Harmayetty Moenaf

*Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules1234Cellular level Cells are made up of moleculesTissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells5Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closelyOrgan level Organs are made up of different types of tissues6Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systemsAtomsMoleculesSmooth muscle cellSmooth muscle tissueConnective tissueSmooth muscle tissueEpithelial tissueBlood vessel (organ)HeartBlood vesselsCardiovascular systemFigure 1.1

Anatomy selBentuk sel tidak samaSel terbagi atas 3 :NucleusCytoplasmMembrane plasma

The NucleusCopyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsControl center of the cellContains genetic material (DNA)Three regionsNuclear membraneNucleolusChromatinFigure 3.1b

Plasma MembraneCopyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsBarrier for cell contentsDouble phospholipid layer (fat water)Hydrophilic headsHydrophobic tailsOther materials in plasma membraneProteinCholesterolGlycoproteins

Plasma MembraneCopyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsFigure 3.2

Plasma Membrane SpecializationsMicrovilliFinger-like projections that increase surface area for absorptionSmall intestine and nephrons of kidney

Cytoplasm Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membraneCytosoOrganellesInclusions

Cytoplasmic OrganellesCopyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsFigure 3.4

Cytoplasmic OrganellesRibosomesMade of protein and RNASites of protein synthesisFound at two locationsFree in the cytoplasmAttached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

Cytoplasmic OrganellesEndoplasmic reticulum (ER)Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substancesTwo types of ERRough Endoplasmic ReticulumStudded with ribosomesSite where building materials of cellular membrane are formedSmooth Endoplasmic ReticulumFunctions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs

Cytoplasmic OrganellesGolgi apparatusModifies and packages proteins

Cytoplasmic Organelles

Cytoplasmic OrganellesCopyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsLysosomesContain enzymes that digest nonusable materials within the cellPeroxisomesMembranous sacs of oxidase enzymesDetoxify harmful substancesBreak down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)Replicate by pinching in half

Cytoplasmic OrganellesMitochondriaPowerhouses of the cellChange shape continuouslyCarry out reactions where oxygen is used to break down foodProvides ATP for cellular energy

Cytoplasmic OrganellesCytoskeletonNetwork of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasmProvides the cell with an internal framework

Cell Life CycleSlide 3.31Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsCells have two major periodsInterphaseCell growsCell carries on metabolic processesCell divisionCell replicates itselfFunction is to produce more cells for growth and repair processes

DNA ReplicationSlide 3.32Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsGenetic material duplicated and readies a cell for division into two cellsOccurs toward the end of interphaseDNA uncoils and each side serves as a templateFigure 3.13

Events of Cell DivisionSlide 3.33Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsMitosisDivision of the nucleusResults in the formation of two daughter nucleiCytokinesisDivision of the cytoplasmBegins when mitosis is near completionResults in the formation of two daughter cells

Stages of MitosisSlide 3.36aCopyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsFigure 3.14; 1

Stages of MitosisFigure 3.14; 2

PROSES PEMBELAHAN SEL

*Integumentary systemForms the external body coveringComposed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nailsProtects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D

*Skeletal systemComposed of bone, cartilage, and ligamentsProtects and supports body organsProvides the framework for musclesSite of blood cell formationStores minerals

*Muscular systemComposed of muscles and tendonsAllows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expressionMaintains postureProduces heat

*Nervous systemComposed of the brain, spinal column, and nervesIs the fast-acting control system of the bodyResponds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands

*Cardiovascular systemComposed of the heart and blood vesselsThe heart pumps bloodThe blood vessels transport blood throughout the body

*Lymphatic systemComposed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vesselsPicks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to bloodDisposes of debris in the lymphatic streamHouses white blood cells involved with immunity

*Respiratory systemComposed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungsKeeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide

*Digestive systemComposed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and liverBreaks down food into absorbable units that enter the bloodEliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces

*Urinary systemComposed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethraEliminates nitrogenous wastes from the bodyRegulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the blood

*Male reproductive systemComposed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferensMain function is the production of offspringTestes produce sperm and male sex hormonesDucts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract

*Female reproductive systemComposed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vaginaMain function is the production of offspringOvaries produce eggs and female sex hormonesRemaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetusMammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn

*The integumentary system protects the body from the external environment

Digestive and respiratory systems, in contact with the external environment, take in nutrients and oxygen

*Nutrients and oxygen are distributed by the blood

Metabolic wastes are eliminated by the urinary and respiratory systems Figure 1.2

*Maintaining boundaries the internal environment remains distinct from the external Cellular level accomplished by plasma membranesOrganismal level accomplished by the skinMovement locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis), and contractility Responsiveness ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to themDigestion breakdown of ingested foodstuffs

*Metabolism all the chemical reactions that occur in the bodyincreased rate of breathing as a result of an increased buildup of carbon dioxide in the bloodstreamExcretion removal of wastes from the bodyReproduction cellular and organismal levelsCellular an original cell divides and produces two identical daughter cellsOrganismal sperm and egg unite to make a whole new personGrowth increase in size of a body part or of the organism

*Nutrients chemical substances used for energy and cell buildingOxygen needed for metabolic reactionsWater provides the necessary environment for chemical reactionsMaintaining normal body temperature necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates Atmospheric pressure required for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs

* Homeostasis

*Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world

The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium

Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to maintain homeostasis

*The variable produces a change in the body

The three interdependent components of control mechanisms are:Receptor monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli)Control center determines the set point at which the variable is maintainedEffector provides the means to respond to the stimulus

*Stimulus: Produces change in variable123Change detected by receptorInput: Information sent along afferent pathway to5Response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasisVariable (in homeostasis)ImbalanceImbalanceReceptor (sensor)Control center4Output: Information sent along efferent pathway toEffectorFigure 1.4

*In negative feedback systems, the output shuts off the original stimulusprevents sudden and severe changes within the body.

Example: Regulation of blood glucose levels

*Figure 1.5

*In positive feedback systems, the output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus

Example: Regulation of blood clottingExample: Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin.Figure 1.6

*Disturbance of homeostasis or the bodys normal equilibrium

Overwhelming of negative feedback mechanisms allowing destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over