Analyzing Songs Used for Lyric Analysis With Mental Health ...
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University of Kentucky University of Kentucky
UKnowledge UKnowledge
Theses and Dissertations--Music Music
2017
Analyzing Songs Used for Lyric Analysis With Mental Health Analyzing Songs Used for Lyric Analysis With Mental Health
Consumers Using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) Consumers Using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC)
Software Software
Ashley M. Miller University of Kentucky, [email protected] Author ORCID Identifier:
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5030-0584 Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.13023/ETD.2017.180
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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Miller, Ashley M., "Analyzing Songs Used for Lyric Analysis With Mental Health Consumers Using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) Software" (2017). Theses and Dissertations--Music. 88. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/music_etds/88
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STUDENT AGREEMENT: STUDENT AGREEMENT:
I represent that my thesis or dissertation and abstract are my original work. Proper attribution
has been given to all outside sources. I understand that I am solely responsible for obtaining
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I hereby grant to The University of Kentucky and its agents the irrevocable, non-exclusive, and
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I retain all other ownership rights to the copyright of my work. I also retain the right to use in
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REVIEW, APPROVAL AND ACCEPTANCE REVIEW, APPROVAL AND ACCEPTANCE
The document mentioned above has been reviewed and accepted by the student’s advisor, on
behalf of the advisory committee, and by the Director of Graduate Studies (DGS), on behalf of
the program; we verify that this is the final, approved version of the student’s thesis including all
changes required by the advisory committee. The undersigned agree to abide by the statements
above.
Ashley M. Miller, Student
Dr. Olivia Yinger, Major Professor
Dr. Michael Baker, Director of Graduate Studies
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ANALYZINGSONGSUSEDFORLYRICANALYSISWITHMENTALHEALTHCONSUMERSUSINGLINGUISTICINQUIRYANDWORDCOUNT(LIWC)SOFTWARE
AthesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeMasterofMusicinMusicTherapyinthe
CollegeofFineArtsattheUniversityofKentucky
By
AshleyMarieMiller
Lexington,Kentucky
Director:Dr.OliviaYinger,DirectorofMusicTherapy
Lexington,Kentucky
2017
Copyright©AshleyMarieMiller2017
THESIS
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ABSTRACTOFTHESIS
ANALYZINGSONGSUSEDFORLYRICANALYSISWITHMENTALHEALTHCONSUMERSUSINGLINGUISTICINQUIRYANDWORDCOUNT(LIWC)SOFTWARE
Lyricanalysisisoneofthemostcommonlyusedmusictherapyinterventionswiththementalhealthpopulation,yetthereisagapintheresearchliteratureregardingsongselection.Theprimarypurposeofthisstudywastodeterminedistinguishinglinguisticcharacteristicsofsonglyricsmostcommonlyusedforlyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumers,asmeasuredbyLIWC2015software.Asecondarypurposewastoprovideanupdatedsonglistresourceformusictherapistsandmusictherapystudentsworkingwiththementalhealthpopulation.Theresearcheremailedasurveyto6,757board-certifiedmusictherapists,316ofwhomcompletedthesurvey.Respondentscontributed700differentsongsthattheydeemedmosteffectiveforlyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumers.TheresearcherusedtheLIWC2015softwaretoanalyzethe48songsthatwerelistedbyfiveormoremusictherapists.Songlyricscontainedlinguisticindicatorsofself-focusedattention,present-focusedattention,poorsocialrelationships,andhighcognitiveprocessing.Lyricswerewritteninaninformal,personal,andauthenticstyle.Somelyricsweremoreemotionallypositive,whileothersweremoreemotionallynegative.Whileresultsmustbeinterpretedwithcaution,itmaybehelpfultoconsiderlinguisticelementswhenchoosingsongsforlyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumers.KEYWORDS:LyricAnalysis,MusicTherapy,MentalHealth,SongSelection,LIWC
AshleyMarieMillerApril28,2017
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ANALYZINGSONGSUSEDFORLYRICANALYSISWITHMENTALHEALTHCONSUMERSUSINGLINGUISTICINQUIRYANDWORDCOUNT(LIWC)SOFTWARE
By
AshleyMarieMiller
OliviaSwedbergYinger DirectorofThesis
MichaelBaker
DirectorofGraduateStudies
4/28/17
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iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
AsIsithereattemptingtoexpressmygratitudetotheindividualswhohave
shapedmypersonalandprofessionallife,Iamatalossforwords.Ihavebeen
incrediblyblessedwithfamily,friends,andmentorswhohavesupported,
encouraged,andlovedmethroughtimesofgreatjoyandthroughtimesofgreat
difficulty.Withoutallofyou,IwouldnotbewhereIamtoday.
MomandDad,youtaughtmethatmyworthisnottiedtomyachievements,
yetyouhavealwayssupportedmydreams.Ithankyouforallofthesacrificesyou
havemadeinordertobemyconstantcheerleaders.Iloveyoubothsomuch.
Iwouldliketothankmymusictherapymentors,whomIamhonoredtocall
friends.Darcy,Petra,Jessy,andJennifer,youpushedmetoreachmyfullestpotential
andtaughtmetotrustmyself.Thankyouforalwaysbelievinginme.Youhaveeach
impactedmylifemorethanyouknow.
ToAmeliaandMelissa,withoutyourhelpIcouldnothavecompletedthis
study.Thankyouforyourhoursofassistancewithsonglyricfilepreparation.
ThankyoutoDr.LornaSegallandDr.MichaelHudsonforservingonmy
thesiscommittee.Dr.Segall,thoughIhaveonlyknownyouforayear,your
enthusiasmformusictherapyandforlifehastrulyinspiredme.
Finally,Iwouldliketothankmyincrediblethesisadvisor,Dr.OliviaYinger.I
amhumbledbytheamountoftimeandenergyyouhaveinvestedinmeoverthe
pasttwoyears.YourdoorwasalwaysopenwheneverIwasinneedofguidanceora
listeningear,andIameternallygrateful.Youcaresodeeplyforyourstudentsand
worktirelesslyonourbehalf.Thankyouforyouroverwhelmingsupport.
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................................iii
ListofTables...............................................................................................................................................vi
ListofFigures............................................................................................................................................vii
ChapterOne:Introduction......................................................................................................................1 OperationalDefinitions.............................................................................................................2
Purpose............................................................................................................................................3
ChapterTwo:ReviewofLiterature...................................................................................................4 MentalIllness.................................................................................................................................4 AnxietyDisorders..........................................................................................................4 MajorDepressiveDisorder.......................................................................................7 MentalIllnessandSuicide.........................................................................................8 Summary........................................................................................................................10 MusicTherapyandMentalIllness.....................................................................................10 TransdiagnosticTheory..........................................................................................11 GoalAreasAddressed...............................................................................................11 ResearchOutcomes...................................................................................................12 Summary........................................................................................................................13 LyricAnalysisandMentalIllness.......................................................................................13 Overview........................................................................................................................13 LyricAnalysisProcess..............................................................................................14 SongSelection..............................................................................................................15 LIWCSoftwareandMentalIllness.....................................................................................16 LIWCandPsychopathology...................................................................................17 LIWCandSongLyrics...............................................................................................20 LIWCandMusicTherapy........................................................................................22
ChapterThree:Methodology..............................................................................................................24 Participants.................................................................................................................................24 Instrumentation........................................................................................................................25 Survey..............................................................................................................................25 LIWC2015Software..................................................................................................26 Procedure.....................................................................................................................................27 Survey..............................................................................................................................27 SongListResource.....................................................................................................28 LIWC2015Analysis...................................................................................................30 DataAnalysis...............................................................................................................................31
ChapterFour:Results............................................................................................................................32 DemographicInformation.....................................................................................................32
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MusicTherapyBackground/CurrentWork..................................................................33 UseofLyricAnalysis................................................................................................................36 PrimaryResearchQuestion..................................................................................................39 WordCountandDictionaryWords....................................................................44 SummaryLanguageVariables..............................................................................44 StandardLinguisticDimensions..........................................................................44 PsychologicalProcesses..........................................................................................44 SecondaryResearchQuestion.............................................................................................45
ChapterFive:Discussion......................................................................................................................46 PrimaryResearchQuestion..................................................................................................46 WordCountandDictionaryWords....................................................................46 SummaryLanguageVariables..............................................................................46 StandardLinguisticDimensions..........................................................................50 PsychologicalProcesses..........................................................................................51 SecondaryResearchQuestion.............................................................................................55 Limitations...................................................................................................................................55 SuggestionsforFutureResearch.......................................................................................57 ImplicationsforCurrentPractice......................................................................................58
Appendices.................................................................................................................................................60 AppendixA:IRBExemptionCertification......................................................................60 AppendixB:SurveyCoverLetter.......................................................................................61 AppendixC:Survey..................................................................................................................63 AppendixD:LyricAnalysisandMentalHealthSongListResource...................66 AppendixE:CompleteListofPrimaryTreatmentThemes/Objectives............84 AppendixF:DescriptiveStatisticsforLIWC2015Outputs.....................................88
References..................................................................................................................................................91
Vita.................................................................................................................................................................99
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LISTOFTABLES
Table1,LyricWebsiteInformation……………………………………………………………………29Table2,AgesofParticipants(N=315)………………………………………………………………..33Table3,TheoreticalOrientationofParticipants(N=316)……………………………………34Table4,AffiliatedRegionofParticipants(N=312)……………………………………………...35Table5,YearsofProfessionalMusicTherapyExperience(N=315)……………………..35Table6,WorkSetting(N=315)………………………………………………………………………….36Table7,SettingWhereParticipantsUseLyricAnalysis(N=315)…………………………37Table8,TopTwentyPrimaryTreatmentThemes/Objectives……………………………..39Table9,MostCommonlyUsedSongsforLyricAnalysisWiththeMentalHealthPopulation………………………………………………………………………………………………………..40Table10,LIWCDomainsofInterest…………………………………………………………………..43
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LISTOFFIGURES
Figure1,FlowofSongsIncludedinSongListResource………………………………………..38
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CHAPTERONE
INTRODUCTION
MentalillnessimpactsthelivesofthemajorityofindividualsintheUnited
Statesinsomeway,whetherthroughpersonalexperienceorinteractionswith
friends,lovedones,andacquaintances.Mentalillnesscanbebroadlydefinedasa
conditionaffectinganindividual’sthinking,mood,and/orbehavior(American
PsychiatricAssociation[APA],2013).Theprevalencerateisalarminglyhigh,with
oneinfiveadultsinAmericaexperiencingamentalillness(notincludingsubstance
usedisorders)inanygivenyearandoneinfiveadolescentsaged13-18
experiencingaseverementaldisorderatsomepointintheirlife(NationalAlliance
onMentalIllness[NAMI],2016).Substanceusedisorders,whichareincludedas
mentaldisordersintheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders,Fifth
Edition(DSM-5),arealsohighlyprevalentandfrequentlyco-occurwithother
mentalillnesses(APA,2013).Accordingtothe2015NationalSurveyonDrugUse
andHealth,around8%ofallindividualsagedtwelveanduphadasubstanceuse
disorderinthepastyear(CenterforBehavioralHealthStatisticsandQuality
[CBHSQ],2016).
Researchersinvestigatingmusictherapy’seffectsonmentalhealthhave
documentednumerouspositiveoutcomes(AmericanMusicTherapyAssociation
[AMTA],2006).Musictherapyis“theclinicalandevidence-baseduseofmusic
interventionstoaccomplishindividualizedgoalswithinatherapeuticrelationship
byacredentialedprofessionalwhohascompletedanapprovedmusictherapy
program”(AMTA,2017,“WhatisMusicTherapy?”para.1).Musictherapists
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workingwiththementalhealthpopulationusemusictoaddressnon-musicalgoals
suchasself-expression,socialization,positivecoping,improvedproblemsolving,
andself-awareness(AMTA,2006).Lyricanalysisisoneofthemostcommonlyused
musictherapyinterventionswithinmentalhealthtreatment(Dvorak,2016;Eyre&
Lee,2015;Silverman,2007,2009b)andinvolvestheexplorationanddiscussionof
songlyricsandthemes.Songchoiceisoftenguidedbyanindividualmusic
therapist’sassessmentofissuespresentedinthelyrics,thoughmusictherapistsalso
choosesongsaccordingtopersonalpreferenceandrecommendationsbyconsumers
andotherprofessionals(Silverman,2009b).Choosingsongsthatwilleffectively
addressconsumergoalscanbeachallengeformusictherapists.Thereisagapinthe
researchliteratureregardingappropriatesongselectionforlyricanalysiswiththe
mentalhealthpopulation.Anexaminationoflinguistictrendsinsonglyrics
commonlyusedforlyricanalysiswithconsumerswithmentalhealthdiagnoses
couldaidinnarrowingthisgap.
OperationalDefinitions
Forthepurposesofthisstudy,thefollowingoperationaldefinitionswereused:
MentalillnessisdefinedasadiagnosedDSM-5mentaldisorder,excluding
neurodevelopmentalandneurocognitivedisorders(APA,2013;AMTA,
2015).
Thementalhealthpopulationisdefinedasallindividualswithamentalillness
(AMTA,2015).
Lyricanalysis(alsoknownaslyricdiscussion,musiclistening/discussion,guided
musiclisteningandcounseling,songanalysis,songlyricdiscussion,orsong
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[lyric]discussion)isdefinedasamusictherapytechniqueinvolvinglistening
toasongandengagingindiscussioncenteredonthelyriccontentforthe
purposeofassessing,validating,oraddressinghowtheconsumer
understands,thinks,feels,orrelates(Dvorak,2016;Selvarajah,2013).
Aconsumerisdefinedasaclient,patient,orpersonreceivingmusictherapyservices
(Silverman,2009b).
Purpose
Theprimarypurposeofthisstudywastoexaminethelinguisticelementsof
songlyricsmostcommonlyusedforlyricanalysiswithconsumerswhohavemental
healthdiagnoses.Specifically,thefollowingresearchquestionwasaddressed:
Whataredistinguishingcharacteristicsofsonglyricsmostcommonlyused
forlyricanalysiswiththementalhealthpopulationasmeasuredby
LinguisticInquiryandWordCount(LIWC)software?
Thesecondarypurposeofthisstudywastoprovideanupdatedsonglistresource
formusictherapistsandmusictherapystudentsworkingwiththementalhealth
population.Withthisaiminmind,thefollowingresearchquestionwasaddressed:
Whatsongsdomusictherapistsdeemmosteffectiveforlyricanalysisintheir
workwiththementalhealthpopulation?
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CHAPTERTWO
REVIEWOFLITERATURE
MentalIllness
TheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders,FifthEdition(DSM-
5),isthecurrentclassificationsystemusedbymentalhealthprofessionalsto
diagnosementaldisorders(APA,2013).AccordingtotheAmericanPsychological
Association,amentaldisorderis“asyndromecharacterizedbyclinicallysignificant
disturbanceinanindividual’scognition,emotionregulation,orbehaviorthat
reflectsadysfunctioninthepsychological,biological,ordevelopmentalprocesses
underlyingmentalfunctioning”(2013,p.20).Thisdisturbanceinthinking,feeling,
orbehavingcanbelifealteringforthecountlessindividualslivingwithmental
illness.Theeffectsofmentalillnessextendtoanindividual’sincome,overallhealth,
andlifeexpectancy.Seriousmentalillnesscostsindividualsanaverageof$16,306in
yearlyincomeandcoststheU.S.anaverageof$193billioninlostearnings(Kessler
etal.,2008).Additionally,individualswithmentalillnesshaveanincreasedriskof
chronicmedicalconditionsanddieanaverageof25yearsearlierthanpeersdueto
treatablemedicalconditions(NAMI,2016).
AnxietyDisorders
Anxietydisordersarethemostcommonclassofmentaldisordersinthe
UnitedStates,withalifetimeprevalenceof29%(Kessleretal.,2005).Whilethe
DSM-IVincludedposttraumaticstressdisorderandobsessive-compulsivedisorder
undertheanxietydisordersumbrella,theyarecategorizeddifferentlyintheDSM-5
(APA,2013).AccordingtotheDSM-5,anxietydisordersnowincludeseparation
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anxietydisorder,selectivemutism,specificphobia,socialanxietydisorder,panic
disorder,agoraphobia,generalizedanxietydisorder,substance/medication-induced
anxietydisorder,anxietydisorderduetoanothermedicalcondition,otherspecified
anxietydisorder,andunspecifiedanxietydisorder(APA,2013).Whilethereare
manyindividualdisorders,theircommonalitiesincludeexcessivefearandanxiety
andassociatedbehaviorchanges.
Anxietyisacommonhumanemotionthatisdesignedtoserveanadaptive
function(Rosen&Schulkin,1998).Itiscloselyrelatedtofear,whichisaresponseto
apresentthreat.Anxietydiffersfromfearinthatistheanticipationoffuturethreat
(APA,2013).Anxietywarnsanindividualsothatheorshecanpreparefororavoid
potentiallyharmfulsituations.Inthisway,anxietycanactuallybeextremelyhelpful
forsurvivalandsuccess(Rosen&Schulkin,1998).Anxietyatlowtomoderatelevels
overshortperiodsoftimeishealthyandproductiveinthatitactuallyimproves
performancebyheighteningarousal.Ifanxietypersistsforlongerperiodsoftimeor
athigherintensitylevels,itisnolongeradaptiveinnatureandinhibitsoptimal
performanceduetoexhaustionandlossoffocus(Jacofsky,Santos,Khemlani-Patel,
&Neziroglu,2013).
