker because it’s up against the body.On a sheep, the right and left ventricles are the same size because blood flows evenly there.Note the LEFT ATRIUM, LEFT VENTRICLE, and the MITRAL VALVE.Note the RIGHT ATRIUM, RIGHT VENTRICLE, and the TRICUSPID VALVE.Trace the blood through the chambers and vessels.Note the CORDAE TENDONAE, which keep the valves in place. Blood comes out the AORTA, past the SEMILUNAR VALVE.

When you’re done, put the heart in a baggie and put a sticker on it.

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LECTURE 15 (Heart models and slides)

SLIDES ON DISPLAYCardiac sec with intercalated discsArtery, vein, nerveArtery, vein, nerve elastic tissueAorta elastic tissue

Today we’ll look at the model of the human heart and the slides.Model of human heart: some people have hearts this big (and then they die). Hypertrophy of the heart can be caused from hypertension or steroids.

Know the names of vessels, including the AORTA, PULMONARY ARTERY and VEIN, AORTIC TRUNK, SUPERIOR and INFERIOR VENA CAVA. This model is nice because it shows the TRACHEA.

The first artery to come off the aorta is the CORONARY ARTERY, which has two main branches; the RIGHT and LEFT coronary artery, with the POSTERIOR INTERVENTRICULAR ARTERY between them. The left coronary artery branches almost immediately into the ANTERIOR INTERVENTRICULAR ARTERY and the CIRCUMFLEX ARTERY. Note the valves, chambers, chordae tendonae, and the semilunar valves.

There are slides of different types of blood vessels except for lymph vessels (they look like veins). There are slides of all three types of muscle: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle can be seen in the tunica media of muscular arteries. On skeletal muscle, you can see the striations, and the intercalated discs = gap junctions.

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LECTURE 16 (Pectoral Girdle Muscles)

MUSCLES OF THE PECTORAL GIRDLE (p.18)They all have their origins on the clavicle or scapula.Generally, muscles cross a joint and move the part distal to that joint.

For example, if a muscle’s origin is on the scapula and inserts into the humerus, it will move the humerus.

TRAPEZIUS is fairly thin, broad, and has important functions. 1. Elevates the shoulder2. Retracts the shoulder.

RHOMOIDEUS MAJOR and MINOR are like one muscle. 1. They are two of the main retractors of the scapula2. Also are fixators of the scapula

SUPRAPSPINATUSINFRASPINATUSSUBSCAPULARISTERES MAJORThese four muscles are important because their tendons form the rotator cuff. They envelop the proximal end of the humerus, and hold it in place. When you are lifting a heavy weight, they keep the humerus from dislocating. A violent motion can tear the rotator cuff, however, like pitching a baseball (see tear in model). The most common thing to tear in a rotator cuff injury is the tendon of the supraspinatus.TERES MAJOR runs from the scapula to the humerus. You can feel it under your axilla as a lump.

PECTORALIS MAJOR is a flexor and adductor of the arm. It inserts on the INTERTRABICULAR GROOVE on the humerus. When it contracts, it pulls the arm in and up (Put hand over heart, fingers angled up to shoulder, contract).PECTORALIS MINOR is deep to Pectoralis Major. It is a protractor of the scapula. Its origin is on the ribs and inserts into the scapula.SERRATUS ANTERIOR is over the ribs. When you look in the mirror and see stripes there, those are not ribs; that is this muscle. It is another protractor of the scapula. When you are pushing something (against the wall), it gives you extra force.

The pectoralis minor and serratus anterior can also assist in breathing. When the scapula is fixed, it elevates the ribcage. Try this: Relax your shoulders and take a deep breath. Now put your hands on your hips, fix your shoulders and take a deep breath. Notice that breath was deeper; it expanded the ribcage more because you’re using the pectoralis minor and serratus anterior since your shoulders are fixated.

DELTOID is the 1° abductor of the arm. It’s the muscle that gets injected when you get a shot in the arm, because there are no major nerves or blood vessels to hit by accident.

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LECTURE 17 (Arm and Hand Muscles)MUSCLES OF THE ARM AND HAND (P.20)

ARM (Roll up your sleeves!)TRICEPS BRACHII is the main extensor of the arm.BICEPS BRACHII is one of the main flexors of the arm. It inserts on the RADIAL TUBEROSITY. When you pronate, the radial tuberosity moves around, so the biceps brachii is no longer an efficient flexor. Put your hand on your biceps and flex: feel the muscle contract? Now pronate your arm (elbow up and out to the side, palm down) and flex. That is the BRACHIORADIALIS, which is the main flexor of the arm. Flex against resistance and it will bulge out. That’s an important landmark.

