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![Page 1: Anatomical and physiological characteristics of the hematopoietic system in children. Immune system in infants and toddlers. Luchyshyn N.Yu., MD, PhD.](https://reader033.fdocuments.net/reader033/viewer/2022051019/5697bfdd1a28abf838cb15c3/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Anatomical and physiological characteristics of the
hematopoietic system in children.
Immune system in infants and toddlers.
Luchyshyn N.Yu., MD, PhD
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Definition
The hematopoietic system consists of organs and tissues involved in the production of the cellular components of blood (bone marrow, liver, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils and thymus).
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Hematologic functions of Bone marrow
Bone marrow contains two types of stem cells:
hemopoietic (which can produce blood cells)
stromal (which can produce fat, cartilage and bone).
There are two types of bone marrow: red marrow (also known as myeloid tissue) yellow marrow.
The production of all types of blood cells
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Hematologic functions of Liver
• synthesis plasma proteins including clotting factors and albumin
• clears damaged and non-functioning RBCs/erythrocytes from circulation
• Main hemopoetic organ in intrauterine period
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Hematologic functions of Spleen
• Produces fetal RBCs• Removes old RBC’s
from circulation• Immune function
(Lymphocytes, monocytes)
• Storage function
(30% platelets stored in spleen)
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Hematologic functions of lymph nodes, tonsils and thymus
• Play a role in the formation of new limphocytes
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• Blood is a highly specialized, fluid tissue.• Blood is internal environment of organism• Blood is traditionally classified as a specialized
form of connective tissue.
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Functions of Blood
Blood performs a number of functions dealing with:
Substance distribution
Regulation of blood levels of particular substances (Homeostatic)
Body protection
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Blood Functions: Substance distribution
• Blood transports:– Oxygen from the lungs– Metabolic wastes from
cells to the lungs and kidneys for elimination
– Nutrients from the digestive tract
– Hormones from endocrine glands to target organs
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Blood Functions: Regulation
• Blood maintains:– Appropriate body temperature by absorbing
and distributing heat to other parts of the body– Normal pH in body tissues using buffer
systems– Adequate fluid volume in the circulatory
system
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Blood Functions: Protection
• Blood prevents infection by: – Synthesizing and utilizing antibodies– Activating complement proteins– Activating WBCs to defend the body against
foreign invaders
• Blood prevents blood loss by:– Activating plasma proteins and platelets – Initiating clot formation when a vessel is
broken
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Blood Cells
Blood components
Erythrocytes (RBCs),
Leukocytes (WBCs),
Thrombocytes
(Platelets)
Protein,Carbohydrates,Fats,Amino Acids,Nonprotein
nitrogenous substances,
Hormones,Vitamins
Plasma
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PLASMA PROTEINS• ALBUMIN: 54%. Regulates osmotic
pressure in the vascular space,
acts as a buffer, carries stuff.
• GLOBULINS: 38%. ALPHA- Transports
hormones & bilirubin. BETA- Transports Iron &
Copper. Gamma- The antibodies.
• FIBRINOGEN: 7%. Clotting Factor I. Converts to Fibrin (clotting factor Ia).1-2%: Hormones, Enzymes, Complement, Carriers for Lipids.
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Sites of human haematopoesis
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Features of Physical Characteristics of Child’s Blood
• Absolute volume of blood:– 10 times lesser than in adults(0,5 liters & 5,0 liters
respectively)• Blood accounts for approximately 15% of baby body weight,
11% - infant, 7 % - adult
• Viscosity (thickness) is more than in adults
• Hematocrit in newborn is higher (55%) than in adults (40-45%). In infants it is 35% and the 15-year-olds reaching adults indicators.
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Scheme of hematopoesis
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Erythrocyte (RBC)
• Biconcave disc• Anucleate, • no centrioles, • no organelles• Filled with hemoglobin (Hb) – 97% of cell contents• Lifespan of 120 days• Old RBCs removed from blood by
phagocytic cells in liver, spleen, & bone marrow• Most numerous of the formed elements
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Production of Erythrocytes: Erythropoiesis
Erythropoiesis (blood cell formation) occurs in the red bone marrow (myeloid tissue)
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Normal range of RBCs
Children – 4,5-5,5*1012/l
• Embryo – 5-6*1012/l
• Newborn – 5-7*1012/l
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Control of ErythropoiesisHormonal controls
Erythropoietin (EPO)– Direct stimulus for
erythropoiesis – Released by the
kidneys in response to hypoxia
Dietary Requirements
Adequate supplies of – Proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates– Iron, vitamin B12, and
folic acid
Too few RBCs
Too many RBCs
leads to tissue hypoxia
increases blood viscosity
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RBCs Abnormal morphology
Sickle Cells Acanthocytes
Shape changes Poikilocytosis
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RBCs Abnormal morphology
Tear Drop Cells Spherocytes
Poikilocytosis
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RBCs Abnormal morphology
macrocytes microcytes
AnisocytosisSize changes
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RBCs Abnormal morphology
schistocytosis megalocytes
Anisocytosis
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RBCs Abnormal morphology
hypochromia hyperchromia
AnisochromiaColor changes
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RBCs Abnormal morphology
Anisochromia
Polychromasia
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Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen .
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Normal range of Hemoglobin
• Newborn – 180-220 g/l
• Children – 120-140 g/l
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RBC Antigens & Blood Typing
Antigens present on RBC surface specify blood type
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/blood/types.cfm
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Blood Groups and Compatibilities
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Leukocyte(WBC)
• Has nucleus, mitochondria, & amoeboid ability
Agranular leukocytes are phagocytic &
produce antibodies
Granular leukocytes help detoxify foreign
substances & release heparin
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Formation of Leukocytes
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Normal range of Leukocytes
• Newborn – 10-30*109/l
• infant – 8-10*109/l
• Children – 4-9*109/l
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Granular leukocytes
They make up about 50 to 70% of all white blood cells, play an important role in the immune system.
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Agranular leukocytes
take charge of the overall cellular immune responses by releasing B, T and Th cells and regulating their functions
lymphocyte monocyte
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Leukogram distribution of different white blood cell types
(after 5 year)
metamyelocytes < 1 % band neutrophils 1-2 % segmented neutrophils 55-65 %
basophils 0-1 %
eosinophils 2-4 %
monocytes 4-8 %
lymphocytes 23-35 %
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Alteration of the ratio of different WBC:
Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Basophil
Lymphocyte
Monocytes
Neutrophilia
Eosinophilia
Basophilia
Lympocytosis
Monocytosis
Neutropenia
Eosinopenia
Basopenia
Lymphopenia
Monocytopenia
decrease increase
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«Decussations» of the Leukogram
• On a 4-5th day life “first decussation” is observed, when an amount of neutrophilic granulocytes and lymphocytes is equal and averages 40-45 %.
• «Second decussation» comes in 4-5-years-old age, when the amount of neutrophilic granulocytes and lymphocytes is aligned and averages 40-45%.
lymphocytes
neutrophils%
5th year5th day
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Trombocyte(Platelet)
• Small fragments of megakaryocytes
• Lifespan – 8-9 days
• Main function – participation in the process of blood coagulation
• Formation is regulated by thrombopoietin
• Blue-staining outer region, purple granules
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Formation of Platelets
Platelets come from larger progenitor cells called megakaryocytes, and platelet production represents the final stage of megakaryocyte development
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Normal range of Trombocytes
• Newborn – 150-400*109/l
• infant – 150-400*109/l
• Children – 150-400*109/l
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Blood ClottingBlood clotting, or coagulation, is an important process
that prevents excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured.
Normal haemostatic system
vessel wallcirculating blood plateletsblood coagulation and fibrynolysis
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Blood Clot
Fibrin thread
Platelet
RBC
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Collecting complaints
Methods of clinical examination
• Bleeding• Infections• Enlarged lymph nodes= lymphoadenopathy • Pallor of skin and mucous membranes• Jaundice• Ostealgia = bone pain
typical
common
• Body temperature rises• Headache, dizziness• Fatigue, weakness• Night sweats• Poor appetite• Dyspnea after physical load
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Methods of clinical examination
• When the patient got sick, • What the disease began with
first symptoms• Possible reasons of its
occurrence (in patient’s opinion).
• How the disease developed up to the moment of patient’s examination.
• Where the patient addressed for help
• Where he was examined and treated,
Anamnesis morbi
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Methods of clinical examination
• Hereditary diseases• Obstetrical anamnesis• Parent’s health• Mother’s harmful habits• Pregnancy duration
Anamnesis of life
• Childbirth pathology• Life conditions• Irrational feeding • Presence of other
diseases (malnutrition, rickets, dysbacteriosis)
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Methods of clinical examination
• Skin
• Eyes
• Mouth
• Lymph Nodes
Physical Examination
•Heart and Chest
•Abdomen
•Nervous System
•Musculoskeletal System
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Physical exam of the skin- Inspection
1. Jaundice (hemolisis)
2. Florid (reddish) – polycythemia
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3. Pallor – anemia
4. Petechiae – tiny red dots in the skin
Physical exam of the skin- Inspection
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5. Purpura – large purplish blotches related to multiple hemorrhages into the skin.
6. Bruising
Physical exam of the skin- Inspection
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6. Albinism (white).