Whenanindividualexperiencesanxiety,ortheanticipationofathreat,the
bodyentersastateofhyper-alertnessandmayproduceafearresponsetocombat
thethreat.Fearactivatesthesympatheticnervoussystem(SNS)toincreaseblood
flowandoxygendelivery,resultinginfasterheartrateandrapidbreathing(Jacofsky
etal.,2013).Thisisoftencalledafight-or-flightresponsebecauseitpreparesan
individualtoeithercombatorfleefromperceiveddanger.Whileanxietyandfear
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serveimportantprotectivefunctions,theiractivationintheabsenceofactualthreat
oroutofproportiontoagiventhreatbecomesproblematic(Rosen&Schulkin,
1998).
Thesymptomsofanxietyvarywidelyfrompersontoperson,buttheycanbe
physical,behavioral,emotional,cognitive,and/orpsychologicalinnature.Physical
symptomsofanxietyresultfromphysiologicalchangesduetoSNSactivation
(Jacofskyetal.,2013).Thesesymptomsmayincludearacingheart,afeelingof
restlessness,shortnessofbreath,dizziness,chestpain,andfatigue.Emotional
symptomsofanxietymayincludefeelingsofunease,dread,apprehension,worry,
fear,orpanic.Thephysicalandemotionalsymptomscanbesounpleasantthat
individualsbegintodisplaybehavioralsymptomsofavoidanceand/orself-
medicationinordertocopeandescape.Additionally,anxietycancause
psychologicalsymptomsincludingdifficultyconcentrating,difficultywithmemory,
anddepressivesymptomslikehopelessnessandpoorappetite(Jacofskyetal.,
2013).Cognitivesymptomsareoftenreflectedinnegativethoughtsandthought
patterns,whichinturnfeedintothecycleofanxiety.Inaccuratecognitiveappraisal,
oranindividual’sinterpretationofasituation,isthoughttoplayamajorrolein
anxietydisorders(Clark&Beck,2010;Jacofskyetal.,2013).Anxietyandfear
responsescanbemoreeasilytriggeredwhenanindividualoverestimatesa
perceivedthreatandunderestimateshisorhercopingabilities.Evenso,thereisno
singularcauseofanxietydisorders.Pathologicalanxietyisthoughttoresultfrom
thecomplexinteractionofbiological,psychological,andsocialfactors(Jacofskyet
al.,2013).
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MajorDepressiveDisorder
Whileanxietydisordersarethemostprevalentclassofdisorders,major
depressivedisorderisthesinglemostprevalentlifetimedisorder,withaprevalence
of17%(Kessleretal.,2005).Majordepressivedisorderaloneistheleadingcauseof
disabilityforindividualsaged15-44(AnxietyandDepressionAssociationof
America[ADAA],2016).AccordingtotheDSM-5,amajordepressiveepisode(MDE)
ismarkedbyaperiodofatleasttwoweekswhereinanindividualexperiencesat
leastfiveofthefollowingsymptoms:depressedmood,decreasedinterestor
pleasureindailyactivities,weightfluctuations,sleepdisturbances,psychomotor
agitationorretardation,fatigue,feelingsofworthlessnessorexcessiveor
inappropriateguilt,decreasedconcentration,andsuicidalideationorattempt(APA,
2013).Depressedmoodmayinvolvefeelingsofsadness,emptiness,hopelessness,
orirritability.Itisimportanttodistinguishgrieffromamajordepressiveepisode,
thoughitispossibletoexperiencebothatonce.
Overtheyears,manytheorieshaveemergedregardingthedevelopmentand
maintenanceofclinicaldepression.OneofthemostprominenttheoriesisBeck’s
cognitivemodelofdepression,whichhasbeenmodifiedtoincluderesearchfindings
withincognitiveneuroscience(Beck,2008;Clark&Beck,2010).Inhismodel,Beck
positsthatdepressionismaintainedbyunderlyingdysfunctionalattitudesor
schemas,whichmaybeactivatedbyadverseevents.Theseschemashijackan
individual’sinformationprocessingsystem,whichthendirectsthatindividual’s
attentiontonegativestimuliandresultsinanoveralldistortednegative
interpretationofevents(Beck,2008).Thisnegativeinterpretationthenservesto
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furtherreinforcetheindividual’sschemas,creatingaviciouscycle.Thiscycleof
negativethinkingandnegativeattentionalfocusbecomesautomaticandleadstoa
pervasivelynegativeperceptionofreality(Beck,2008).AccordingtoBeck’stheory,
environmentaltriggersandgeneticandpersonalityfactorsplayacrucialroleinthe
initialdevelopmentofthenegativeschemas(Clark&Beck,2010).
PyszczynskiandGreenberg(1987)developedaself-awarenesstheoryof
depression,notingthatindividualswithdepressiontendtodemonstratehighlevels
ofself-focus.Whileself-focusedattentionandself-evaluationaremeanttoservean
adaptiveandself-regulatoryfunction,individualswithdepressiontendtogetstuck
inaself-focusedstateastheyruminateonnegativediscrepanciesbetween
internalizedstandardsandreality(Pyszczynski&Greenberg,1987).Thisintensifies
thenegativeeffectassociatedwithdepressionandcanplayaroleinthebreakdown
ofsocialrelationships.
Aswithanxietydisorders,thereisnosinglecauseofmajordepressive
disorder.Depressionresultsfromthecomplexinteractionofavarietyoffactorsand
processes,manyofwhicharestillpoorlyunderstood.Causalfactorsmayinclude
biologicaldifferences,brainchemistry,hormones,andinheritedtraits,in
combinationwithadditionaltriggersliketraumaandstress(MayoClinic,2016).
MentalIllnessandSuicide
Mentalillnessputsindividualsatadrasticallyincreasedriskofsuicide,and
90%ofindividualswhodiebysuicideexperiencementalillness(NAMI,2016).
SuicideisthetenthleadingcauseofdeathintheUnitedStates,withover44,000
Americansdyingbysuicideeveryyearandtwenty-fivetimesthatnumber
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attemptingsuicide(AmericanFoundationforSuicidePrevention[AFSP],2017).An
evengreaternumberofindividualsexperiencesuicidalideation.Besidesmental
illness,riskfactorsforsuicidemayincludefamilyhistoryofsuicide,previoussuicide
attempt(s),historyofalcoholandsubstanceabuse,feelingsofhopelessness,
impulsiveoraggressivetendencies,isolation,barrierstoaccessingmentalhealth
treatment,physicalillness,loss,andeasyaccesstolethalmethods(Centersfor
DiseaseControlandPrevention[CDC],2016).
Theinterpersonaltheoryofsuicidalbehaviorisafairlyrecentattemptat
explainingthecomplexpsychologicalphenomenonofsuicidalbehavior.Thistheory
distinguishesthedesiretoengageinsuicidalbehaviorfromthecapabilitytoengage
insuicidalbehavior.Accordingtothetheory,thwartedbelongingness(theunmet
“needtobelong”)andperceivedburdensomenessonothersresultinthedesirefor
suicide.Itisonlywhenthisdesireoverlapswiththecapabilityforsuicidethatlethal
ornear-lethalsuicideattemptsoccur(VanOrdenetal.,2010).Capabilityforsuicide
involvesincreasedpaintoleranceandaloweredfearofdeath.Thismayresultfrom
factorssuchasimpulsivity,exposuretosuicidality,combatexposure,pastsuicide
attempts,and/orchildhoodmaltreatment.
Theinterpersonaltheoryoffersasolidexplanationastowhyindividuals
withmentalillnessaremorelikelytoexperiencesuicidalideationandattemptor
commitsuicide.Socialisolationandinaccuratecognitiveappraisalarecommon
featuresofmentaldisordersandcaneasilyleadindividualstofeelthattheydon’t
belongandareaburdentoothers.Theadditionaltheoreticaldimensionofacquired
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capabilityexplainswhyonlyafractionofindividualssufferingfrommentalillness
actuallygoontoattemptorcommitsuicide.
Summary
Insummary,mentalillnessisaseriousproblemintheUnitedStates,directly
affectingadisturbinglylargefractionofthepopulation.Individualswithmental
disordersmayexperienceahostofphysical,emotional,behavioral,psychological,
andcognitivesymptoms,whichinterfereconsiderablywithdailyfunctioning.
Anxietydisordersandmajordepressivedisorderarethemostcommonofthe
mentaldisordersandarebelievedtoresultfromacombinationofbiological,
psychological,andsocialfactors.Mentalillnessisoneofthetopriskfactorsfor
suicide,whichisoneoftheleadingcausesofdeathintheU.S.Musictherapyisan
effectivenonpharmacologicaltreatmentforaddressingavarietyofmentalhealth
needs.
MusicTherapyandMentalIllness
Musictherapyinvolvestheuseofmusicinterventionstoaddressnon-
musicalgoalswithinthecontextofatherapeuticrelationship.Musictherapistswork
inavarietyofsettingswithawiderangeofpatient/clientpopulations.Ina2015
surveybytheAmericanMusicTherapyAssociation,19%ofrespondentsreported
servingthementalhealthpopulation,agreaterpercentagethananyothersingle
clientpopulationcategory(AMTA,2015).Mentalhealthsettingsgenerallyinclude
treatmentandcommunitycenters,drug/alcoholprograms,forensicfacilities,and
inpatientpsychiatricunits(AMTA,2015),butmusictherapistsserveindividuals
withmentalhealthdiagnosesinothersettingsaswell(e.g.,generalhospitals,
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schools,geriatricfacilities).Regardlessofthesetting,musictherapistsperform
consumerassessmentsanddeviseindividualtreatmentplansinordertomeetthe
needsofeachconsumer.
TransdiagnosticTheory
Groupmusictherapyisextremelycommonwithinpsychiatricmusictherapy
(Silverman,2007);however,itcanprovetobeparticularlychallengingwiththis
populationduetothediversityofgroupmemberdiagnoses.Thetransdiagnostic
theoryisapsychiatricmusictherapytreatmentphilosophythatisbasedon
Fairburn,Cooper,andShafran’stheoryofeatingdisorders(Silverman,2015).
Accordingtothistheory,lessemphasisshouldbeplacedonspecificdiagnoses,
particularlywithinagroupcontext.Instead,thefocusshouldbeonactualtreatment
andonidentifyingthecommonalitiesbetweenindividualsdealingwithvarying
mentaldisorders.AccordingtoSilverman,commonalitiesmayincludebehaviors,
symptoms,thoughtpatterns,issues,emotions,andstressors.Thereisconsiderable
overlapinthestrugglesindividualswithmentalillnessface,nomatterthediagnosis.
Focusingoncommonthemeswithinmusictherapycanbeproductive,successful,
andunifyingforeventhemostdiversegroups.
GoalAreasAddressed
Musictherapistsaretrainedtouseevidence-basedmusicinterventionsto
meetaplethoraofphysical,psychological,emotional,cognitiveandsocialneeds.
Accordingtoasurveyofpsychiatricmusictherapists,thegoalareasmostcommonly
addressedwithmentalhealthconsumersincludesocialization,communication,self-
esteem,copingskills,andstressreduction/management(Silverman,2007).Itis
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importanttorecognizethatconsumerneedsmaybeprioritizeddifferently
dependingonthesettingandlengthoftreatment.Themodernhealthcaresystem
understandablyfocusesitslimitedresourcesonthestabilizationofacutesymptoms
ofmentalillnessinasshortatimeframeaspossible.Therefore,inpatientgoalstend
torevolvearoundconcernsforimmediatesafety.Inthesecases,musictherapists
canaddressgoalssuchasmedicationmanagement,psychoeducation,anger
management,andimpulsecontrol.Withincommunitysettingsorlongertreatment
programs,greaterattentionmaybepaidtolessobvioussymptomsofmentalillness
thatmakedailylifeastruggle.Musictherapistsmayaddressissuessuchasloss,
grief,trauma,loneliness,andstigmatoaidinlong-termmentalhealthandstability
(Jackson,2015).
ResearchOutcomes
Researchwithinthefieldofmusictherapydemonstratesthemanybenefits
musictherapycanhaveforindividualsdealingwitharangeofmentaldisorders.
Studiesonmusictherapywithpsychiatricinpatientshaveexhibitedpositiveeffects
onsatisfactionwithlife,knowledgeofillness,knowledgeofcopingskills,treatment
perceptions,responsefrequencyandtype,socialsupport,workingalliance,group
attendance,andtrustinthetherapist(Silverman,2009a,2011,2014).Arecent
systematicreviewofmusictherapywithacutepsychiatricinpatientsrevealedthat
musictherapyreducespositiveandnegativesymptomsofmentalillness,alleviates
psychiatricsymptoms,andimprovesinterpersonalfunctioning(Carr,Odell-Miller,&
Priebe,2013).Additionally,astudybyGrocke,Bloch,andCastle(2009)showedthat
musictherapysessionsheldwithincommunitysettingssignificantlyimprovedself-
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reportedqualityoflife,satisfactionwithoverallhealth,socialsupport,opportunities
forleisureactivities,andphysicalpainforindividualswithsevereandenduring
mentalillness.
Summary
Musictherapyisaneffectivenon-pharmacologicaltreatmentoptionfor
individualswithmentalillness.Servicesareprovidedwithinavarietyofsettings,
includinginpatientpsychiatricunits,communitycenters,anddrug/alcohol
programs,tonameafew.Whilemusictherapistsmayworkwithmentalhealth
consumersonanindividualbasis,manyprovidegroupmusictherapy.The
transdiagnosticmodelprovidesahelpfulcontextformeetingtheneedsof
individualswithdifferentdiagnosesbycenteringtreatmentaroundcommonthemes
andideas.Consumergoalsmayincludeincreasingcopingskills,reducingstress,
improvingimpulsecontrol,andincreasingknowledgeofillness.Researchshows
thatmusictherapycansuccessfullyaddressandalleviatesymptomsofmental
illness.
LyricAnalysisandMentalIllness
Overview
Musictherapistsusemanydifferenttechniquesandinterventionstoaddress
clientandpatientgoals,butlyricanalysisisoneofthemostpopularwithinmental
healthtreatment.Inarecentsurveystudy,84%ofmusictherapistsworkingin
mentalhealthtreatmentsettingsreportedusinglyricanalysisinterventions(Eyre&
Lee,2015).Inabroadsense,lyricanalysisissimplythediscussionofsonglyrics.
Withinmentalhealthtreatment,thistechniqueinvolveslisteningtoasongand
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engagingindiscussioncenteredonthelyriccontentforthepurposeofassessing,
validating,oraddressinghowthemusictherapyconsumerunderstands,thinks,
feels,orrelates(Dvorak,2016;Selvarajah,2013).Lyricanalysis-typeinterventions
gobymanydifferentnameswithinthemusictherapyliterature,includinglyric
discussion,musiclistening/discussion,guidedmusiclisteningandcounseling,song
analysis,songlyricdiscussion,andsong[lyric]discussion(Dvorak,2016).
Althoughpsychiatricmusictherapyismostoftendeliveredingroupformat,
lyricanalysiscanbeusedwithindividualsorgroups(Silverman,2007).Lyric
analysisisusedtoaddressawidevarietyofpatientgoals.Goalsandtreatment
themesmayincludeself-expression,emotionregulation,coping,change,support,
addictionandabuse,problemidentification,symptoms,goalsetting,hope,positive
thinking,acceptance,andself-awareness(Selvarajah,2013;Silverman,2009b).
LyricAnalysisProcess
Lyricanalysisinterventionstypicallybeginwiththeconsumer(s)and
therapistlisteningtoasongtogether,eitherviaarecordingorplayedlivebythe
therapist(Silverman,2009b).Afterward,themusictherapistusesverbalprocessing
techniquestofacilitatediscussioncenteredonthelyrics.Dvorak'sfive-level
frameworkforlyricanalysisprocessingprovidesaformatforfacilitatingthis
discussionwithinagroupcontext(2016).Theframeworkinvolves(1)processing
themusicitself,(2)reflectingonparticipants'responses,(3)discussingtheeffecton
thegroupprocess,whichencouragesparticipantstoconsiderandinteractwith
othergroupmembers,(4)reflectingonparticipants'personalinsights,and(5)
transferringnewinsightstoparticipants'lives(Dvorak,2016).Processingthemusic
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canbeanon-threateningwaytoopenupdiscussionwhilebuildingrapportand
trust.Eachlevelwithintheframeworkrequiresadditionaltrust,transparency,and
opennessfromgroupmembers.Oncealevelofconnectionandtrustisbuilt,
patientsmayfeelmorecompelledtosharedeeperpartsofthemselveswiththe
therapistandgroup,guidedbyapplicablelinesfromwithinthesong.Thissharingin
turnleadstothedevelopmentofnewinsightsandlifeapplications.Althoughitwas
designedspecificallyforgroup-work,theaforementionedframeworkmaybe
modifiedforworkwithindividualsaswell.
SongSelection
Sincelyricanalysisinterventionscompletelyrevolvearoundsongsandtheir
lyriccontent,itiscrucialthatmusictherapistspaycarefulattentiontosong
selection.Whenchoosingmusicthatwillbemostappropriateandeffectivefor
consumers,musictherapistsneedtoconsiderthetherapeuticfunctionofmusic.
Theymustclearlyunderstandtheroleofeachmusicalelementinmeetingdesired
therapeuticoutcomes(Hanson-Abromeit,2015).Whileelementssuchastempo,
melody,rhythm,andharmonicstructuremustbecarefullyconsidered,lyricsin
particularshouldbeheavilyscrutinizedfortheirtherapeuticvalue.