FOREARM (the muscles that move the wrist and hand)There are flexors on the hairy side of your forearm, and extensors on the smooth side.Flexors are bordered by the ulna medially, and the Brachial Radialis laterally.PRONATOR TERES is not a flexor or an extender; it pronates the forearm. Shake hands with someone and have them try to pronate with you resisting; feel your pronator teres bulge.

Wrap your arm up with Saran Wrap and you can mark where the muscles are. The next exam, you can bring a whole set of muscles with you!

FLEXORSFind the Brachioradialis, and then move medially; there’s the FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS, the flexor of the wrist on the radial side.Move more medially and there’s a small muscle, the PALMARIS LONGUS, you can only see its tendon. Clench fist and flex, and the tendon should pop out. Those who don’t have one are more evolutionarily advanced. The muscle is useless, but the tendon can be used as a graft elsewhere. It’s the smallest muscle of the forearm in the human, but the largest one in the cat…why? Cats need to walk with it, and we only need to wave.

Deep to it is the FLEXOR DIGITORUM SUPERFICIALIS, which you can feel when you wiggle your fingers. There are two muscles that flex the fingers; the other one is Flexor Digitorum Profundus, which you can’t see; you just need to know there are two muscles that flex the fingers.

On the hairy side of your arm, next to the ulna, is the FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS; which flexes the hand. Then there is EXTENSOR CARPI ULNARIS, EXTENSOR DIGITORUM, and EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS (LONGUS AND BREVIS)

PALM (There are three groups of muscles, don’t need to know origins/insertions)THENAR MUSCLES are the flexors and adductors of the thumb. The extensors are in the forearm.HYPOTHENAR MUSCLES are the flexors and opposers of the fingers.PALMAR MUSCLES: there are 3 muscles for every digit, to abduct, adduct, and flex.

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In the middle of the palm is the PALMAR APONEUROSIS. It functions to protect the palm; that’s why you can hit it, and even though there are nerves there, it doesn’t hurt.

There is a band of connective tissue around the wrist called the FLEXOR RETINACULUM. It continues on the top of the wrist as the EXTENSOR RETINACULUM. The flexor retinaculum forms the CARPEL TUNNEL.

Inside the carpel tunnel (draw cross section of the wrist) is the flexor digitorum superficialis, profundus, median nerve, and two arteries, etc, all squeezed into a small area. With repetitive motion such as typing, the tendons become inflamed = tendonitis, and it puts pressure on the nerve and blood vessels, causing pain. What’s that called? CARPEL TUNNEL SYNDROME. One treatment is to slice the flexor retinaculum to relieve the pressure.

By the way, slashing your wrist is not a good way to commit suicide. All you do is slice the tendons and the nerves, and wind up with a paralyzed wrist.

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LECTURE 18 (Trunk and Pelvic Girdle Muscles)MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND PELVIC GIRDLE (p. 21)

INTERCOSTALS (“Between the ribs”). These are what you eat when you go to Tony Romas. There are two sets: EXTERNAL and INTERNAL. You won’t see the internal.External elevates the ribs when breathing. Internal depresses the ribs. They are not very strong; they move just a little. They help a fractured rib to stay in place.

ABDOMINAL MUSCLESRECTUS ABDOMINUS is one of the strongest flexors. It is separated into 4 muscles by small tendonous insertions. If there was just one big muscle, it would bulge and get in the way, so being four smaller muscles gives better range of motion.

Three muscles on the sides insert on the linea alba (“White line”) and inguinal ligament.EXTERNAL OBLIQUE is the outermost muscle. Its fibers run in the same direction as though you were putting your hands in your pockets. INTERNAL OBLIQUE is deeper; the fibers run upwardsTRANSVERSE ABDOMINUS is the deepest; it runs transversely.

When you have appendicitis, the surgeon has to cut through these muscles, then has to sew them each up, whereas in open heart surgery, you just break the sternum and ribs to get right in. Ribs can heal faster than soft tissues sometimes.

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNKERECTOR SPINAE (a group of muscles) holds you erect, supporting the back. They are active all day, and can cause back pain. There are a lot of muscles here, all synergists with each other.

PELVIC GIRDLEAll of the muscles here originate on the pelvis and move the thigh.SARTORIUS (“Tailor” If you’re dressed nicely, you are in sartorial splendor) originates on the anterior superior iliac spine, and inserts on the medial side of the tibia. It is on of only a few muscles that cross 2 joints and moves 2 joints. To get these two joints closer together, what movement is that? It flexes the thigh and rotates it. It was named after tailors because they used to sit cross-legged to sew.

