Analysis & Interpretation: Analysis & Interpretation: Individual Variables Individual Variables

IndependentlyIndependently

Chapter 12Chapter 12

Basic Statistics: Categorical Basic Statistics: Categorical MeasuresMeasures

Categorical Categorical MeasuresMeasures

Frequency AnalysisFrequency Analysis Valid percentValid percent Cumulative percent Cumulative percent

Frequency AnalysisFrequency Analysis

OutliersOutliers

HistogramHistogram

Confidence Intervals: Confidence Intervals: ProportionsProportions

““A projection of the A projection of the range within which range within which a population a population parameter will lie parameter will lie at a given level of at a given level of confidence, based confidence, based on sample on sample statistic.”statistic.”

Sampling error:Sampling error:

Basic Statistics: Continuous Basic Statistics: Continuous MeasuresMeasures

Continuous Continuous MeasuresMeasures

Descriptive Descriptive StatisticsStatistics Sample meanSample mean Sample standard Sample standard

deviationdeviation

Source: echrblog.blogspot.com

Basic Statistics: Continuous Basic Statistics: Continuous MeasuresMeasures

Converting to Categorical MeasuresConverting to Categorical Measures JudgmentJudgment Client’s predetermined structureClient’s predetermined structure Media splitMedia split Cumulative percentage breakdownCumulative percentage breakdown Two-box techniqueTwo-box technique

Confidence Intervals: MeansConfidence Intervals: Means

Same ideaSame idea

Equation: Equation:

Hypothesis TestingHypothesis Testing

Null hypothesisNull hypothesis

Alternative hypothesisAlternative hypothesis

Significance levelSignificance level

Significance levelSignificance level ““The acceptable level of The acceptable level of

error; refers to the error; refers to the probability of rejecting probability of rejecting the null hypothesis the null hypothesis when it is actually true”when it is actually true”

P-valueP-value ““The probability of The probability of

obtaining a given result obtaining a given result if in fact the null if in fact the null hypothesis were true.”hypothesis were true.”

Hypothesis TestingHypothesis Testing

What does this mean?What does this mean? If p > If p > αα

If p < If p < αα

Hypothesis TestingHypothesis Testing

Categorical VariablesCategorical Variables Chi-square testsChi-square tests

Continuous VariablesContinuous Variables T-TestsT-Tests