Inspiteoftheimportanceofthechoiceofsongsusedbymusictherapistsin
lyricanalysis,thereisverylittleresearchtodateonsongselection.A2009survey
studyrevealedthatmusictherapiststypicallychoosesongsaccordingtotheme,
personalpreference,andconsumerorprofessionalrecommendations(Silverman,
2009b).AccordingtoanarticlebyGardstromandHiller,specificsonglyric
considerationsmayalsoincludeliteraryelementsandtechniquesandpointofview
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(2010).Additionally,musictherapistsmaypurposefullyavoidcertainsongsbased
oncontent.A2016surveyinvestigatingcensorshipinadultpsychiatricmusic
therapypracticeshowedthatthemajorityofrespondentsengagedinsomeformof
musiccensorship(Joplin&Dvorak).Themostcommonlycensoredlyricswere
profanity,drugreferences,andalcoholreferences,andthemostcommonly
censoredthemesweremisogyny,violence,sex,gang-relatedcontent,andmisandry.
Thetopreasonsforcensorshipincludedpotentialnegativeimpactonothergroup
members,clientdiscomfort,negativeimpactonthetherapeuticrelationship,
negativeimpactonclientself-esteem,andincitementofemotionaldistress.While
thisstudyprovidesusefulinformationonlyrics,themes,songs,andgenresofmusic
thatpsychiatricmusictherapistscommonlyavoid,thereisagapintheresearch
literatureregardingappropriatesongselectionforlyricanalysiswiththemental
healthpopulation.Anexaminationoflinguistictrendsinsonglyricscommonlyused
forlyricanalysiswithpatientswithmentalhealthdiagnosescouldaidinnarrowing
thisgap.
LinguisticInquiryandWordCount(LIWC)SoftwareandMentalIllness
Psychologistsandrelatedprofessionalshavebeenanalyzingwordand
languageusagefordecades,lookingtoidentifylinguisticpatternsindicating
underlyingpsychologicalprocesses(Tausczik&Pennebaker,2010).Linguistic
InquiryandWordCount,orLIWC,isacomputer-basedtextanalysisprogram
designedtoquicklyandeffectivelyprocesswrittenortranscribedverbaltext
utilizingalistofdictionarywordsrepresenting82languagedimensions
(Pennebaker,Boyd,Jordan,&Blackburn,2015).Researcherscanpre-selectwhich
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languagedimensionsthesoftwarewillanalyzeaccordingtoinvestigativepurpose.
LIWCwasinitiallydevelopedtogainabetterunderstandingofhowandwhywriting
aboutpersonalandemotionalexperiencesbenefitspsychologicalandphysical
health(Pennebaker,1993,1997;Pennebaker&Seagal,1999).Itwassoon
discoveredthatthewritingitselfrevealedalotaboutanindividual’spsychological
state.AccordingtoPennebaker,Mehl,andNiederhoffer(2003,p.550),wordscan
“conveypsychologicalinformationoverandabovetheirliteralmeaningand
independentoftheirsemanticcontext.”ThismakesLIWCausefultoolfor
understandingpsychologicalcharacteristicsofindividualsreceivingmentalhealth
treatment.
LIWCandPsychopathology
Suicide.Anexaminationofworduseinpoetrywrittenbysuicidalversus
nonsuicidalpoetsshowedthatsuicidalindividualsusedmorefirstpersonsingular
pronouns(I)throughouttheircareersanddecreasedtheiruseoffirstpersonplural
pronouns(we)overtime,reflectingself-focusedattentionandpoorsocial
integration(Stirman&Pennebaker,2001).Alatercasestudyanalyzingafamous
explorer’swritingsoverthesevenyearsleadinguptohissuiciderevealedincreases
infirstpersonsingularpronounuse,decreasesinfirstpersonpluralpronounuse,
andincreasesinnegativeemotionword(hurt)useovertime(Baddeley,Daniel,&
Pennebaker,2011).Whilethiswasasingleaccountandtheresultscannotbe
generalized,thefindingsofthiscasestudyareindicativeoftheself-focused
attention,socialwithdrawal,andnegativeaffecttypicalofindividualswith
depressionandsuicidalideation.Furthermore,arecentanalysiscomparingthe
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languageinsuicidenotesandthelanguageinlegacytokens(i.e.communications
designedtotakecreditforandexplainthemotivationsbehindanattack)ofactive
shooterswithasampleofover20,000studentwritingsshowedthatsuicidenotes
couldbedifferentiatedbyincreasedself-referencesandfuturetense(will)usage,
whilelegacytokenscouldbedifferentiatedbyincreasedangerreferences(hate)and
negativeemotionreferences(Egnoto&Griffin,2016).Thisstudyshowsthatthere
arelinguisticdifferencesbetweensuicidalandhomicidalwritings.Suicidalwritings
weremoreself-focusedandfutureoriented,whilelegacytokensweremoreangry
andemotionallynegative.
MentalDisorders.Astudylookingatdifferencesinlanguageusebetween
depressed,formerly-depressed,andnever-depressedcollegestudentsshowedthat
depressedindividualsusedmorenegativelyvalencedwordsandfirstperson
singularpronounsintheirwriting,supportingBeck’scognitivemodelofdepression
andPyszczynskiandGreenberg’sself-focusmodelofdepression(Rude,Gortner,&
Pennebaker,2004).Acomparisonbetweenthewritingofpsychiatricoutpatients
andnonclinicalcontrolsshowedthatpsychiatricoutpatientsusedfewer
optimism/energyrelatedwords(certainty);fewerdiscrepancy(should),inhibition
(block),andtentativeness(maybe)words;fewerexclusion-relatedwords(but);and
fewerbody-relatedwords(ache)(Junghaenel,Smyth,&Santner,2008).
Optimism/energywordsreflectedthedegreeofoptimisminthewriting,and
discrepancy,inhibition,andtentativenesswordsreflectedthedegreeofcognitive
processing.Patientdiagnosesincludedschizophreniaandotherpsychoticdisorders
aswellasbipolarandrelateddisorders,whichcouldexplainthelowrateof
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cognitiveprocesswords.Cognitiveprocessingreflectsanindividual’sattemptsto
organizeandmakesenseoftheirenvironment,andthisisextremelydifficultfor
patientsexperiencingpsychosis,ordisconnectionfromreality.
Trauma.A2004studyanalyzingpubliconlinejournalentriesbeforeand
aftertheSeptember11,2001attacksshowedimmediatepsychologicalchangesin
responsetotheattacks,evidencedbyincreasedexpressionofnegativeemotions,
cognitiveprocessing,socialorientation,andpsychologicaldistancing(Cohn,Mehl,&
Pennebaker).Overthefollowingtwoweeksaftertheattacks,moodandsocial
orientationreturnedtonormal,butcognitiveprocessingactuallydroppedbelowits
baselinelevel.Aftersixweeks,psychologicaldistancingremainedelevated,and
socialorientationcontinuedtodrop.Thismayreflectahealthyand“typical”pattern
ofcopingwithtrauma:Individualsinitiallyfeltfreetoexpresswhattheywere
feelingandseeminglyfoundcomfortandstabilityintheirsocialrelationships.They
processedthetraumaonacognitivelevel,whiledistancingthemselvesasa
protectivemeasure.
Astudyfrom2010usedLIWCandameasureofposttraumaticstress
symptomstoexplorehowwrittenemotionaldisclosurereflectedthecopingabilities
ofadolescentswhohadrecentlyexperiencedthedeathofaclassmate(Margola,
Facchin,Molgora,&Revenson).Studentswerepromptedtowriteabouttheir
emotionalreactionseachdayforthreeconsecutivedays.Theywereadministered
theImpactofEventsScale-Revised(IES-R)atbaselineandagainatoneweekand
fourmonths’postwriting.Resultsofthestudyshowedthatadolescentswho
remainedhighlydistressedacrosstimeusedmoreself-references,morecausation
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words(because),morewordsreflectinginhibition,andfewersocial(talk)and
cognitiveprocessingwords(cause)incomparisonwithadolescentswhodisplayed
highdistressfollowedbyimprovementovertime.Incontrast,theadolescentswho
displayedarecoverypatternofadjustmentusedmorecognitiveprocessingwords,
specificallyreflectinginsight(think),tentativeness,anddiscrepancy.
Morerecently,researchersanalyzedtwitterdataacrossthreecasestudiesto
lookattheeffectsofviolencenearoroncollegecampuses(Jones,Wojcik,Sweeting,
&Silver,2016).Theyfoundsignificantincreasesingeneralnegativeemotion
expressionandevent-relatednegativeemotionexpressionimmediatelyfollowing
thetraumaticevents,whichdecreasedoverthecourseofthefollowingweeks.This
progressionofnegativeemotionexpressionmirrorsthefindingsintheSeptember
11,2001journalentries,supportingtheideathathealthycopingrequiresshort-
termnegativeemotionexpression.
LIWCandSongLyrics
LIWChasbeenusedtoanalyzesonglyricswithinseveraldifferentcontexts.
ResearchershavebeenabletostudyhowthemusicofgroupsandartistslikeThe
Beatles(Petrie,Pennebaker,&Sivertsen,2008)andBobDylan(Czechowski,
Miranda,&Sylvestre,2015)evolvedovertime.Theyhavealsolookedatlinguistic
indicatorsofpsychopathologywithinsonglyrics.Astudycomparingthelyricsof
suicidalandnon-suicidalsongwritersshowedthatsuicidalsongwritersusedmore
future-tenseverbsandfewerdeath-themedwords(kill)(Lightman,McCarthy,
Dufty,&McNamara,2007).Whilethisseemscounterintuitive,theauthorssuggested
thatitcouldbeduetothetherapeuticeffectsofwritingand/ortofeaturesofsong
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lyricsthatsetthemapartfromotherformsofwriting.Asimilarstudyonlyrics
writtenbysongwritersinthe“27Club”,agroupofmusicianswhoeithercommitted
suicideordiedtragicallyattheageof27,(Markowitz&Hancock,2016)produced
resultsmoreinlinewiththeself-focusedattentionfoundinearlierstudieson
suicidality(Baddeleyetal,2011;Stirman&Pennebaker,2001).Theresearchers
foundthatsonglyricswrittenbysuicidalmusicianscomparedtonon-suicidal
musicianscontainedmorefirst-personsingularpronounsandaffectterms(happy),
andtheywerewrittenwithmoreverbalimmediacy(lesspsychologicaldistancing).
Lyricsalsoreflectedamoredynamicwritingstyle,whichtendstobeveryemotional
andinformal(Markowitz&Hancock,2016).
WhilemostLIWCstudieshaveanalyzedwrittentext,poetry,andsonglyrics
inordertogaininformationaboutthewriters,therehasbeensomeinterestin
lookingattheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesofmusicconsumers.Ananalysis
ofBillboardNo.1songsacrosschangesinU.S.socialandeconomicconditions
showedthatpeopletendedtopreferlisteningtosongswithmorefuturereferences,
morefrequentreferencestosocialprocessesandintergroupthemes,andmore
wordspersentenceduringthreateningtimes,suggestingtheunderlyingneedsfor
hope,socialaffiliation,andmeaningfulexplorationofthoughts(Pettijohn&Sacco,
2009).A2011studylookedathowchangesinpopularU.S.songlyricsovertime
reflectedlarge-scalechangesinpsychologicaltraitsandemotions(DeWall,Pond,
Campbell,&Twenge).Theresearchersanalyzedthemostpopularsongsfrom1980-
2007andfoundthatpopularsonglyricshavebecomemoreself-focused,socially
disconnected,angryandantisocial,andlesspositiveovertime.Thesechanges
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reflectU.S.culturalshiftsandareevidencedbyincreaseduseoffirst-personsingular
pronounsandwordsrelatedtoangerandantisocialbehavioranddecreaseduseof
first-personpluralpronouns,socialinteractionwords,andpositiveemotionwords
(good).
LIWCandMusicTherapy
Withinthefieldofmusictherapy,LIWChasbeenusedtoexaminethe
linguisticcharacteristicsofsongscommonlyusedbymusictherapistswitholder
adultclients(Yinger&Springer,2016).Asimilarprocesscouldbehelpfulinlooking
atthelinguisticcharacteristicsofsongscommonlyusedbymusictherapistswith
thementalhealthpopulation.Whileconsumerstypicallydonotactivelywritelyrics
duringlyricanalysisinterventions,linguisticelementswithincommonlyusedsongs
maysuggestunderlyingpsychologicalprocesseswithwhichtheseconsumersrelate.
LIWCcouldprovidehelpfulinsightintoappropriatesongselectionforlyricanalysis
interventionswiththementalhealthpopulation.Aspreviouslystated,theprimary
purposeofthisstudywastoexaminethelinguisticelementsofsonglyricsmost
commonlyusedforlyricanalysiswithconsumerswhohavementalhealth
diagnoses.Specifically,thefollowingresearchquestionwasaddressed:
Whataredistinguishingcharacteristicsofsonglyricsmostcommonlyused
forlyricanalysiswiththementalhealthpopulationasmeasuredby
LinguisticInquiryandWordCount(LIWC)software?
Thesecondarypurposeofthisstudywastoprovideanupdatedsonglistresource
formusictherapistsandmusictherapystudentsworkingwiththementalhealth
population.Withthisaiminmind,thefollowingresearchquestionwasaddressed:
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Whatsongsdomusictherapistsdeemmosteffectiveforlyricanalysisintheir
workwiththementalhealthpopulation?
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CHAPTERTHREE
METHODOLOGY
ThisstudywassubmittedtotheInstitutionalReviewBoard(IRB)ofthe
UniversityofKentuckyforexemptioncertificationduetotheuseofsurvey
procedureswherenoidentifyinginformationwascollectedandnomorethan
minimalriskwasposedtoresearchparticipants.AnexemptionfromIRBapproval
(SeeAppendixA)wasreceivedpriortoconductingthestudy.TheIRBconsidered
thisstudytobeexemptbecauseparticipantresponsesandidentitiesarenotlinked
inanyway.
Participants
TheresearcherobtainedfromtheCertificationBoardforMusicTherapists
(CBMT)theemailaddressesofallboard-certifiedmusictherapistswhooptedto
receiveemailsthroughCBMT(N=6,757).Thesampleincludedtheentire
populationofboard-certifiedmusictherapistswhooptedtoreceiveemailsthrough
theCBMT.Oneemailaddresswasinvalidandoneemailaccountwasnolongerin
use.Atotalof528board-certifiedmusictherapistsrespondedtotheresearcher
regardingtheonlinesurveyand497completedthesurvey.Ofthe31respondents
whodidnotcompletethesurvey,11statedthattheywereineligibletoparticipate
inthesurveyduetonotcurrentlyusinglyricanalysisand/orworkingwiththe
mentalhealthpopulation,12statedtheywereineligibleduetobeingretiredornot
currentlyworkingasamusictherapist,6requestedtoberemovedfromthe
researcher’semaillistforunspecifiedreasons,and2reporteddifficultywiththe
surveylink.
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Instrumentation
Survey
Thesurveytoolusedinthisstudywascreatedbytheresearcherand
consistedofthreedifferentsections:(a)demographicinformation;(b)music
therapybackground/currentwork;and(c)useoflyricanalysis.Thesurvey
contained11questionsandwasdesignedtocollectdataregardingsongsusedby
musictherapistsforlyricanalysiswithconsumerswhohavementalhealth
diagnoses.Severalcomponentsweremodifiedfromsurveytoolsusedinearlier
studiesbySilverman(2007;2009b),whichsurveyedpsychiatricmusictherapists
regardingcurrentpracticesandsongsusedforlyricanalysis.Theinstrumentused
inthecurrentstudyisdiscussedingreaterdetailinthefollowingsectionsandcan
befoundinAppendixC.
DemographicInformation.Thesurveybeganbyaskingparticipantsifthey
currentlyuselyricanalysiswithoneormoreconsumerswithamentalhealth
diagnosis(excludingneurodevelopmentalandneurocognitivedisorders)inany
setting.Thesurveyinstructedmusictherapiststodiscontinuethesurveyifthey
answerednotothisquestion.Theinitialquestionwasusedtoensurethatmusic
therapistsnotusinglyricanalysiswiththementalhealthpopulationintheircurrent
practicewouldnotbeincludedinthestudy.Thenextthreequestionswere
presentedinamultiple-choiceformatandcollectedgeneraldemographic
informationregardinggender,age,andethnicity/race.Thequestionsandresponse
optionswerebasedonthe2015AmericanMusicTherapyAssociation(AMTA)
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MemberSurveyandWorkforceAnalysis(AMTA,2015),whichisanannualsurveyof
allcurrentAMTAmembers.
MusicTherapyBackground/CurrentWork.Thissectionconsistedoffive
questionsinmultiple-choiceandcheck-boxformat,usedtoassesseachparticipant’s
professionalmusictherapyexperience.Aswiththedemographicinformation
section,questionsandresponseoptionswerebasedontheAMTAMemberSurvey
andWorkforceAnalysis(AMTA,2015).Questionscollectedinformationonhighest
levelofeducation,theoreticalorientation,affiliatedregion,yearsofexperienceasa
musictherapist,andcurrentworksetting(s).
UseofLyricAnalysis.Thissectionconsistedofonecheck-boxquestionand
onefill-in-the-blankquestionmadeupof15sub-questions.Thecheck-boxquestion
wasusedtocollectdataonthesetting(s)inwhichmusictherapistscurrentlyuse
lyricanalysiswithoneormoreconsumerswithamentalhealthdiagnosis.Thefill-
in-the-blankquestionaskedparticipantstolistthefivemosteffectivesongstheyuse
forlyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumers,alongwiththenameoftheartist
andtheprimarytreatmenttheme/objectiveforeachsong.
LIWC2015Software
LinguisticInquiryandWordCount2015software,orLIWC2015,wasusedto
analyzethelyricsofsongsreturnedbymusictherapistsviathestudysurvey.
LIWC2015isacomputer-basedtextanalysisprogramthatanalyzeswrittenor
transcribedverbaltext,calculatingwordpercentagesacross82differentlanguage
dimensions(Pennebaker,Boyd,etal.,2015).