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GLUTEUS MAXIMUS is one of the most important extensors of the thigh. If I life my leg in the air, I’m flexing the hip. So what motion is extension? Returning it to anatomical position. But this is a huge muscle, and returning it to the floor doesn’t require much strength. But when you walk, your full body weight is on it while your foot is on the ground.

GLUTEUS MEDIUS is a powerful abductor. It needs to be strong also, because when you walk, you tilt a little from side to side, and the medius needs to straighten you back up. When you get a shot in the rear, it goes into this muscle. You can’t give a shot in the gluteus maximus, because there is a nerve under there, the sciatic nerve, that is the largest nerve; stay away from that! A study showed that 50% of injections, which are supposed to be in the gluteus medius, are actually getting in the fat, so they are going to start using longer needles!

ADDUCTOR MAGNUS is one of the many adductors, also used to stabilize the body.

There is another small adductor that has many injuries called the GRACILIS (“graceful” or thin). This is the muscle involved when you tear a groin muscle. It gets torn in athletes when they are falling to one side with the weight on one foot, and the adductors have to pull the entire body weight back to straighten out. The gracilis is the smallest, so it will tear.

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LECTURE 19 (Muscles of the Thigh and Leg)MUSCLES OF THE THIGH (p. 23)

QUADRICEPS FEMORUS: A group of four muscles of the anterior thigh.1. RECTUS FEMORUS2. VASTUS MEDIALIS3. VASTUS LATERALIS4. VASTUS INTERMEDIUS

All four have insertions onto the same place by way of the PATELLAR LIGAMENT into the tibial tuberosity. This is the larges group of muscles in the body. They are huge and powerful…why? Their function is to extend the knee (from bent to straight). Why need power to do that? Because they have to lift the entire body weight when the knee is bent and straightens while walking.

Posterior ThighHAMSTRINGS (what you are eating when you eat a ham sandwich)

1. BICEPS FEMORIS (don’t write biceps, pects, lats, or glutes; write whole name)2. SEMITENDONOSIS (more superficial)3. SEMIMEMBRANOSIS (deep)

These are the flexors of the knee. They also wrap around the knee to stabilize. In the cat, just know the quadriceps and hamstrings. In the human, know the individual names.

TENSOR FASCIA LATAE is a small muscle that inserts into the ILIO-TIBIAL BAND on the lateral aspect of the thigh. It is a synergist for the quadriceps femoris.

MUSCLES OF THE LEGThere are almost as many as there are in the forearm, but you only need to know three.Anteriorly there is TIBIALIS ANTERIOR (shin splints)Posteriorily there are GASTROCNEMIUS and SOLEUS. Both share a single tendon called the TENDO-CALCANEUS (ACHILLES TENDON: the mother of Achilles wanted her son to be immortal, so she picked him up by his heels and dipped him in the River of Immortality. The only spot that didn’t get wet was here, so he was vulnerable there, and was shot with an arrow there and killed.)The Gastrocnemius and Soleus are powerful, too, because they have to lift the entire body weight.

KNEE LIGAMENTSPATELLAR LIGAMENT is the tendon of the quadriceps femoris.

Ligaments that stabilize the kneeFIBIAL COLLATERAL (lateral)TIBIAL COLLATERAL (medial)These prevent lateral movement of the knee. If a football player has his weight on one leg and gets hit from the side, the lateral collateral ligament tears.

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Ligaments that prevent anterior-posterior motion and rotationANTERIOR and POSTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT

Cartilage of the kneeMEDIAL and LATERAL MENISCUS are cartilages for cushioning. These are what tears during a rotational injury = torn cartilage in the knee. Knees don’t heal very well; better to break a bone

LECTURE 20 (Review)

LAB EXAM II

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LECTURE 21 (Spinal cord and Brain)SLIDES:Spinal Cord cross sectionNerve cross section

BRAIN MODEL

Get the small dissection pans out.We will do an easy sheep brain dissection today.

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LECTURE 22 (Brain; Circle of Willis)

YOU NEED YOUR TEXTBOOK, P.534 AND P.545

CIRCULATION OF THE BRAIN (p. 534)Going into the head are 4 vessels:2 Common carotid arteries2 Vertebral arteries

COMMON CAROTID INTERNAL and EXTERNAL CAROTID arteries ↓ ↓

Brain To all of the head except the brain

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VERTEBRAL arteries go through the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae, through the foramen magnum, then fuse to form a single artery = BASILAR ARTERY. This artery runs along the brainstem (blue area on model). It has branches to the brainstem and cerebellum. Then it splits into 2 POSTERIOR CEREBRAL arteries that supply the posterior cerebrum in the occipital lobe.