7. Cianosis
Physical exam of the skin- Inspection
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hematological
Physical exam of the skin- Palpation
• difference between hemorrhages and infection rash
hemorrhages
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Physical exam of the Eyes - Inspection
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Physical exam of the Mouth - Inspection
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Physical exam of the Lymph Nodes - Inspection
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Physical exam of the Lymph Nodes - Palpation
• Mobility • Conglomeration• Elastic or dense• Painfulness• Skin temperature in the
node’s place• Surface of the node’s place
hematological
• Mobile• Many groups• First elastic, later - dense• Painless• firm
(leukemia, lymphomas)
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Physical exam of the Liver – Palpation, percussion
• Size • Surface of
the edge
hematologicalHepatomegaly(leukemia, hemorrhagic disorders)
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Physical exam of the Spleen – Palpation, percussion
• Size
hematological Splenomegaly(leukemia, hemorrhagic disorders)
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Hepatosplenomegaly
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Physical exam of the bones- Percussion
• Bone pain and tenderness
hematological Osalgia (leukemia)
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Physical exam of the joints - Inspection
Hemarthrosis (Hemophilia, Von Willebrand Disease)
hematological
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Physical Exam of the CVS - Palpation, percussion, auscultation
• Dyspnea, • Tachycardia• Low blood
pressure
• Chest pain• Heart failure
(anemia)
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Physical Exam of the GIT - Inspection Palpation, percussion
• Bleeding of the gums• Liver failure• Abdominal pain (hemorragic
disorders, leukemia)
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• Hematuria• Menorrhagia (heavy
menstrual bleeding)• Frank vaginal
bleeding (dysfunctional uterine bleeding)
Physical Exam of the Genitourinary system- Inspection, palpation
(Hemophilia)
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Additional methods of examination
1. RBC count, 2. Hb level, 3. colour index (CI, mean
corpuscular Hb concentration),
4. erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR),
5. WBC count, 6. Platelet count.7. Hematocrit.
Common blood count
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Additional methods of examination
1.Prothrombin index (N: 70-100 %), 2.Thrombin time (N: 14-16 sec) 3.Concentration of fibrinogen in plasma (N: 2-4 g/l)5.Bleeding time (N: not more 360 sec) 6.Clotting time (Lee-White, Burker) (N: 6-10 min).7.Tourniquet test (capillary fragility) .8.Determination of specific coagulation factors deficiency (N: 0,6-1,5 each of them)
Coagulation tests
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Additional methods of examination
1. Concentration serum iron (N: 7,7-33 mkmol/l) iron-binding capacity (TIBC). (N: 40-70 mkmol/l)
1. Serum bilirubin levels). (N: 8,5-20,5 mkmol/l)
Blood Type and cross match.
Biochemical blood test
Immunological blood test
1. Coombs test.
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Additional methods of examination
Ultrasound investigation of spleen, liver, lymph nodes.
Biopsy of bone marrow.
Radiography.
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Immune system
is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against attacks by “foreign” invaders.
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Organs of immune system
Central• Thymus• Bone marrow• Bursa Fabricii
Peripheral• lymph nodes• Peyer's Patches
(of GI tract)• Tonsils• Adenoids• Spleen• MALT (Mucosal-
Associated Lymphoid Tissue)
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Central organs of immune system - Thymus
• The thymus enlarges from about the 12th week of gestation until puberty, when it begins to shrink.
• Its function is to transform lymphocytes (white blood cells developed in the bone marrow)
into T-cells.
Central organs of immune system – bursa Fabricius
•Intrauterine lymphopoiesis
Central organs of immune system – Bone marrow
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Peripheral organs of immune system – lymph nodes
Functions:
• Hemopoetic (lymphocytes formation)
• Immunopoetic (plasmocytes formation & antibodies synthesis)
• barrier-filtration (delay of foreign structures)
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Peripheral organs of immune system – Spleen
Functions:
• Immunologic (creation T- & B-lymphocytes)
• maintaining of body's resistance (antibodies production)
• maintain homeostasis
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Peripheral organs of immune system –
Waldeyer's ring• lingual, • two (palatine) tonsils • adenoids (nasopharyngeal tonsil), • lymphoid tissue on the posterior
pharyngeal wall
Payer’s patches•lymphoid follicles located in the wall of the small intestine
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Types of immunity
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Immunity: contrasts between innate and acquired
• System in place prior to exposure to antigen
• Lacks discrimination among antigens
• Can be increased after exposure to antigen through effects of cytokines
Innate (non-specific, natural, native)
Acquired (specific, adaptive)
• Induced by antigen
• increased by antigen
• Shows fine discrimination
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The elements of the Innate immunity
• Skin = physical barrier• Mucus • Cilia• Lysosyme (in tears)• Acid (in stomach and urine)
• Phagocytes = scavenge up and engulf cell debris.• Granulocytes• Commensal bacteria (normal microflora)• Fever
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Passive immunity
is protection by products produced by an animal or human, and transferred to another human
Active immunity
is protection that is produced by the person’s own immune system.
Specificimmunity
Types of Acquired (specific) immunity
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The elements of the specific immunity
• T-lymphocytes are Cellular Immunity
• B-lymphocytes are the generators of Humoral Immunity
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Features of Immune system in children• The deficient immunity of
newborns or "neonates" is a natural state at birth and is medically known as physiologic immunodeficiency in the neonate.
• The immune system actually requires several years before reaching a fully mature state in children.
• The maturation process of the immune system occurs in stages starting in the fetus prior to birth and reaching completion between 10 to 14 years of age.
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