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Procedure
Survey
TheresearcherpurchasedemailaddressesfromCBMTforallboard-certified
musictherapistswhooptedtoreceiveCBMTemails.Acoverletterthatdescribed
thenatureofthestudy,instructionsforsurveyparticipation,andtermsofconsent
wasincludedthetextofeachsurveyemail(SeeAppendixB).Participantscompleted
thesurveyandwereabletoskipquestions.Surveysubmissionindicatedparticipant
consentforthecurrentstudy.Atotalof497surveysweresubmitted,butonly316
metinclusioncriteria.Althoughparticipantswereinstructedtodiscontinuethe
surveyiftheydidnotuselyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumers,anumberof
respondentscompletedandsubmittedthesurveyinspiteofnotusinglyricanalysis
inmentalhealth.Surveyswereexcludedifparticipantsanswered“no”tothefirst
questionregardingcurrentuseoflyricanalysiswiththementalhealthpopulation(n
=174).Sixsurveyswereexcludedbecauseparticipantsdidnotanswerthefirst
question.Onesurveywasexcludedduetoresponsesthatwerefantastical,leading
theresearchertobelievethatthequestionnairewasfilledoutinjest.
TheREDCapsurveywaspublishedonlineforafive-weekwindowafterthe
initialemailwassentinvitingpotentialparticipants.Follow-upemailsweresent
aftertwoweeksandfourweekstopotentialparticipantswhohadnotyetcompleted
thesurvey,remindingthemofthesurveyclosuredate.Thesurveywasclosedafter
fiveweeksandnofurtherdatawereaccepted.Surveysweresubmittedthroughthe
securedatasoftwareREDCapinanon-identifyingformat.
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SongListResource
Theresearchercompiledallofthesongsreportedbysurveyrespondents
intoanalphabetizedlistandcorrectedresponsesthatwereoff-setdueto
respondentsreportinganswersinthewrongtextboxes.Ifmorethanonesongor
artistwaslistedbysurveyrespondentswithinasinglesurveyblank,theresearcher
onlyincludedthefirstone.Ifnoartistwaslisted,theresearcherlocatedtheoriginal
artistoridentifiedthesongasatraditionalsongorhymn.Theresearchercorrected
artistandsongtitleerrorsandremovedduplicatesfromthelistandlookedupsong
lyricsandrecordingsforeachsongusingavarietyofonlinelyricwebsites,Spotify
(https://www.spotify.com),andYouTube(https://www.youtube.com).Table1
showseachlyricwebsite,publisher,yearoflatestupdate,URL,andnumberofsongs
fromthewebsiteusedinthisstudy.Theresearcherexcludedsongsforwhichlyrics
orarecordingcouldnotbefound.Songswithoutlyricswereexcludedbasedonthe
researcher’soperationaldefinitionoflyricanalysis.Children’sbookssettomusic
wereexcludedbecausetheywerenotoriginallywrittenassongs.
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Table1
LyricW
ebsiteInformation
WebsiteTitle
Publisher
Year
URL
#of
Songs
LyricW
ikia
Wikia,Inc.
2017
Lyrics.wikia.com
662
AZLyrics
AZLyrics.com
2017
Azlyrics.com
10
Musixmatch
Musixmatch
2017
Musixmatch.com
6Hym
nlyrics.org
Hym
nlyrics.org
2017
Hym
nlyrics.org
5JanaStanfield
JanaStanfield’sKeynoteConcerts
2017
Janastanfield.com
2JewishLearningMatters
TheRosenfeldFoundation
2015
Jewishlearningm
atters.com
2Wikipedia:TheFreeEncyclopediaWikimediaFoundation
2017
Wikipedia.org
2AllTheLyrics.com
AllTheLyrics.com
2017
Allthelyrics.com
1
AylaNereo
Bandcamp,Inc.
2017
Aylanereo.bandcamp.com
1TheDisneyWiki
Wikia,Inc.
2017
Disney.wikia.com
1Genius
GeniusMediaGroup,Inc.
2017
Genius.com
1Kidsongs
TogetherAgainVideoProductions,Inc.
2016
Kidsongs.com
1LyricsMode
LyricsMode
2017
Lyricsmode.com
1LyricsTranslate
LyricsTranslate.com
2017
Lyricstranslate.com
1MetroLyrics
CBSInteractiveInc.
2017
Metrolyrics.com
1NewReleaseToday
NRTMediaInc.
2017
Newreleasetoday.com
1RoySakum
a.net
RoySakuma
2015
Roysakum
a.net
1
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LIWC2015Analysis
Theresearchercompiledsongslistedbyfiveormoremusictherapistsintoa
separatelistofmostcommonlyusedsongsforlyricanalysiswiththementalhealth
population.Whenthereweremultipleversionsofthesamesonglisted,the
researcherincludedthemostfrequentlylistedversionforanalysissothatmultiple
versionsofthesamesongwerenotanalyzed.
LyricsforeachsongwerecopiedandpastedintoseparateMicrosoftWord
files.Theresearcherandtworesearchassistantsthenlistenedtorecordingsof
everysongwithaspecifiedartistinordertocorrectlyricmistakes.Fortraditional
songsandhymns,lyricfileswerecheckedagainstlyricsrecordedinseveral
songbookscommonlyusedbymusictherapistsandmusictherapystudents(Blood
&Patterson,1998;Fox&Weissman,2007;Hackett,1998;Simon,1975).Twoofthe
consultedsongbookswerecitedina2016studyanalyzingsongsmostcommonly
usedbymusictherapistswitholderadultclients(Yinger&Springer,2016),andthe
remainingsongbookswereintheresearchadvisor’spersonalcollection.Songfiles
werepreparedforLIWC2015analysisinfivesteps:(1)wordsrepresentingsong
progressionmarkers(e.g.,verse,chorus,solo)wereremoved;(2)spellingerrors
werecorrected;(3)musicalnon-wordsounds(e.g.,mmm,nah,uh)wereremoved;
(4)uncommoncontractionswerespelledouttopreventthemfrombeingcounted
aspossessivenouns(e.g.,Sally’s,father’s,heart’s);and(5)commonslangand
abbreviationswereconvertedintofullwords(e.g.,dunno,walkin’,homie).Oncethe
songfileswereprepared,theresearcherranthemthroughtheLIWC2015software,
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generatingwordcountoutputsfor82languagedimensions,predominantly
displayedaspercentagesoftotalwordcount.
DataAnalysis
Datawereanalyzedusingdescriptivestatisticsandgraphicanalysis.
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CHAPTERFOUR
RESULTS
Thisstudyusedasurveytoexaminemusictherapists’songselectionforlyric
analysiswiththementalhealthpopulation.Atotalof6,757musictherapistswere
invitedviaemailtoparticipateinthesurvey.Oneemaildidnotgothroughandone
emailreturnedanautomatedmessagethattheaccountisnotlongerinuse.During
thefive-weekwindow,atotalof528musictherapistsemailedaresponsetothe
survey,and497completedvariouspartsthesurvey.Ofthe497whocompletedthe
survey,316wereeligibletobeincludedintheanalysis.Althoughtheresponserate
seemslow,itwasestimatedthatapproximately1,284musictherapistscurrently
workwithmentalhealthconsumersacrosssettingsandwouldbeeligibleto
participateinthesurvey(AMTA,2015;H.Burkett,personalcommunication,March
8,2017).Usingthisestimate,theresponseratewasapproximately25%.Descriptive
statisticswerecomputedforallvariablesinthesurveytoolandforLIWC2015
outputs.
DemographicInformation
Aspreviouslynoted,316musictherapistscompletedthesurveythrough
REDCapandwereeligibleforinclusioninthestudy.Asdescribedinthecoverletter,
individualswereallowedtoskipanysurveyquestions.Becauseparticipantsdidnot
answereveryquestion,resultsarebasedoffofthetotalnumberofparticipantswho
answeredeachquestionindividually.
Ofthe314participantswhoindicatedgender,83.8%identifiedasfemale(n=
263),15.0%identifiedasmale(n=47),and1.3%identifiedas“other”(n=4).No
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participantsidentifiedastransgender.Writtenresponsesfor“other”included:“all”;
“male,female,andtransgender”;and“bothmaleandfemale.”Ofalltheparticipants
whoindicatedage(N=315),thelargestnumberfellintotheagerange20-29years
(n=117),accountingfor37.1%ofresponses.Themajorityofparticipants(73%)
wereunderage40(n=230).Oneparticipantchosenottoindicateage.SeeTable2
belowforacompleteagebreakdown.
Table2AgesofParticipants(N=315)AgeRange n %<20years20-29years30-39years40-49years50-59years60-69years70+years
61171073235135
1.9%37.1%34.0%10.2%11.1%4.1%1.6%
Themajorityofparticipants(N=314)reportedtheirethnicity/raceas
Caucasian/White(n=280,89.2%),followedbyMultiracial(n=12,3.8%),Blackor
AfricanAmerican(n=7,2.2%),andAsian/AsianAmerican(n=7,2.2%).Remaining
participantsidentifiedasHispanic/Latino/Spanish(n=4,1.3%)orother(n=4,
1.3%).Writtenresponsesfor“other”included:“all,”“MiddleEastern,”and“Black
AmericanandWhiteAmerican.”NoparticipantsidentifiedasAmerican
Indian/AlaskaNativeorPacificIslander.
MusicTherapyBackground/CurrentWork
Overhalfofparticipants(N=315)indicatedthattheirhighestlevelof
educationwasamaster’sdegree(n=162,51.4%),whileremainingparticipants’
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highestlevelofeducationwaseitherabachelor’sdegree(n=146,46.3%)ora
doctoraldegree(n=7,2.2%).Allparticipants(N=316)answeredthequestionabout
theoreticalorientation.Thisquestionwasformattedsothatparticipantscould
selectmorethanoneoption;therefore,thetotalpercentageisgreaterthan100%.
TheoptionsmostfrequentlyselectedwereBehavioral(n=179,56.6%),
Humanistic/Existential(n=165,52.2%),andCognitive(n=165,52.2%).SeeTable3
belowforabreakdownofparticipants’theoreticalorientations.
Table3TheoreticalOrientationofParticipants(N=316)Orientation n %BehavioralHumanistic/ExistentialCognitiveHolisticPsychodynamicNeuroscienceOther
1791651651221066325
56.6%52.2%52.2%38.6%33.5%19.9%7.9%
Note.Responsesfor“other”included:music-centered,DialecticalBehaviorTherapy(DBT),faith-based,person/client-centered,eclectic,cognitivebehavioral,experiential,soulmaking,NeurosequentialModelofTherapeutics,trauma-focused,transpersonal,developmental,biomedical,mindfulness-based,andunaffiliatedtheoreticalorientation. OfthesevengeographicalregionsdefinedbytheAmericanMusicTherapy
Association(AMTA,2015),thelargestnumberofparticipants(N=312)reported
affiliationwiththeMid-Atlanticregion(n=74,23.7%),followedbytheSoutheastern
region(n=59,18.9%)andtheGreatLakesregion(n=58,18.6%).SeeTable4fora
completebreakdownofparticipants’affiliatedregions.
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Table4AffiliatedRegionofParticipants(N=312)AffiliatedRegion n %Mid-AtlanticSoutheasternGreatLakesWesternSouthwesternMidwesternNewEngland
74595848302914
23.7%18.9%18.6%15.4%9.6%9.3%4.5%
Ofthe315participantswhoreportedyearsofexperienceasamusictherapy
professional,thegreatestnumberhad1-5yearsofexperience(n=121,38.4%).
RefertoTable5forabreakdownofyearsofmusictherapyexperience.
Table5YearsofProfessionalMusicTherapyExperience(N=315)YearsofExperience n %<11-56-1011-1516-2021-2526-3030+
2812173381791118
8.9%38.4%23.2%12.1%5.4%2.9%3.5%5.7%
WorksettingoptionsweredefinedbytheAmericanMusicTherapy
Association(AMTA,2015).Participantswerefreetoselectasmanyoptionsas
appliedtotheircurrentwork.Themajorityofparticipants(N=315)reported
currentlyworkinginthementalhealthsetting(n=225,71.4%),whichincluded
child/adolescenttreatmentcenters,communitymentalhealthcenters,drug/alcohol
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programs,forensicfacilities,andinpatientpsychiatricunits.Table6offersa
completebreakdownofparticipants’currentworksettings.
Table6WorkSetting(N=315)WorkSetting n %MentalHealthSettingMedicalSettingSelfEmployed&PrivatePracticeGeriatricFacilityChildren’sFacility/SchoolOther
2258686684818
71.4%27.3%27.3%21.6%15.2%5.7%
Note.Responsesfor“other”included:dayrehabforadultswithintellectualanddevelopmentaldisabilities(IDD),Medicaidwaiverserviceprovider,physicaltherapypractice,correctionalfacility/stateprison,statedevelopmentalcenter,IntermediateCareFacilityfortheDevelopmentallyDisabled(ICF/DD),state-runfacilityfordevelopmentallydisabledadultswithmultiplediagnoses,hospiceandpalliativecare,community-basedclinic,home-basedoutpatientcareforveteranswithtraumaticbraininjury(TBI)andpost-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD),non-profit,women’sempowerment,universityclinic,chronicpainandbereavement.
UseofLyricAnalysis
Themajorityofparticipants(N=315)indicatedthattheycurrentlyuselyric
analysiswithoneormoreconsumerswithamentalhealthdiagnosiswithinthe
mentalhealthsetting(n=228,72.4%).SeeTable7foracompletebreakdownofthe
settingsinwhichparticipantscurrentlyuselyricanalysiswithmentalhealth
consumers.
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Table7SettingWhereParticipantsUseLyricAnalysis(N=315)Setting n %MentalHealthSettingMedicalSettingSelfEmployed&PrivatePracticeGeriatricFacilityChildren’sFacilityOther
2287561452114
72.4%23.8%19.4%14.3%6.7%4.4%
Note.Responsesfor“other”included:dayrehabforadultswithintellectualanddevelopmentaldisabilities(IDD),Medicaidwaiverserviceprovider,physicaltherapypractice,correctionalfacility,state-runfacilityfordevelopmentaldisabledwithmultiplediagnoses,community-basedclinic,home-basedoutpatientcareforveteranswithTBIandPTSD,women’sempowerment,hospiceandpalliativecare,chronicpainandbereavement.Ofthe316musictherapistswhocompletedthesurveyandwereeligiblefor
inclusioninthestudy,285(90.2%)listedonetofiveoftheirmosteffectivesongsfor
lyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumers.Respondentsreportedatotalof1,333
songs,and700differentsongswereincludedinthesonglistresourceafter
accountingforduplicatesandnecessaryexclusions.SeeFigure1forasonginclusion
flowchart,andseeAppendixDforthefullsonglistresource.
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Figure1.FlowofSongsIncludedinSongListResource
Atotalof283surveyrespondents(89.6%)listedtheprimarytreatment
theme/objectiveforonetofiveoftheirmosteffectivesongsforlyricanalysis.When
respondentswroteinmultipletreatmentthemes/objectivesforonesong,the
researcheronlyreportedthefirstone.Therewere1,314primarytreatment
themes/objectiveslisted.Afterduplicateswereaccountedforandsimilar
themes/objectivesweregroupedtogether,therewere134differenttreatment
themes/objectives.SeeTable8forthetwentymostfrequentlylisted
themes/objectives,andseeAppendixEforthecompletelist.
1333songslistedbysurveyrespondents
709differentsongs
624duplicates
9songsexcluded:Nolyrics/recording(4)Children'sbooks(4)Nolyrics(1)
700songsincludedinsonglistresource
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Table8
TopTwentyPrimaryTreatmentThemes/Objectives
TreatmentTheme/Objective nFeelings/Emotions 78Copingskills 77Support 72Empowerment 58Addiction/Substanceabuse 55Self-esteem 54Change 49Relationships 49Identity 44Settingandachievinggoals 44Acceptance 42Self-examination 27Hope 26Motivation 25Overcomingobstacles 25Positivethinking 24DBTskills 23Mentalhealth/illness 23Grief/Loss 22Choices 21
Thesixmostfrequentlyaddressedtreatmentthemes/objectiveswere
feelings/emotions,copingskills,support,empowerment,addiction/substance
abuse,andself-esteem.
PrimaryResearchQuestion
Whataredistinguishingcharacteristicsofsonglyricsmostcommonlyusedforlyric
analysiswiththementalhealthpopulationasmeasuredbyLinguisticInquiryand
WordCount(LIWC)software?
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Therewere48differentsongslistedbyfiveormoremusictherapistsastheir
mosteffectivesongsforlyricanalysiswiththementalhealthpopulation(SeeTable
9).