It has a branch = POSTERIOR COMMUNICATING arteries, which anastamoses with the MIDDLE CEREBRAL artery, supplying the middle cerebrum (parietal, temporal, and parts of the frontal lobe).

The internal carotid goes up through the carotid canal (the purple area on the model).

The ANTERIOR CEREBRAL artery supplies the frontal lobes. Connecting them in an anastomosis is the ANTERIOR COMMUNICATING artery.

There is a network of blood vessels at the base of the brain which forms a series of anastamoses called the CIRCLE OF WILLIS (around the pituitary). Why is this so important?What would happen if there’s a block in the vertebral artery? Nothing. There are three other arteries to supply the brain.What would happen if there’s a block in the internal carotid artery? Nothing.

The arteries are elastic arteries, so they are subject to atherosclerosis.But you can have 90% blockage before you get any symptoms.

The Circle of Willis is made of small blood vessels, and a lot of blood goes through them. They are under high pressure, so there is increased risk of aneurism (rupture = stroke).

One of the symptoms of an aneurysm is problems with vision because the COW is near the optic chiasm.

If there was a thrombus in the internal carotid embolism, where would it go? To the MIDDLE CEREBRAL ARTERY (“The artery of stroke”).What are the symptoms of a stroke? Hemiparalysis.The precentral gyrus controls muscles. The post central gyrus controls touch. Loss in these areas causes anesthesia and paralysis.

VENOUS RETURN (P. 545)Veins drain the head: JUGULAR BRACHIOCEPHALIC SUPERIOR and INFERIOR VENA CAVA.

Blood from the brain goes into one of the dural sinuses, then into the INTERNAL JUGULAR VEIN, and out the jugular foramen.

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Where does blood from the nose go? Look at your book. FACIAL VEIN.Facial vein down to cheek jugular vein.

What if you are lying supine, where does blood from nose go?OPHTHALMIC VEIN orbital fissure dural sinuses.

THE DANGER TRIANGLEBase: maxillaApex: glabella

This area has the potential of draining blood to the dural sinuses.If there is an infection in the nose it might spread into the dural sinuses meningitis, encephalitis, death.

This can also happen with infection in the upper teeth, nasal sinuses, or skin there.You will need more aggressive treatment there than anywhere else.

Never pierce your nose!

Dental hygienists need special schooling because damaging the upper teeth can kill you!

DEMONSTRATION OF CIRCLE OF WILLIS ON SHEEP BRAIN

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LECTURE 23 (Thoracic Cavity Dissection)

Get your cats out, and we’ll dissect the thoracic cavity.

LECTURE 24 (Thoracic Cavity Slides)Today you are going to look at slides and learn how to use the microscope.From this point on, we are just going to be looking at organs.Test questions will be to name this organ, structure, or layer.For instance, you need to know the lungs, trachea and esophagus, alveoli, bronchiole, and bronchi. You may see a slide of the trachea, and need to know what layer the pointer is on: adventitia, sub-mucosal, etc.

Use your lecture notes to help you.Your book has illustrations.

THE MICROSCOPEUse two hands to lift it, one on the arm and one on the base.

Parts of the microscope: EYE PIECE, OBJECTIVE LENSES, STAGE, CONDENSER with DIAPHRAGM (allows light in).

Plug it in, here’s the off-on switch at the base.Make sure the stage is down, open the clip and put the slide all the way back.Use the knobs to move the stage.Always start at low power.Move the big knob to focus.Control the light intensity wheel so that it’s half-way to maximum, set the diaphragm to most of the way closed.

Look at the slide at low, then look at medium, then high (no need for oil immersion = micro).Always use ONLY the small knob to focus if you are not on the lowest power.

When you’re done, put it back on low power, put the stage down, and get another slide.Only look at one slide at a time.Work with someone else to compare bronchus and bronchiole, etc.When you’re all done, wrap the cord up, and put them back in the cubby you got it from.

Look at the models, too, and know all the structures.

We have two slides today:Trachea and EsophagusLung and bronchiole

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LECTURE 25 (Abdominal Cavity Dissection)Go ahead and get your cats out.Today we’ll dissect the abdominal cavity.

LECTURE 26 (Abdominal Cavity Slides)Today we will look at slides and models of the abdominal cavity.

SLIDESSmall Intestine

Pig LiverHuman Liver

Kidney

LECTURE 27 (Male Reproductive System)Today we’ll look at slides of human testes, the plastic models, and one of you that has a male cat, get it out, and we’ll do a dissection.

LECTURE 28 (Female Reproductive System)Today we’ll look at a slide of the ovary and the plastic models, and do a quick dissection of a female cat. We will also cover the developmental process.

(See dissection manual for details)

LECTURE 29 (Review)

LAB EXAM III

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