Table9
MostCommonlyUsedSongsforLyricAnalysisWiththeMentalHealthPopulation
Song n ArtistLetItBe 31 TheBeatles*(30)/PaulMcCartney(1)LeanonMe 29 BillWithersBridgeOverTroubledWater
25 SimonandGarfunkel*(22)/PaulSimon(2)/ArtGarfunkel(1)
ManintheMirror 20 MichaelJacksonBrave 16 SaraBareillesDrive 16 IncubusFightSong 16 RachelPlattenLandslide 16 FleetwoodMac*(13)/StevieNicks(3)WhataWonderfulWorld 13 LouisArmstrongICanSeeClearlyNow 12 JohnnyNash*(10)/JimmyCliff(2)Perfect*(10)/F**kin'Perfect(2)
12 P!nk
TheClimb 12 MileyCyrusBeautiful 11 ChristinaAguileraHurt 11 JohnnyCash*(6)/NineInchNails(5)Unwell 10 MatchboxTwentyIWon’tBackDown 9 TomPettyTimesLikeThese 9 FooFightersTrueColors 9 CyndiLauper*(6)/PhilCollins(3)You’veGotaFriend 9 CaroleKing*(4)/CaroleKing&James
Taylor(3)/JamesTaylor(2)3Things 7 JasonMraz7Years 7 LukasGrahamDemons 7 ImagineDragonsDesperado 7 EaglesDon’tWorry,BeHappy 7 BobbyMcFerrinHandinMyPocket 7 AlanisMorissetteStartingOver 7 Macklemore&RyanLewisTry 7 ColbieCaillatUndertheBridge 7 RedHotChiliPeppersBeOK 6 IngridMichaelson
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Table9,continuedSong n ArtistCountOnMe 6 BrunoMarsDon’tStop 6 FleetwoodMacFirework 6 KatyPerryHuman 6 ChristinaPerriMyFavoriteThings 6 JulieAndrewsSay 6 JohnMayerStandbyMe 6 BenE.KingThreeLittleBirds 6 BobMarley&TheWailersAChangeIsGonnaCome 5 SamCookeAmazingGrace 5 hymnBlackbird 5 TheBeatlesBreathe(2AM) 5 AnnaNalickIHopeYouDance 5 LeeAnnWomackImagine 5 JohnLennonLostBoy 5 RuthBNumb 5 LinkinParkRiseUp 5 AndraDayShakeItOut 5 Florence+theMachineYouGottaBe 5 Des'reeNote.Forsongswithmorethanoneversionlistedbymusictherapists,onlythemostfrequentlylistedversionwasincludedintheLIWCanalysistoavoidlyricduplication.Analyzedversionsaredenotedbyanasterisk(*)forthosesongswithmultipletitlesormultipleartists.TheLIWC2015softwareanalyzedthe48mostcommonlyusedsongs,generating
wordcountdataacross82linguisticdomains.Meansandstandarddeviationsfor
eachdomainarereportedinAppendixF.Asidefromtotalwordcount,wordsper
sentence,andthefoursummarylanguagevariables,meansrepresentpercentagesof
totalwordcount.Thefoursummarylanguagevariablesarebasedonalgorithms
involvingotherLIWCdomainsandarereportedona100-pointscalerangingfrom0
to100(Pennebaker,Booth,Boyd,&Francis,2015).
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Domainsofparticularinterestwereselectedbasedonpastresearchfindings
andontheresearcher’sassessmentofrelevancetothecurrentstudy.Meansand
standarddeviationsforthesedomainsarereportedbelowinTable10.
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Table10
LIWCDomainsofInterest
LIWCDomains Mean SDWordcount 284.25 115.45SummaryLanguageVariables
Analyticalthinking 25.22 22.89Clout 53.21 35.45Authentic 73.34 31.95Emotionaltone 51.34 34.81GeneralDescriptors Dictionarywords 94.11 4.83StandardLinguisticDimensions
Personalpronouns 15.72 5.121stpersonsingular 8.98 5.481stpersonplural 0.77 1.442ndperson 5.15 4.633rdpersonsingular 0.29 0.653rdpersonplural 0.54 0.76Negations 2.94 3.56PsychologicalProcesses
Affectiveprocesses 6.96 5.34Positiveemotion 4.39 4.11Negativeemotion 2.54 2.59Socialprocesses 11.21 7.48Family 0.27 0.51Friends 0.4 0.82Cognitiveprocesses 11.84 5.62Perceptualprocesses 5.69 5.69Biologicalprocesses 2.32 1.59Sexual 0.03 0.12Drives 7.18 5.27Affiliation 1.89 2.11Timeorientations
Pastfocus 2.83 3.19Presentfocus 18.85 8.53Futurefocus 3.53 3.24Personalconcerns
Death 0.15 0.43Informallanguage 1.97 2.34Swearwords 0.07 0.19
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WordCountandDictionaryWords.Totalwordcountwashighlyvariable
(M=284.25,SD=115.45),witharangeof102to633wordspersong.Onaverage,
94.11%ofallwordsinsonglyricswererecognizedbyLIWC2015dictionaries(SD=
4.83).
SummaryLanguageVariables.Thefoursummarylanguagevariableswere
calculatedbyLIWCasscoresonascaleof0to100.Songlyricsscoredlowoverallon
analyticalthinking(M=25.22,SD=22.89)andhighoverallonauthenticlanguage
(M=73.34,SD=31.95).Scoresforclout(M=53.21,SD=35.45)andemotionaltone
(M=51.34,SD=34.81)wereinthemiddle.
StandardLinguisticDimensions.Personalpronounsmadeup15.72%of
totalwordcount(SD=5.12).Thereweremorefirstpersonsingularpronouns(M=
8.98%,SD=5.48)thanallothertypesofpronounscombined,thoughsecondperson
pronounshadthenexthighestratebyfarat5.15%(SD=4.63).Negationsmadeup
2.94%ofwordcount(SD=3.56).
PsychologicalProcesses.Cognitiveprocesswords(M=11.84%,SD=5.62)
andsocialprocesswords(M=11.21%,SD=7.48)wereprominentinthesonglyrics,
thoughspecificsocialreferencestofamily(M=0.27%,SD=0.51)andfriends(M=
0.4%,SD=0.82)wererelativelylow.Affectiveprocesswordsmadeup6.96%of
wordcount(SD=5.34),andpositiveemotionwords(M=4.39%,SD=4.11)tended
tooutnumbernegativeemotionwords(M=2.54%,SD=2.54),thoughtherewas
somevariability.
Perceptualprocesswordsmadeup5.69%oftotalwordcount(SD=5.69),
andwordsrelatedtoseeing(M=2.88%,SD=4.86)outnumberedwordsrelatedto
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hearing(M=1.56%,SD=3.67)andfeeling(M=1.11%,SD=1.16).Withinthe
biologicalprocesswordsdomain(M=2.32%,SD=1.59),sexualwordswerevery
infrequent(M=0.03%,SD=0.12).Allwordsrelatedtospecificdrivesormotives
madeup7.18%oftotalwordcount(SD=5.27),whilewordsspecificallyassociated
withaffiliationmadeup1.89%oftotalwordcount(SD=2.11).
Withregardtotimeorientations,presentfocuswords(M=18.85%,SD=
8.53)greatlyoutnumberedfuturefocuswords(M=3.53%,SD=3.24)andpast
focuswords(M=2.83,SD=3.19).Wordsrelatedtodeath(M=0.15%,SD=0.43)
werefairlyinfrequent,aswereswearwords(M=0.07,SD=0.19).
SecondaryResearchQuestion
Whatsongsdomusictherapistsdeemmosteffectiveforlyricanalysisintheirwork
withthementalhealthpopulation?
Surveyrespondentsreportedatotalof1,333songstheydeemedmost
effectiveforlyricanalysisinterventionswiththementalhealthpopulation.The
researcherincluded700differentsongsinthesonglistresourceafteraccounting
forduplicatesandnecessaryexclusions(SeeAppendixD).
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CHAPTERFIVE
DISCUSSION
PrimaryResearchQuestion
Whataredistinguishingcharacteristicsofsonglyricsmostcommonlyusedforlyric
analysiswiththementalhealthpopulationasmeasuredbyLinguisticInquiryand
WordCount(LIWC)software?
TheLIWCanalysisofsongsmostcommonlyusedbymusictherapistsfor
lyricanalysiswiththementalhealthpopulationrevealedinterestinglinguistic
trendsalongavarietyofdomains.
WordCountandDictionaryWords
Wordcountforeachsongwashigherthan25,indicatingappropriatenessfor
LIWC2015analysis(Pennebaker,Boyd,etal.,2015).Furthermore,94%ofallwords
inthesonglyricswerecapturedbyLIWCdictionaries,whichisevenhigherthanthe
86%ofallwordsthatLIWC2015claimstocaptureingeneral(Pennebaker,Boyd,et
al.,2015).
SummaryLanguageVariables
Songlyricsmostcommonlyusedforlyricanalysiswithmentalhealth
consumersscoredlowoverallonanalyticalthinking,indicatingthattheywere
writteninamoreinformal,personal,here-and-now,andnarrativestyleasopposed
toamoreformal,logical,andhierarchicalstyle(Pennebaker,Booth,etal.,2015).
Thismakessense,sincesonglyricsaretypicallywritteninanarrativestyleandare
notconsideredtobeformalwriting.Althoughtheartisticmedium(song)may
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largelyexplainthelowscore,itisimportanttonotethatsongsdonotautomatically
scorelowonanalyticalthinking.Thisisevidentinthevariabilityofmeanscores.
Musictherapistsmayfindthatsongswrittenmoreinformallywithagreaterfocus
onthehere-and-nowresonatewithmentalhealthconsumersandaregenerally
moreeffectiveinachievingclient/patientgoals.Theanalyticalthinkingscalewas
developedbasedonanalgorithmusedinpastresearchtomeasurecategorical
versusdynamicthinkinginwritingsamples(Pennebakeretal.,2014).Amore
dynamicthinkingstyle,whichcorrespondstoalowscoreontheLIWC2015
analyticalthinkingdomain,hasbeenassociatedwithsuicidalityinmusicians
(Markowitz&Hancock,2016).Mentalhealthconsumersmayconnectwithsongs
scoringlowonanalyticalthinkingbecausethewritingstyleconveysasimilarlevel
ofpsychologicaldistressastheseconsumersarecurrentlyexperiencing.Thismay
playintotheperceivedeffectivenessofthesesongsforlyricanalysis.
Songlyricsusedforlyricanalysisscoredhighontheauthenticdomain,
indicatingamorehonest,personal,anddisclosingwritingstyleasopposedtoa
moreguardedanddistancedwritingstyle(Pennebaker,Booth,etal.,2015).Lyric
analysisisfrequentlyusedasanon-threateningwaytoengagementalhealth
consumersinopeningupabouttheirownsituations,struggles,fears,andhopes.
Individualsaregenerallymorereceptivetopersonaldisclosurewhentheyfeela
senseoftrustandsafety.Itmayputclients/patientsmoreateaseandhelpwith
rapportbuildingwhensongswithgreatertransparencyandauthenticityarechosen
forlyricanalysis.
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Cloutisalinguisticdomainreflectingtheconfidenceinawritingsample.A
highscorereflectsexpertiseandconfidenceinthewriting,whilealowscorereflects
tentativeness,humility,andanxietyinthewriting(Pennebaker,Booth,etal.,2015).
Songlyricsscoredinthemiddleoverall,butthehighvariabilitysuggeststhatthisis
duetovaryinglevelsofcloutbetweensongs.Musictherapistsmaychoosesongs
withvaryinglevelsofcloutfordifferentreasons.Songswithahighlevelofclout
maybedesirableforinspiringtrust,hope,andchangeinmentalhealthconsumers,
whilesongswithalowlevelofcloutmaybebetterforvalidatingcurrentconsumer
feelingsandexploringanxietyoralackofconfidenceintheconsumer.
Songlyricsalsoscoredinthemiddleontheemotionaltonedomain.High
emotionaltonereflectsapositive,upbeatwritingstyle,whilealownumberreflects
ananxious,sad,orhostilewritingstyle(Pennebaker,Booth,etal.,2015).Aswith
clout,therewasahighdegreeofvariabilityinthemeanscores.Somesongsreflected
amorepositiveemotionaltone,whileothersreflectedamorenegativeemotional
tone.Musictherapistsmayfindthatsongsreflectinghighpositivityaremore
effectiveincertaincontexts,whilesongsreflectinghighnegativityaremore
effectiveinothers.Thismayvarydependingonstageoftreatment,therapist-
consumerrapport,patient-preferredmusic,andtreatmentgoals.Intheearlystages
oftreatmentoratthebeginningofamusictherapysession,itmaybemosteffective
tomeetconsumerswheretheyareemotionallyforvalidation,rapportbuilding,and
initialexplorationoftherapeuticissues.Ifconsumersareinitiallyinaverynegative
headspaceorgenerallyprefertolistentomusicthatismore“moody,”itcouldbe
counterproductivetoinitiallyusemusicwithextremelypositiveandhopefullyrics
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orinanon-preferredgenreorstyle.Usingmusicwithhighlypositivelyricswitha
clientwhoisexperiencingnegativeemotionscouldactuallybedamagingtothe
therapeuticrelationship,causingpatients/clientstocloseoffemotionally.When
consumersareready,songlyricsreflectingapositiveemotionaltonemaybemore
appropriateandhealing.Theemotionaltonescalewasbasedonanalgorithm
developedinapaststudytomeasurethelevelofoverallemotionalpositivityin
writingsamples(Cohnetal.,2004).Thispreviousstudyfoundthatindividuals
highlypreoccupiedwithatraumaticexperiencedisplayedlowerlevelsofpositivity
immediatelyfollowingthetraumabutgraduallyreturnedtobaselineratesof
emotionalpositivityoverthenexttwoweeks.Mentalhealthconsumersexperience
greaterdifficultywithemotionalpositivityduetonegativethoughtpatterns,
struggleswithhopelessness,andpoorcopingskills(Clark&Beck,2010).Ittypically
takeslongerfortheseconsumerstochangetheiroutlookfrompredominantly
negativetopredominantlypositive.Theseconsumerslikelyconnectmoredeeply
withsongsreflectingthenegativitywithwhichtheyarepreoccupied,leadingmusic
therapiststochoosesomesongswithnegativeemotionaltone.Althoughtheycan
inspiredeeptherapeuticdiscussionleadingtonewinsightsincertaincontexts,
negativesonglyricsmayalsoperpetuatenegativeruminationtendenciesinmental
healthconsumers.Lyricswithmoreemotionalpositivitymaysometimesbemore
effectiveinhelpingconsumerstakeanewperspectiveandbreakfreefromnegative
cycles.
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StandardLinguisticDimensions
Therelativelyhighrateoffirstpersonsingularpronounsincomparisonwith
otherpersonalpronounsindicatesahighlevelofself-focusedattentioninsong
lyrics.Thefocusofthelyricsison“me”asopposedto“him/her/them”or“you.”
Thissuggeststhatthemostcommonlyusedsongsforlyricanalysiswiththemental
healthpopulationaregenerallywritteninfirstperson.Songswritteninfirstperson
maybeeasierformentalhealthconsumerstorelatetoandprojecttheirexperiences
uponduetothetendencyoftheseindividualstobemoreself-preoccupied
(Pyszcynski&Greenberg,1987).Highratesoffirstpersonsingularpronounuse
havebeenassociatedinpastresearchwithmentalillness(Margolaetal.,2010;
Markowitz&Hancock,2016;Rudeetal.,2004;Stirman&Pennebaker,2001),
supportingtheself-focustheory.
Secondpersonpronounswerethesecondmostprominenttypeofpersonal
pronounsfoundintheanalyzedsonglyrics.Theymadeup5.15%oftotalword
count,whichisveryhighincomparisonwiththe0.68%foundinexpressivewriting
samples(Pennebaker,Boyd,etal.,2015),thoughitisimportanttonotethatonlythe
meanswerereportedforpronounuseinexpressivewritingsamples,andnotthe
standarddeviations.Inpastresearch,higherratesofsecondpersonpronounshave
beenpredictiveoflower-qualityrelationships(Tausczik&Pennebaker,2010).
Songsreferencing“you”and“your”mostfrequentlymaybemoreblamingand
confrontationalinnature.Mentalhealthconsumersmayrelatemorecloselywith
songswritteninthisstyle.Whilethismaybethecase,itisalsoimportantto
considerthatmusictherapistsmaypicksongswithahighrateofsecondperson
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pronounssimplybecausetheyconveyaclearmessagedirectlytothelistener.The
messagecouldbepositive(e.g.,“youarebeautiful”)asopposedtoconfrontationalor
blaming.
Negationsarewordslike“no,”“never,”and“not”thatmayinfluencethe
accuracyofotherlinguisticcategorypercentages.Forexample,thephrase,“Iamnot
sad”wouldbescoredbyLIWCascontainingonenegativeemotionwordandno
positiveemotionwordseventhoughtheoverallmessageofthephraseispositive.
Closeto3%ofallwordsinthemostcommonlyusedsongswerenegations.Thisis
highcomparedtothe1.69%foundinanexpressivewritingsamplereportedonby
Pennebaker,Boyd,etal.intheircalculationofbaseratesofwordusagefor
LIWC2015(2015).Nostandarddeviationwasreportedfortheexpressivewriting
sample,however,sotruecomparisonislimited.
PsychologicalProcesses
Over20%ofallwordsinthesonglyricsmostcommonlyusedbymusic
therapistsrelatedtocognitiveandsocialprocesses.Thecognitiveprocessesdomain
consistsofthefollowingsub-categories:insight,causation,discrepancy,
tentativeness,certainty,anddifferentiation.Therateofcognitiveprocesswordsina
writingsampleoffersaglimpseintohowthewriterisprocessingandinterpreting
informationinordertomentallyorganizetheirenvironment(Tausczik&
Pennebaker,2010).Higherratesofcognitiveprocesswordshavebeenassociated
withpositivecopingandrecoveryfromtrauma(Margolaetal.,2010;Pennebakeret
al.,2003).Musictherapistsmayfindthatsongswithmorecognitiveprocesswords
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encouragementalhealthconsumerstochallengecurrentthoughtpatternsand
developgreaterinsightintotheirownsituations.
Isolationisacommonstruggleformentalhealthconsumers,andsongswith
highratesofsocialprocesswordsmaybedesirableforincreasingsocializationor
facilitatingconversationaboutsupportsystems.Whilesocialprocesswordswere
prominentinthesonglyrics,itisinterestingtonotethatreferencestofamilyand
friendswereverylow.Sometimesfamilymembersandcurrentfriendscanbe
unsafepeopleforindividualswithmentalillness,andencouragingabroader
discussionaboutdevelopingnewsupportsystemscanbemorehealthyand
productivethandwellingoncurrentunhealthyrelationships.Thismayplayintothe
lowfamilyandfriendreferencesfoundinthemostcommonlyusedsonglyrics.Also,
itisimportanttoconsiderhowtherateofsecondpersonpronounscaninfluence
theinterpretationofthesocialprocessesdomain.Manyofthewordscalculated
withinthesocialprocessesdomainmayhavebeensecondpersonpronouns,which
actuallyreflectpoor-qualityrelationships.
Affectiveprocesswordswerelessfrequentthancognitiveprocesswordsand
socialprocesswords,thoughthemeanrate(6.96%)wasstillhigherthanthemean
rateforaffectiveprocesswordsinexpressivewritingsamples(M=4.77%)
(Pennebaker,Boyd,etal.,2015).Emotionregulation,expression,andexploration
aresoimportantformentalhealthconsumersandfeelings/emotionswasthemost
frequentlyreportedtreatmenttheme/objectiveaddressedbymusictherapistsin
thecurrentsurvey,soitissomewhatsurprisingthattherateofaffectiveprocess
wordswasnothigher.Thismaybeatleastpartiallyexplainedbymusicasaunique
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mediumofemotionalexpression.Musichastheabilitytovividlyrelayandeven
induceemotioninitslisteners,butthishastodowithmuchmorethansonglyrics
alone.Musicalelementssuchastimbre,rhythm,tempo,melody,harmony,
dynamics,andstylegreatlyaffecttheoverallmoodofasongandmustbecarefully
consideredwhenselectingappropriatemusicforusewithmentalhealthconsumers
(Hanson-Abromeit,2015).Additionally,withrelationtosonglyrics,literarydevices
andlinguisticelementsbesidesovertemotionreferencesmaybeusedtoconvey
emotion.Withintheaffectiveprocessesdomain,positiveemotionwordswereused
morefrequentlythannegativeemotionwords,thoughtherewashighvariabilityin
bothcategories.Pastwritingstudieshaveshownthathighratesofpositiveemotion
wordsandmoderateratesofnegativeemotionwordsarepredictorsofphysical
health(Pennebaker,1997).Itseemsthattheexpressionofnegativeemotionis
extremelyimportantinprocessingdifficultiesuptoapoint,pastwhichitcanbe
unproductiveandleadtopoorerhealth.
Songlyricsmostcommonlyusedforlyricanalysiswithmentalhealth
consumerscontainedahighrateofperceptualprocesswords(M=5.69%)when
comparedwiththemeanrateof2.38%foundinexpressivewritingsamples,though,
again,thiscomparisonmustbemadetentativelyduetothelackofstandard
deviationsreportedforexpressivewritingsamples(Pennebaker,Boyd,etal.,2015).
Perceptualprocesswordsmayhelplistenerstobetterconnectwithsonglyricsby
referencingwhatthesongwriterormaincharacterisseeing,hearing,andfeelingin
agivenmoment.Musictherapistsmaychoosesongswithhigherratesofperceptual
processwordswhentheywantmentalhealthconsumerstoidentifycloselywitha
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songortoimaginewhatitmightbeliketoexperiencewhatishappeninginasong.
Conversely,musictherapistsmaychoosesongswithlowerratesofperceptual
processwordsifthethematiccontentmaybetriggeringforemotionallyfragile
consumersorifthesongisintendedtosupplyapoint-of-viewthatthemusic
therapistwantsconsumerstodisassociatefrom.
Sexualwordswereveryinfrequentwithinthebiologicalprocessesdomain.
Musictherapistsmayfindthatsongswithahighrateofsexualwordsare
inappropriateorunnecessaryinmanytherapeuticcontexts.Inarecentsurveyon
thecurrentstateofcensorshipinadultpsychiatricmusictherapypractice,music
therapistsreportedcensoringsexualthemesandlyricscontaining“sexual
references”and“explicitsexuality”(Joplin&Dvorak,2016).
Withinthetimeorientationscategory,presentfocuswordsweremuchmore
commonthanfuturefocusorpastfocuswords.Songswithagreaterfocusonthe
presentmaybemostcommonlyusedforlyricanalysiswithmentalhealth
consumersduetothenatureoftreatment.Currentmentalhealthcaredeliveryhas
shiftedtowardsshort-termacuteinpatientstays,wheretherapyisdeliveredina
primarilysingle-sessionmodel(Eyre&Lee,2015).Thefocusisgenerallyon
immediateneedsandconcerns;therefore,songsthatfocusonthepresentas
opposedtothepastorfuturemaybemosteffectiveatmeetingthoseneeds.Thisis
nottosaythatdependingonthesetting,specificconsumerneeds,andtimeframe
availablefortreatment,itmightnotbeappropriatetousesongswithmorepastor
futurereferences.Itcanbeextremelyvaluableformentalhealthconsumerstodelve
intopastissuesoreventsandtothinkaboutthefuture.
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Songsmostcommonlyusedforlyricanalysiswiththementalhealth
populationcontainedveryfewdeath-themedwordsandswearwords.Music
therapistsmaybewaryofusingsongswithhighratesofdeath-themedwordswitha
populationthatissopronetosuicidalideationandsuicideattempt.Whilesongs
thatopenlyreferencedeathmaybeappropriateandeffectiveincertaincontexts,
musictherapistsappeartousesongwithoutthesereferencesmuchmore
frequently.Thelowrateofswearwordsreflectstrendsofcensorshipincurrent
practice(Joplin&Dvorak,2016).
SecondaryResearchQuestion
Whatsongsdomusictherapistsdeemmosteffectiveforlyricanalysisintheirwork
withthementalhealthpopulation?
Surveyrespondentsreported700differentsongsthattheydeemedmost
effectiveforlyricanalysisintheircurrentworkwithmentalhealthconsumers.
Whiletherewassomeoverlapinthesongsmusictherapistsreported,73%ofthe
songswereonlylistedbyonemusictherapist.Thisshowsthatmusictherapistsare
incorporatingawidevarietyofsongsintotheirpracticewithmentalhealth
consumers.Itisalsoworthnotingthatseveralsurveyrespondentsreportedusing
originalsongsforlyricanalysis.
Limitations
Thecurrentstudyposedseverallimitations.Surveyresearchrelieson
participantself-report,andthereisnowaytoknowwhetherparticipantsprovided
accurateandunbiasedresponses.Additionally,thesurveytoolwasemailedtoa
totalof6,757musictherapists;however,thereisnowaytoknowhowmanyof
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thesepotentialparticipantsworkwithmentalhealthconsumersanduselyric
analysis.Whiletheresponseratewasgoodinrelationtotheestimateofeligible
participants,itwasverylowinrelationtothetotalnumberofmusictherapists
initiallyinvitedtoparticipate.
Theonlinenatureofthesurveyposedproblemsforseveralmusictherapists
whoreporteddifficultieswiththesurveylink.Also,theresearcherreceivedmultiple
automatedemailrepliesstatingthatthepotentialparticipantwasoutoftheoffice
foraperiodoftime.Thismayhaveincreasedthechancesofsurveysgettinglostin
inboxesorspamfolders.
Anotherlimitationofthecurrentstudyrelatestothesurveycoverletter.The
researcherrealizedduringdataanalysisthatanearlierversionofthesurveycover
letterwasaccidentallysentouttoparticipants.Theearlierversionofthecover
letterstatedthatallmusictherapistswhousedlyricanalysiswereeligibleto
participateinthesurvey,regardlessofthepatient/clientpopulationwithwhich
theyworked.Theinstructionslistedontheactualsurveyinstructedparticipantsto
discontinuethesurveyiftheydidnotcurrentlyworkwiththementalhealth
population.Thecontradictionbetweenthecoverletterandthesurveymayhave
causedconfusionforrespondents,resultinginalargenumberofmusictherapists
continuingtofilloutthesurveyafteranswering“no”totheinitialquestionasking
aboutcurrentworkusinglyricanalysiswiththementalhealthpopulation.The
musictherapistwasabletoexcludeallmusictherapistswhodidnotreport
currentlyusinglyricanalysiswiththementalhealthpopulationfromdataanalysis,
sothedatawasstillvalidforthecurrentstudy.Still,thisoversightlikelycaused
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confusionforparticipantsandmayhaveevendeterredpotentialrespondentsfrom
participating.
Thisstudywasexploratoryinnature,soresultsmustbeinterpretedwith
caution.Thestudywasdesignedtogaingeneralinformationregardinglinguistic
trendsinsonglyricsmostcommonlyusedforlyricanalysiswiththementalhealth
populationinordertoinformfutureresearch.Thereisaneedtofurthervalidate
LIWCasatoolforstudyingsonglyriccontent,particularlyasrelatedtomusic
therapypractice.
SuggestionsforFutureResearch
Thecurrentresearchstudywasdesignedtocollectpreliminaryinformation
onlinguisticcharacteristicsofsonglyricsmostcommonlyusedforlyricanalysis
withthementalhealthpopulation.Theexploratoryoutcomescanserveasastarting
pointformorefocusedresearchinthefuture.Futurestudiescouldcomparesong
lyricschosenbymusictherapistsforlyricanalysisinmentalhealthpracticewith
topBillboardhitsfromcorrespondingdecadestoseeifthereareanysignificant
differencesorifthedistinguishingcharacteristicsidentifiedbythepresentstudyare
consistentwithpopularmusicingeneral.
Additionally,futureresearchmightinvestigatethefeasibilityofusingLIWC
asatooltohelpmusictherapistswithappropriatesongselection.Whiletherapist
judgmentwillalwaysbecrucial,theremaybewaysinwhichLIWCcouldassistin
thesongselectionprocess.Itwouldbeinterestingtolookforcorrelationsbetween
specificlinguisticdomainsandtreatmentthemesandobjectivesreportedforsongs.
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Futureresearchshouldlookintowhatsongsmentalhealthconsumers
perceiveasbeingmosteffective.Itisimportanttoconsidertheconsumerin
treatmentplanningsothatthetherapistandconsumercanworktogethertoachieve
thebestpossibleoutcomes.Itwouldbeinterestingtoseeifthesongsperceivedas
mosteffectivebymusictherapistscontainsimilarlinguisticprofilestosongs
perceivedasmosteffectivebymentalhealthconsumers.
ImplicationsforCurrentPractice
Becausemusicisthetherapeuticmediumforchangewithinmusictherapy,
songselectionisincrediblyimportant.Thetherapeuticfunctionofsonglyrics
shouldbecarefullyconsideredwhenchoosingsongsforlyricanalysiswiththe
mentalhealthpopulation.Whileresultsofthecurrentstudyshouldbeinterpreted
withcautionandusedasthebasisforfutureresearch,theyalsoofferimplications
forclinicalpracticeinmusictherapy.First,thelinguisticdomainsexploredinthe
currentstudymightbehelpfulformusictherapiststoconsiderwhenselecting
appropriatesongsforlyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumers.Whilemost
musictherapistswillnothaveaccesstotheLIWCsoftware,norwillthisaccess
necessarilybehelpfulatthisstageintheresearch,therapistscanlookatsonglyrics
togetageneralideaaboutlinguisticelementslikepositiveandnegativeemotion
words,personalpronouns,past/present/futurefocuswords,cognitiveprocess
words,andsocialprocesswords.
Additionally,thesonglistresourcemaybeusedbymusictherapiststofind
songsthatothertherapistsreportasbeingeffectivewiththementalhealth
population.Individualtherapistjudgmentisstillincrediblyimportant,butthesong
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listresourcecouldbehelpfulforfindingnewsongsrelevanttomentalhealth
consumers.
Asthenumberofmusictherapistsworkingwiththementalhealth
populationgrows,itiscrucialthatmusictherapistshavethenecessarytoolsto
providethebestpossibletreatment.Sincelyricanalysisisoneofthemost
commonlyusedmusictherapyinterventionswiththispopulation,moreresearchon
appropriatesongselectionisneeded.Theresearcherhopesthatthecurrentstudy
providesabetterunderstandingofcurrentsongselectionpracticesforlyricanalysis
withthementalhealthpopulation.
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AppendixA:IRBExemptionCertification
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AppendixB:SurveyCoverLetter
DearCBMTMember,StudyOverviewYouarebeinginvitedtoparticipateinaresearchstudylookingattheuseoflyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumersacrosssettings.Specifically,thisstudywillexaminethelinguisticelementsofsonglyricsusedforlyricanalysiswithconsumerswithmentalhealthdiagnoses.Youwereselectedbecauseyouareaboard-certifiedmusictherapistwhooptedtoreceiveemailsthroughtheCBMT.ThisstudyisaresearchprojectconductedbyAshleyMiller,MT-BC,tofulfillherthesisrequirementsaspartofthemaster’sdegreeprogramattheUniversityofKentucky.Yourparticipationinthissurveywillhelpadvancethefieldofmusictherapybyprovidingabetterunderstandingofsongselectionforlyricanalysiswithconsumerswithmentalhealthdiagnoses.Whatwillyoubeaskedtodo?Ifyouagreetoparticipate,youwillcompleteabriefsurveyaboutyourworkinanysettingwhereyouuselyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumers.Youwillbeaskedaboutyourmosteffectivesongsforlyricanalysiswithmentalhealthconsumers.Thesurveywilltakeabout5-10minutestocomplete.Yourparticipation,completion,andsubmissionofthissurveywillindicateyourconsenttotakepartinthisresearchstudy.Youranswersareimportantinprovidinganaccuraterepresentationofsongsmostfrequentlyusedbymusictherapistsforlyricanalysiswithconsumerswithmentalhealthdiagnoses.Ofcourse,youhaveachoiceaboutwhetherornottocompletethesurvey,butifyoudodecidetoparticipate,youarefreetoskipanyquestionsordiscontinueatanytime.Youwillnotbepaidfortakingpartinthisstudy.Therearenoknownriskstoparticipatinginthisstudy.Yourresponsestothesurveyareanonymous,whichmeansnonameswillappearorbeusedonresearchdocuments,inpresentations,orinpublications.Theresearchteamwillnotknowwhetherornotyouparticipatedinthestudyorthatanyinformationyouprovidedcamefromyou.Pleasebeaware,whilewemakeeveryefforttosafeguardyourdataoncereceivedonourserversviaREDCap,giventhenatureofonlinesurveys,aswithanythinginvolvingtheInternet,wecanneverguaranteetheconfidentialityofthedatawhilestillenroutetous.
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ContactsIfyouhaveanyquestionsaboutthestudy,pleasefeelfreetocontactmeusingtheinformationprovidedbelow.Ifyouhavecomplaints,suggestions,orquestionsaboutyourrightsasaresearchvolunteer,contactthestaffintheUniversityofKentuckyOfficeofResearchIntegrityat859-257-9428ortoll-freeat1-866-400-9428.Thankyouinadvanceforyourassistancewiththisimportantproject.Toensureyourresponses/opinionswillbeincluded,pleasesubmityourcompletedsurveyby______________.Sincerely,AshleyMiller,MT-BCDepartmentofMusicTherapyUniversityofKentucky(812)[email protected],PhD,MT-BCThesisAdvisorUniversityofKentucky(859)[email protected]
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AppendixC:Survey
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AppendixD:LyricAnalysisandMentalHealthSongListResource
Song n ArtistLetItBe 31 TheBeatles(30)/PaulMcCartney(1)LeanonMe 29 BillWithersBridgeOverTroubledWater 25 SimonandGarfunkel(22)/Paul
Simon(2)/ArtGarfunkel(1)ManintheMirror 20 MichaelJacksonBrave 16 SaraBareillesDrive 16 IncubusFightSong 16 RachelPlattenLandslide 16 FleetwoodMac(13)/StevieNicks(3)WhataWonderfulWorld 13 LouisArmstrongICanSeeClearlyNow 12 JohnnyNash(10)/JimmyCliff(2)Perfect(10)/F**kin'Perfect(2) 12 P!nkTheClimb 12 MileyCyrusBeautiful 11 ChristinaAguileraHurt 11 JohnnyCash(6)/NineInchNails(5)Unwell 10 MatchboxTwentyIWon’tBackDown 9 TomPettyTimesLikeThese 9 FooFightersTrueColors 9 CyndiLauper(6)/PhilCollins(3)You’veGotaFriend 9 CaroleKing(4)/CaroleKing&James
Taylor(3)/JamesTaylor(2)3Things 7 JasonMraz7Years 7 LukasGrahamDemons 7 ImagineDragonsDesperado 7 EaglesDon’tWorry,BeHappy 7 BobbyMcFerrinHandinMyPocket 7 AlanisMorissetteStartingOver 7 Macklemore&RyanLewisTry 7 ColbieCaillatUndertheBridge 7 RedHotChiliPeppersBeOK 6 IngridMichaelsonCountOnMe 6 BrunoMarsDon’tStop 6 FleetwoodMacFirework 6 KatyPerryHuman 6 ChristinaPerriMyFavoriteThings 6 JulieAndrewsSay 6 JohnMayerStandbyMe 6 BenE.KingThreeLittleBirds 6 BobMarley&TheWailersAChangeIsGonnaCome 5 SamCooke
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Song n ArtistAmazingGrace 5 hymnBlackbird 5 TheBeatlesBreathe(2AM) 5 AnnaNalickIHopeYouDance 5 LeeAnnWomackImagine 5 JohnLennonLostBoy 5 RuthBNumb 5 LinkinParkRiseUp 5 AndraDayShakeItOut 5 Florence+theMachineYouGottaBe 5 Des'ree(Sittin’On)TheDockOfTheBay 4 OtisReddingAmazing 4 AerosmithChangeYourMind 4 SisterHazelCreep 4 RadioheadFear 4 BlueOctoberHaveYouEverSeentheRain 4 CreedenceClearwaterRevivalIAmaRock 4 SimonandGarfunkelIt’sBeenAwhile 4 StaindKeepYourHeadUp 4 AndyGrammerLiveLikeYouWereDying 4 TimMcGrawMirror 4 LilWayne,feat.BrunoMarsOtherside 4 Macklemore&RyanLewisRise 4 KatyPerryTakeMeHome,CountryRoads 4 JohnDenverUnwritten 4 NatashaBedingfieldWakeMeUp 4 AviciiWithaLittleHelpfromMyFriends 4 TheBeatlesYouCan’tAlwaysGetWhatYouWant
4 TheRollingStones
Angel 3 SarahMcLachlanBehindBlueEyes 3 TheWhoBrandNewMe 3 AliciaKeysBreakaway 3 KellyClarksonDearMama 3 2PacDon’tFenceMeIn 3 RoyRogersFireandRain 3 JamesTaylorFixYou 3 ColdplayHallofFame 3 TheScript,feat.will.i.amHallelujah 3 LeonardCohenHands 3 JewelHappy 3 PharrellWilliamsHelp! 3 TheBeatles
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Song n ArtistHome 3 PhillipPhillipsHomeOntheRange 3 traditionalHotelCalifornia 3 EaglesIBelieveICanFly 3 R.KellyICan 3 NasIGotaName 3 JimCroceIWillSurvive 3 GloriaGaynorMean 3 TaylorSwiftMoonshadow 3 CatStevensNotAfraid 3 EminemOldMan 3 NeilYoungRoar 3 KatyPerrySentimentalJourney 3 DorisDayShakeItOff 3 TaylorSwiftSkyscraper 3 DemiLovatoStrength,Courage,andWisdom 3 India.ArieSuperheroes 3 TheScriptSwim 3 Jack'sMannequinTheRiver 3 GarthBrooksTheWorld’sGreatest 3 R.KellyTitanium 3 DavidGuetta,feat.SiaUpontheRoof 3 TheDrifters(2)/CaroleKing(1)What’sGoingOn 3 MarvinGayeWhateverWillBe,WillBe(QueSera,Sera)
3 DorisDay
WhoYouAre 3 JessieJAtThisPointInMyLife 2 TracyChapmanBadDay 2 DanielPowterBeHereNow 2 RayLaMontagneBeautiful 2 EminemBeforeHeCheats 2 CarrieUnderwoodBein’Green 2 TheMuppetsBlowin’intheWind 2 BobDylanBlueSkies 2 WillieNelsonBothSides,Now 2 JoniMitchellBoulevardOfBrokenDreams 2 GreenDayCarRadio 2 twentyonepilotsCarryOn 2 fun.Change 2 TracyChapmanChanges 2 DavidBowieComfortablyNumb 2 PinkFloydConcreteAngel 2 MartinaMcBride
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Song n ArtistConfident 2 DemiLovatoDarkSide 2 KellyClarksonDearYoungerMe 2 MercyMeDon’tBeSoHardOnYourself 2 JessGlynneDon’tLetMeBeMisunderstood 2 NinaSimoneDon’tStopBelievin’ 2 JourneyDriftAway 2 DobieGray(1)/UncleKracker(1)DustintheWind 2 KansasEverybody 2 IngridMichaelsonEverybodyHurts 2 R.E.M.EyeoftheTiger 2 SurvivorFamilyPortrait 2 P!nkFloatOn 2 ModestMouseGoldInThemHills 2 RonSexsmithGoodRiddance(TimeofYourLife) 2 GreenDayHello 2 AdeleHereComestheSun 2 TheBeatles(1)/Yo-YoMa,feat.
JamesTaylor(1)HomeIsWheretheHatredIs 2 GilScott-HeronIAmLight 2 India.ArieILived 2 OneRepublicIShotTheSheriff 2 BobMarley&TheWailers(1)/Eric
Clapton(1)ITried 2 BoneThugs-n-Harmony,feat.AkonIfIWereBrave 2 JanaStanfieldIfYou’reGoingThroughHell(BeforeTheDevilEvenKnows)
2 RodneyAtkins
InMyLife 2 TheBeatlesJusttheWayYouAre 2 BillyJoelKingofAnything 2 SaraBareillesLearningtoFly 2 TomPettyandtheHeartbreakersLeavingonaJetPlane 2 JohnDenverLithium 2 NirvanaLivingInTheMoment 2 JasonMrazLoseYourself 2 EminemLovetheWayYouLie 2 Eminem,feat.RihannaMyCityNeedSomething 2 PnBRockMyNextThirtyYears 2 TimMcGrawMyWay 2 FrankSinatraNoMoreDrama 2 MaryJ.BligeOneDay 2 MatisyahuOvertheRainbow 2 JudyGarland
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Song n ArtistPeacefulEasyFeeling 2 EatlesPerfect 2 SimplePlanPuff,theMagicDragon 2 Peter,Paul&MaryRadioactive 2 ImagineDragonsRide 2 twentyonepilotsRipple 2 GratefulDeadScarstoYourBeautiful 2 AlessiaCaraSecrets 2 MaryLambertShineOn 2 DaisyMayErlewineSimpleMan 2 LynyrdSkynyrdSmile 2 NatKingColeStressedOut 2 twentyonepilotsTheBalladofLoveandHate 2 TheAvettBrothersTheCave 2 Mumford&SonsTheCircleGame 2 JoniMitchellTheHeartoftheMatter 2 DonHenleyTheHouseThatBuiltMe 2 MirandaLambertTheRose 2 BetteMidlerTheTracksofMyTears 2 SmokeyRobinsonThisLittleLightofMine 2 traditionalThroughtheRain 2 MariahCareyTomorrowWillBeKinder 2 TheSecretSistersUmbrella 2 Rihanna,feat.JayZUnsteady 2 XAmbassadorsWeAreTheChampions 2 QueenWeCanWorkItOut 2 TheBeatlesWhatIAm 2 will.i.amWithYourFaceToTheWind(Harriet’sSong)
2 Peter,Paul&Mary
YouAreMySunshine 2 ThePineRidgeBoys(ARhyme)ThisTime 1 AlJarreau(ICan’tGetNo)Satisfaction 1 TheRollingStones100Years 1 FiveForFightingABeautifulDay 1 India.ArieABetterSon/Daughter 1 RiloKileyABrokenWing 1 MartinaMcBrideAChangeinMe 1 SusanEganALivingPrayer 1 AlisonKrauss&UnionStationANewLife 1 JimJamesAPlaceintheSun 1 StevieWonderAboveTheBones 1 MishkaAC-Cent-Tchu-AtethePositive 1 JohnnyMercer&ThePiedPipers
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Song n ArtistAcrosstheUniverse 1 TheBeatlesAdam’sSong 1 blink-182Ain’tNoSunshine 1 BillWithersAllAroundMe 1 FlyleafAllAtOnce 1 JackJohnsonAllThingsMustPass 1 GeorgeHarrisonAllThisJoy 1 JohnDenverAndSoItGoes 1 BillyJoelAngelFromMontgomery 1 JohnPrineAngels 1 ChancetheRapper,feat.SabaAngry 1 MatchboxTwentyAnotherDaytoRun 1 BillWithersAnotherRainbow 1 BabaB.Apologize 1 OneRepublicAuldLangSyne 1 traditionalAutumnLeaves 1 EdSheeranAwakeMySoul 1 Mumford&SonsBagLady 1 ErykahBaduBasketCase 1 GreenDayBattleScars 1 LupeFiasco&GuySebastianBeHereNow 1 MasonJenningsBeSoHappy 1 HeartlessBastardsBeautifulDay 1 U2BeautifulEmilie 1 KeziahJonesBeautifulFlower 1 India.ArieBeautifulPain 1 Eminem,feat.SiaBecauseofYou 1 KellyClarksonBent 1 MatchboxTwentyBestDayofMyLife 1 AmericanAuthorsBetterDays 1 GooGooDollsBetweenYouandMe 1 dcTalkBlesstheBrokenRoad 1 RascalFlattsBlessings 1 LauraStoryBloodBrothers 1 LukeBryanBlowin’Smoke 1 KaceyMusgravesBornThisWay 1 LadyGagaBoxofRain 1 GratefulDeadBoyOnAString 1 JarsofClayBrandNewName 1 SarahJahnBreakDownTheWalls 1 AskingAlexandriaBreakTheShell 1 India.ArieBreakingtheHabit 1 LinkinPark
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Song n ArtistBreathe 1 AlexiMurdochBreatheIn,BreatheOut,MoveOn 1 JimmyBuffettBreatheMe 1 SiaBringMetoLife 1 EvanescenceBringOnTheRain 1 JoDeeMessinaBroccoli 1 D.R.A.M.,feat.LilYachtyBroken 1 LindseyHaunBumpInTheRoad 1 JonnyLangBurningGold 1 ChristinaPerriButterflyFlyAway 1 MileyCyrusCallandAnswer 1 BarenakedLadiesCan’tFightThisFeeling 1 REOSpeedwagonCarolinainMyMind 1 JamesTaylorCarryMe 1 PapaRoachCarryOnWaywardSon 1 KansasCat’sintheCradle 1 HarryChapinChange 1 BlindMelonChange 1 JackJohnsonChangeIsGonnaCome 1 NorahJonesChiquitita 1 ABBAChoices(Yup) 1 E-40Clarity 1 JohnMayerCoatOfManyColors 1 DollyPartonCodeofSilence 1 BillyJoel,feat.CyndiLauperColors 1 KiraWilleyColorsoftheWind 1 JudyKuhnComeSailAway 1 StyxComingHome 1 Diddy-DirtyMoney,feat.SkylarGreyCoughSyrup 1 YoungtheGiantCrayolaDoesn’tMakeAColorForYourEyes
1 KristinAndreassen
Crazy 1 PatsyClineDancingintheDark 1 BruceSpringsteenDandelion 1 KaceyMusgravesDay‘n’Nite(Nightmare) 1 KidCudiDaysofElijah 1 RobinMarkDearPTSD 1 SoldierHardDearX,YouDon’tOwnMe 1 DiscipleDefyingGravity 1 IdinaMenzel,feat.KristinChenowethDoItNow 1 IngridMichaelsonDo-Re-Mi 1 JulieAndrewsDonJuan’sRecklessDaughter 1 JoniMitchell
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Song n ArtistDon’tEverLetNobodyDragYourSpiritDown
1 EricBibb
Don’tLaughAtMe 1 MarkWillsDon’tLookBack 1 BostonDon’tThinkTwice,It’sAllRight 1 BobDylanDowninaHole 1 AliceinChainsDrugBallad 1 EminemDrugDealer 1 MacklemoreDustMyBroom 1 B.B.KingEasy 1 CommodoresElCondorPasa(IfICould) 1 SimonandGarfunkelElasticHeart 1 SiaEnoughIsEnough 1 EliYoungBandEverybodyWantstoRuletheWorld 1 TearsforFearsExcessBaggage 1 StaindFaithfully 1 JourneyFallBackDown 1 RancidFallIntoMe 1 SugarlandFallin’ 1 AliciaKeysFallingSlowly 1 GlenHansard,feat.MarketaIrglovaFamily 1 DollyPartonFarAway 1 Tyga,feat.ChrisRichardsonFastCar 1 TracyChapmanFatherAndSon 1 CatStevensFeelsLikeHome 1 ChantalKreviazukFly 1 NickiMinajFlyOnTheWall 1 ThousandFootKrutchForYou 1 StaindForça 1 NellyFurtadoForgetAndNotSlowDown 1 RelientKForkintheRoad 1 MaryaStarkFountainofSorrow 1 JacksonBrowneFragile 1 StingFree 1 ZacBrownBandFreewill 1 RushFriction 1 ImagineDragonsFriends 1 BetteMidlerFriendsinLowPlaces 1 GarthBrooksFromThisValley 1 TheCivilWarsGetBackUpAgain 1 AnnaKendrickGetOutTheMap 1 IndigoGirlsGetOverIt 1 Eagles
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Song n ArtistGettingBetter 1 TheBeatlesGhost 1 EllaHendersonGimmeThreeSteps 1 LynyrdSkynyrdGirlOnFire 1 AliciaKeysGoRestHighOnThatMountain 1 VinceGillGodWill 1 LyleLovettGold 1 BrittNicoleGoodDay 1 NappyRootsGoodbyeMyFriend 1 LindaRonstadtGottoBeginAgain 1 BillyJoelGraduation(FriendsForever) 1 VitaminCHabits(StayHigh) 1 ToveLoHandlebars 1 FlobotsHappiness 1 TheFrayHardTimes 1 JamieOwensCollinsHardTimesComeAgainNoMore 1 traditionalHardtoSayI’mSorry 1 ChicagoHarryHippie 1 BobbyWomackHateMe 1 BlueOctoberHeadFullOfDoubt/RoadFullOfPromise
1 TheAvettBrothers
HeadedintheRightDirection 1 India.ArieHeadlights 1 EminemHeartofGold 1 NeilYoungHelpIsRoundTheCorner 1 ColdplayHere 1 AlessiaCaraHero 1 MariahCareyHeroes(WeCouldBe) 1 AlessoHeyJoe 1 TheJimiHendrixExperienceHeyJude 1 TheBeatlesHiddenOnes 1 MissyHigginsHitMeWithYourBestShot 1 PatBenatarHoldMyHand 1 Hootie&theBlowfishHoldOn 1 AlabamaShakesHoldOn 1 WilsonPhillipsHoldYourHeadHigh 1 HeartlessBastardsHoldYourHeadUp 1 MacklemoreHome 1 MegHutchinsonHopelessBoy 1 KingLilG,feat.DavidOrtizHowCouldYouLeaveUs 1 NFHowFarI’llGo 1 Auli'ICravalhoHowtoSaveaLife 1 TheFray
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Song n ArtistHumbleandKind 1 TimMcGrawI 1 KendrickLamarIAmNotMyHair 1 India.ArieIAmSomebody 1 Santana,feat.will.i.amIAmWhatIAm 1 RoySakumaIAmWoman 1 HelenReddyIAm…ISaid 1 NeilDiamondIBelieve 1 ChristinaPerriIChoose 1 India.ArieIDidn’tKnowMyOwnStrength 1 WhitneyHoustonIDon’tWanttoBe 1 GavinDeGrawIDriveYourTruck 1 LeeBriceIHaveMadeMistakes 1 TheOhHellosIKnowGirls(BodyLove) 1 MaryLambertILoveMe 1 MeghanTrainorIShallBeReleased 1 BobDylanIWalktheLine 1 JohnnyCashIWannaGetBetter 1 BleachersIWanttoKnowWhatLoveIs 1 ForeignerIWantYouBack 1 TheJackson5IWillGetThere 1 BoyzIIMenI’llBeThere 1 TheJackson5I’mAlive 1 KennyChesney,feat.DaveMatthewsI’mComingOut 1 DianaRossI’mMovin’On 1 RascalFlattsI’mNotLost,IAmExploring 1 JanaStanfieldI’mNotOkay(IPromise) 1 MyChemicalRomanceI’mNotWhoIWas 1 BrandonHeathI’mO.K. 1 StyxI’mOnMyWay 1 KelliePicklerI’mSensitive 1 JewelI’mSoGladI’mStandingHereToday 1 Michel'leI’mSoTired 1 TheBeatlesIfIHadAHammer 1 PeteSeegerIfTodayWasYourLastDay 1 NickelbackIfYouWanttoSingOut,SingOut 1 CatStevensIllWithWant 1 TheAvettBrothersInChristAlone 1 Keith&KristynGettyInRepair 1 JohnMayerIntheEnd 1 LinkinParkInnerDemons 1 JuliaBrennanInnerNinja 1 Classified,feat.DavidMyles
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Song n ArtistInnocent 1 TaylorSwiftIsolation 1 AlterBridgeItHappens 1 SugarlandItWillBeaGoodDay(TheRiver) 1 YesItWillRain 1 BrunoMarsIt’sAGreatDayToBeAlive 1 TravisTrittIt’sTheMostWonderfulTimeOfTheYear
1 AndyWilliams
Janie’sGotaGun 1 AerosmithJekyllandHyde 1 FiveFingerDeathPunchJesus,TaketheWheel 1 CarrieUnderwoodJust 1 RadioheadJustGiveMeaReason 1 P!nkKeepBreathing 1 IngridMichaelsonKeepHoldingOn 1 AvrilLavigneKeepMeInYourHeart 1 WarrenZevonKeepYaHeadUp 1 2Pac,feat.DaveHollisterKeepYourEyesOnThePrize 1 PeteSeegerKeepYourEyesOpen 1 NEEDTOBREATHEKillEmwithKindness 1 SelenaGomezKillemWithKindness 1 DizzyWrightKingHeroin 1 JamesBrownKokomo 1 TheBeachBoysLastHope 1 ParamoreLay‘EmDown 1 NEEDTOBREATHELeaningontheEverlastingArms 1 hymnLemonade 1 AlexBoyéLessonsLearned 1 CarrieUnderwoodLetHerGo 1 PassengerLetItCarryYou 1 JoséGonzálezLetItGo 1 IdinaMenzelLetItRain 1 AmandaMarshallLetYourLightShine 1 Keb'Mo'Let’sCallTheWholeThingOff 1 FredAstaireandGingerRogersLifetime 1 MaxwellLightsOn 1 MakeshiftInnocenceListen 1 BeyoncéLittleBrownJug 1 ArthurGodfreyLittleDoYouKnow 1 Alex&SierraLiveLikeAWarrior 1 MatisyahuLiveLikeWe’reDying 1 KrisAllenLockedUp 1 Akon
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Song n ArtistLoneRanger 1 RachelPlattenLoser 1 3DoorsDownLost! 1 ColdplayLoveCanBuildaBridge 1 TheJuddsLoveMeTender 1 ElvisPresleyLoveYourself 1 JustinBieberLoveYourz 1 J.ColeLovely 1 SaraHazeLovelyDay 1 BillWithersMadWorld 1 GaryJulesMakeItHappen 1 MariahCareyMansion 1 NFMarchinOn 1 OneRepublicMargaritaville 1 JimmyBuffettMarilynMonroe 1 NickiMinajMasterofPuppets 1 MetallicaMatterOfTrust 1 BillyJoelMaybe 1 SickPuppiesMe 1 PaulaColeMe,Myself&I 1 G-Eazy,feat.BebeRexhaMessageinaBottle 1 ThePoliceMigraine 1 twentyonepilotsMiniatureDisasters 1 KTTunstallMShebeirach 1 DebbieFriedmanMommaI’mSorry 1 LilHerbMonster 1 ImagineDragonsMonster 1 SkilletMoonRiver 1 FrankSinatraMorningHasBroken 1 CatStevensMrs.Robinson 1 SimonandGarfunkelMyBlueHeaven 1 GeneAustinMyGirl 1 TheTemptationsMyIronLung 1 RadioheadMyLife 1 MaryJ.BligeMyMom 1 ChocolateGeniusMyNameisDeath 1 RedWantingBlueMyShot 1 Lin-ManuelMirandaMySilverLining 1 FirstAidKitMyStory 1 SeanMcGeeMyWish 1 RascalFlattsNetherLands 1 DanFogelbergNeverTooLate 1 ThreeDaysGrace
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Song n ArtistNewYorkMinute 1 EaglesNewYorkStateofMind 1 BillyJoelNoFear 1 TerriClarkNoah’sTitanic 1 AntjeDuvekotNobodyEverToldYou 1 CarrieUnderwoodNotAnAddict 1 K'sChoiceNothingCompares2U 1 PrinceNowhereMan 1 TheBeatlesOasis 1 GracePotterandtheNocturnalsOb-La-Di,Ob-La-Da 1 TheBeatlesOhHappyDay 1 TheEdwinHawkinsSingersOh,PrettyWoman 1 RoyOrbisonOldPine 1 BenHowardOlivia 1 OneDirectionOntheRoadAgain 1 WillieNelsonOneCallAway 1 CharliePuthOneLittleSlip 1 BarenakedLadiesOneStepAtATime 1 JordinSparksOneStepCloser 1 LinkinParkOneTribe 1 BlackEyedPeasOperationSpirit(TheTyrannyOfTradition)
1 Live
OutsideMyself 1 k.d.langOverstand 1 DeadPrezPackUpYourSorrows 1 JudyCollinsParadise 1 ColdplayPartofMe 1 KatyPerryPassengerSong 1 GreatLakeSwimmersPatterns 1 PaulSimonPeace 1 NorahJonesPeaceLikeaRiver 1 traditionalPhoenix 1 AntjeDuvekotPianoMan 1 BillyJoelPieces 1 StephenCochranPioneer 1 TheBandPerryPleaseDon’tLeaveMe 1 P!nkPolaroid 1 ImagineDragonsPompeii 1 BastillePoprocks&Coke 1 GreenDayPrayForForgiveness 1 AliciaKeysPreciousLord,TakeMyHand 1 hymnPreciousMemories 1 hymn
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Song n ArtistPressureCracks 1 GrievesPursuitofHappiness(Nightmare) 1 KidCudiQ.U.E.E.N. 1 JanelleMonáe,feat.ErykahBaduQuietStorm 1 SmokeyRobinsonRainbowConnection 1 JimHensonRaindropsKeepFallin’onMyHead 1 B.J.ThomasReadAllAboutIt 1 ProfessorGreen,feat.EmeliSandéRealityandFantasy 1 RaphaelGualazziRecover 1 NatashaBedingfieldRieyLlora 1 CeliaCruzRiptide 1 VanceJoyRise 1 EddieVedderRoadSigns 1 BillDanoffRockstar 1 NickelbackRollAwayYourStone 1 Mumford&SonsRollingintheDeep 1 AdeleRooster 1 AliceinChainsRule 1 NasRunawayTrain 1 SoulAsylumSaySomething 1 AGreatBigWorldSecondChance 1 ShinedownSecretO’Life 1 JamesTaylorShineOnYouCrazyDiamond 1 PinkFloydShouldIStayorShouldIGo 1 TheClashSideways 1 CitizenCopeSilence 1 JarrenBentonSimpleGifts 1 traditionalSingAboutIt 1 TheWoodBrothersSkinnyLove 1 BirdySmile 1 Eyedea&AbilitiesSoUnsexy 1 AlanisMorissetteSomeDaysAreDiamonds(SomeDaysAreStone)
1 JohnDenver
SomeNights 1 fun.SomebodyThatIUsedtoKnow 1 Gotye,feat.KimbraSomeday 1 RobThomasSomeoneLikeYou 1 AdeleSometimesIFeelLikeaMotherlessChild
1 PaulRobeson
Somewhere 1 AudraMcDonaldSomewhereOnlyWeKnow 1 KeaneSoultoSqueeze 1 RedHotChiliPeppers
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Song n ArtistSpirits 1 TheStrumbellasStandByYou 1 RachelPlattenStandInTheLight 1 JordanSmithStepbyStep 1 WhitneyHoustonStepIntotheProjects 1 MeshellNdegeocelloStopandStare 1 OneRepublicSunrise,Sunset 1 ChaimTopol,feat.NormaCraneSunshine 1 JonathanEdwardsSunshineOnMyShoulders 1 JohnDenverSupplyandDemand 1 AmosLeeSurvivor 1 Destiny'sChildTakeItEasy 1 EaglesTaketheMoneyandRun 1 SteveMillerBandTakeUsBack 1 MavisStaplesTakesaLittleTime 1 AmyGrantTalk 1 ColdplayTeachYourChildren 1 Crosby,Stills,Nash&YoungTellYourHearttoBeatAgain 1 DannyGokeyThatIWouldBeGood 1 AlanisMorissetteThatSmell 1 LynyrdSkynyrdThatWasn’tMe 1 BrandiCarlisleThat’sLife 1 FrankSinatraThe23rdPsalm 1 BobbyMcFerrinThe59thStreetBridgeSong 1 SimonandGarfunkelTheArtofPeerPressure 1 KendrickLamarTheBeastInMe 1 JohnnyCashTheFear 1 BenHowardTheFighter 1 GymClassHeroesTheGambler 1 KennyRogersTheGreatEscape 1 P!nkTheGreatestLoveofAll 1 GeorgeBensonTheInstrumental 1 LupeFiasco,feat.JonahMatrangaTheMercyWheel 1 A.A.BondyTheMinnow&TheTrout 1 AFineFrenzyTheNeedleandtheDamageDone 1 NeilYoungTheOutside 1 TaylorSwiftTheRealMe 1 NatalieGrantTheScienceofSellingYourselfShort 1 LessThanJakeTheSoundofSilence 1 SimonandGarfunkelTheStormIsOverNow 1 R.KellyTheStory 1 BrandiCarlisle
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Song n ArtistTheStranger 1 BillyJoelTheWayIAm 1 IngridMichaelsonTheWind 1 CatStevensTheWrestler 1 BruceSpringsteenTherapy 1 AllTimeLowThere’sHope 1 India.ArieThisIsGospel 1 Panic!attheDiscoThisIsYourLife 1 SwitchfootThisLandIsYourLand 1 WoodyGuthrieThisYear(HappyNewYear) 1 JJHellerThrive 1 SwitchfootThugzMansion 1 2Pac,feat.NasandJ.PhoenixTightrope 1 StevieRayVaughanTime 1 PinkFloydTimeinaBottle 1 JimCroceTimetoMoveOn 1 TomPettyTimshel 1 Mumford&SonsTinMan 1 TheAvettBrothersTotheMorning 1 DanFogelbergTodayMyLifeBegins 1 BrunoMarsTomorrow 1 AileenQuinnTooManyYears 1 KodakBlack,feat.PnBRockTraumatized 1 MeekMillT’filatHaDerech 1 DebbieFriedmanTreatMeLikeSomebody 1 TinkTroubleInMindBlues 1 ThelmaLaVizzoTurnThePage 1 BobSegerTurntoStone 1 IngridMichaelsonTurn,Turn,Turn 1 PeteSeegerTwinkle,Twinkle,LittleStar 1 traditionalUnderPressure 1 Queen,feat.DavidBowieUndertheBoardwalk 1 TheDriftersUnderTheWeather 1 KTTunstallUnpretty 1 TLCUnsent 1 AlanisMorissetteUpToTheMountain(MLKSong) 1 PattyGriffinUp! 1 ShaniaTwainUseSomebody 1 KingsofLeonUseToBe 1 MeekMillVegas 1 SaraBareillesVideo 1 India.ArieVienna 1 BillyJoel
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Song n ArtistVirginiaWoolf 1 IndigoGirlsWaitTilYouSeeMySmile 1 AliciaKeysWaitingForMyChanceToCome 1 NoahandtheWhaleWaitingForMyRealLifeToBegin 1 ColinHayWalk 1 FooFightersWalkOn 1 U2WallOfDenial 1 StevieRayVaughanWarrior 1 DemiLovatoWastedYears 1 IronMaidenWatchingTheWheels 1 JohnLennonWaterFromAnotherTime 1 JohnMcCutcheonWaterfalls 1 TLCWeDidn’tStarttheFire 1 BillyJoelWeShallOvercome 1 traditionalWeightinGold 1 GallantWelcomeHome,Son 1 RadicalFaceWelcomeToMyLife 1 SimplePlanWhatICannotChange 1 LeAnnRimesWhatI’veDone 1 LinkinParkWhatLight 1 WilcoWhat’sUp? 1 4NonBlondesWhenIDrink 1 TheAvettBrothersWhereAreYouGoing 1 DaveMatthewsBandWhereHaveAlltheFlowersGone 1 Peter,Paul&MaryWhereistheLove? 1 TheBlackEyedPeasWhiskeyLullaby 1 BradPaisleyandAlisonKraussWhispers 1 AylaNereoWhiteChristmas 1 BingCrosbyWhoIAm 1 JessicaAndrewsWhoIAm 1 JonasBrothersWhoSays 1 SelenaGomez&TheSceneWindBeneathMyWings 1 BetteMidlerWish 1 LecraeWishlist 1 PearlJamWithArmsWideOpen 1 CreedWithMyOwnTwoHands 1 JackJohnsonWonderwall 1 OasisWorldSpinsMadlyOn 1 TheWeepiesYesterday 1 TheBeatlesYouAreMore 1 TenthAvenueNorthYouMayBeRight 1 BillyJoelYouRaiseMeUp 1 JoshGroban
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Song n ArtistYou’veGotaFriendinMe 1 RandyNewmanYou’veReallyGotaHoldonMe 1 SmokeyRobinson&TheMiraclesYourLifeIsNow 1 JohnMellencampZombie 1 FelaKuti
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AppendixE:CompleteListofPrimaryTreatmentThemes/Objectives
TreatmentTheme/Objective nFeelings/Emotions 78Copingskills 77Support 72Empowerment 58Addiction/Substanceabuse 55Self-esteem 54Change 49Relationships 49Identity 44Settingandachievinggoals 44Acceptance 42Self-examination 27Hope 26Motivation 25Overcomingobstacles 25Positivethinking 24DBTskills 23Mentalhealth/illness 23Grief/Loss 22Choices 21Recovery 20Self-awareness 18Isolation/Loneliness 17Self-expression 17Faith/Spirituality 14Control 13Mindfulness 13Movingforward 13Love 12Perseverance 10Struggle 10Trauma/Abuse 10Trust 10Communication 9Lifeexperiences 9Reminiscence 9Gratitude 8Lifereview 8
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TreatmentTheme/Objective nValidation 8Courage 7Forgiveness 7Relaxation 7Self-advocacy 7Self-destructivebehavior 7Values 7Cognitivedistortions 6Insight 6Meaning/Purpose 6Newbeginnings 6Perspective 6Safety 6Symptoms 6Clientpreferredmusic 5Competencyrestoration 5Futureorientation 5Home 5Stress 5Attendingtoreality 4Autonomy 4Boundaries 4Encouragement 4Freedom 4Groupdynamics 4Psychosocial 4Abandonment 3Bullying 3Competencyeducation 3Empathy/Compassion 3Existentialconcerns 3Findingbeauty 3Growth 3Healthythoughtprocess 3Pain 3Peerpressure 3Problemidentification 3Problemsolving 3Reframing 3Triggeridentification 3Violence 3Aging 2
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TreatmentTheme/Objective nExpectations 2Leisureskills 2Lifeinfluences 2Makingmistakes 2Moodelevation 2Perfectionism 2Responsibility 2Self-care 2Wantsvs.needs 2Wordsofwisdom 2Assessment 1Authenticity 1Authority 1Balancinggoodandbadexperiences 1Beginningtherapy 1Blame 1Burnout 1Cautionarytale 1Cheating 1Childhood 1Consequencesofself-will 1Culturalcompetence 1Cycles 1Defensemechanisms 1Dischargeplanning 1Duality 1Ethicalstandardsofbehavior 1Goodvs.badadvice 1Goodbyesong 1Holidayseason 1Ideaofmanhood 1Identifyingderogatoryandstigmatizinglanguage 1Identifyingnegativeattachments 1Imaginingabetterlife/world 1Individuation 1Legacies 1Livinginamentalhospital 1Medication 1Militarylifestyle 1Narratives 1Peace 1
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TreatmentTheme/Objective nPositivereinforcement 1Process 1Psychoeducation 1Separation 1Sexuality 1Showingothersourgifts 1Simplicity 1Takingtheroadlesstraveled 1Therapeuticengagement 1Wanderlust 1What'sgoingoninthissong 1Whenitisappropriate 1Willingvs.Willfulness 1
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AppendixF:DescriptiveStatisticsforLIWC2015Outputs
LIWCDomains Mean SDWordcount 284.25 115.45SummaryLanguageVariables
Analyticalthinking 25.22 22.89Clout 53.21 35.45Authentic 73.34 31.95Emotionaltone 51.34 34.81GeneralDescriptors Words/sentence 198.71 136.86Words>6letters 7.78 3.76Dictionarywords 94.11 4.83LinguisticDimensions
Totalfunctionwords 58.58 6.32Totalpronouns 21.43 4.64Personalpronouns 15.72 5.121stperssingular 8.98 5.481stperplural 0.77 1.442ndperson 5.15 4.633rdperssingular 0.29 0.653rdpersplural 0.54 0.76Impersonalpronouns 5.71 3.86Articles 4.8 2.15Prepositions 11.66 3.76Auxiliaryverbs 13.16 5.85Commonadverbs 6.2 2.90Conjunctions 6 2.76Negations 2.94 3.56OtherGrammar
Commonverbs 25.27 8.26Commonadjectives 3.94 3.16Comparisons 1.86 2.05Interrogatives 1.98 2.36Numbers 1.09 1.76Quantifiers 1.8 1.34PsychologicalProcesses
Affectiveprocesses 6.96 5.34Positiveemotion 4.39 4.11Negativeemotion 2.54 2.59Anxiety 0.9 2.23Anger 0.33 0.64
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LIWCDomains Mean SDSadness 0.69 0.93Socialprocesses 11.21 7.48Family 0.27 0.51Friends 0.4 0.82Femalereferences 0.23 0.56Malereferences 0.49 1.24Cognitiveprocesses 11.84 5.62Insight 2.66 2.08Causation 1.51 1.76Discrepancy 1.98 2.57Tentative 2.43 2.80Certainty 2.18 2.10Differentiation 2.51 1.96Perceptualprocesses 5.69 5.69See 2.88 4.86Hear 1.56 3.67Feel 1.11 1.16Biologicalprocesses 2.32 1.59Body 0.95 1.12Health 0.7 0.81Sexual 0.03 0.12Ingestion 0.36 0.69Drives 7.18 5.27Affiliation 1.89 2.11Achievement 1.2 2.29Power 2.19 2.18Reward 1.71 2.33Risk 0.62 1.23Timeorientations
Pastfocus 2.83 3.19Presentfocus 18.85 8.53Futurefocus 3.53 3.24Relativity 16.87 7.21Motion 3.69 3.28Space 7.78 5.17Time 6.11 4.65Personalconcerns
Work 0.38 0.80Leisure 0.82 1.26Home 0.23 0.49Money 0.21 0.36Religion 0.41 0.91
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LIWCDomains Mean SDDeath 0.15 0.43Informallanguage 1.97 2.34Swearwords 0.07 0.19Netspeak 0 0.00Assent 0.98 1.70Nonfluencies 0.7 1.17Fillers 0 0.00
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VITA
AshleyMiller,MT-BC,NICU-MT
EDUCATIONUNIVERSITYOFKENTUCKY–Lexington,KYMasterofMusicinMusicTherapyUNIVERSITYOFLOUISVILLE–Louisville,KYBachelorofMusicinMusicTherapy
05/17Expected
12/14
PROFESSIONALEXPERIENCE
imagine.magazineEditorialAssistantUniversityofKentucky–Lexington,KYMusicTherapyGraduateTeachingAssistantLouisvilleMusicTherapy,LLC–Louisville,KYContractMusicTherapistTherapyLex,LLC–Lexington,KYContractMusicTherapistUKHealthCare–Lexington,KYMusicTherapyIntern
07/16–Present
08/15–05/16
01/15–07/15
04/15–05/15
07/14–12/14
SCHOLASTICHONORS
UniversityofKentuckyRitaC.LamAwardrecipientforexceptionalachievementinmusictherapyUniversityofLouisvilleMagnacumlaudegraduateSchoolofMusicDean’sAwardrecipientJoanMcCombsScholarshiprecipientformusictherapy
05/1712/1412/1408/12
PUBLICATIONS
Miller,A.(2014).Drumtogether:Improvingjointattention.imagine,5,110.Miller,A.,Yinger,O.S.,&Zwischenberger,J.(2016).Alteringperceptions:Research, cost-effectiveness,andadvocacy.imagine,7,53-57.