An Examination of vegetarianism issues January preprint 2011

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my husband Gareth Jones for his constant support, patience and

understanding. My husband has shown an exceptional „above and beyond‟ attitude towards

nurturing and entertaining our young son, to allow for my intensive study periods. I wish to

thank my tutors from Bangor University, notably Dr Bill Rees, who encouraged me to enrol

on the course in 2004, and is now my dissertation supervisor. I would also like to thank the

people who took part in the primary research some of whom were friends and acquaintances.

In addition I wish to thank my good friend Susan Jones who helped me to fulfil some of the

academic requirements as per my supervisor‟s instructions. My father John Brian Price has

been greatly supportive helping with childcare issues and motivating me to keep going. I also

give thanks to my sister in law Elisabeth Geake, as a scholar and person of great intelligence

and experience who is constantly available for advice and guidance. Finally I would like to

give my thanks and blessings to my late Mother who passed away in January 2009. I made

her a solemn promise that I would finish this work and although I‟m saddened she is not alive

to see me finally complete, I‟m certain she would be extremely happy and proud that I‟ve

achieved my goal.

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This Dissertation is submitted in part fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of M.A.

of Bangor University

An Examination of People’s Awareness of Issues Attached to Vegetarianism

Abstract

This dissertation is a study of the concepts, ideals, morality and ethics of vegetarians and meat

eaters regarding their dietary choices in relation to the environment. The study explores

existing knowledge and understanding of the influence of vegetarianism on the environment,

gaining information on the education or as suspected, lack of education in the subject of diet

and climate change.

Vegetarianism, once associated with hippies and eccentrics (Germov and Williams, 2001) is

also recognised as a dietary choice within religion and culture and more recently as a means

to slow down the negative influence of climate change. Environmental concerns and global

climate change are at the forefront of many current discussions and summits, focussing on

how to reduce impact and slow down damage on a global and united level. In the year 2000

there were in the region of four million vegetarians in the UK, and if the trend continues then

by 2030 everyone in the UK will be vegetarian. Vegetarianism is becoming a story of success

continually unfolding with people becoming more insightful of the benefits; the research for

this dissertation explores a small sample group, and where they are on the ladder of

knowledge and understanding with regard to dietary choice and the environment.

The study reveals that approximately one third of the sample group said they didn't eat meat

and two thirds believed that cutting down on meat could help the environment. This

information in relation to qualitative data is inconsistent and suggests there is a requirement

for further education is matters of food choice and climate change.

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Table of Contents

Abstract

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

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Introduction

Aims and Objectives

Dissertation Structure

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Chapter One: Literature Review

1.1 Introduction to the review

1.2 Research Texts

1.3 Vegetarianism

1.4 An Evolutionary and Religious History

1.5 Livestock and Land

1.6 Related Statistics

1.7 The Counter Argument

1.7.1The „Liars‟ and „Deniers‟

1.8 The Sociology of Food

1.9 Conclusion of the review

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Chapter Two: Methods of data collection

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Problem Hypothesis and Statement.

2.3 Choosing an appropriate research method

2.4 A Background of Available Methods of Research

2.4.1 Surveys

2.4.2 Repertory Grid Method

2.4.3 Mixed Method Approaches

2.4.4 Case Studies

2.5 Description of Samples and Research Resource

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2.6 Limitations of Sample Selection

2.7 The Questions

2.8 Primary Research Part One

2.8.1 Land Use for Meat Production

2.8.2 Footprints

2.8.3 Green House Gases

2.8.4 Vegetarian Diet and Nutrition

2.8.5 Breaching of Pollution Limits

2.8.6 Identity questions

2.9 Questionnaire Design and Distribution

2.9.1 Questionnaire Email Invitation

2.10 Primary Research Part Two

2.11 Data Analysis

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Chapter Three: Results

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Part One - The Questionnaire

3.2.1 Summary of Results for Questions 1 – 10

3.3 Question 11. Please use the space below to write down your thoughts or

comments about food choices and our environment

3.3.1 Qualitative data for Question 11

3.3.2 Comments from Participants Who Also Completed Repertory Grids

3.4 Part Two – Repertory Grid Analyses

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List of Figures

3.1 Focus Cluster Person 1

3.2 Cross Plot Person 1







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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Questionnaire questions and response choices

Table 2.2 Constructs and corresponding ratings

Table 2.3 Elements and constructs use in the repertory grid analyses

Table 3.1 Question 1 - Profile of sample group of 32 participants

Table 3.2 Question 2







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Bibliography

Appendices

Appendix 1 Research Questionnaire

Appendix 2 Research Questionnaire (Completed)

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Introduction

This dissertation is a study of the concepts, ideals, morality and ethics of vegetarians and meat

eaters regarding their dietary choices in relation to the environment. Exploring these topics

will lead to the most important purpose of this work; gaining information on the education or

as suspected, lack of education in the subject of diet and climate change.

Historically and religiously speaking vegetarianism was defined as a dietary choice in 1884

(Spencer, 2000) but dated back much further than this to around 500 BC when the concept

made a moral impact during the era of Buddha and Pythagoras. In Buddhism the belief is that

once a human being departs from the material life, they may be reborn as another sentient life

which may not be human. With this in mind if Buddhists were to eat animals they might be

eating a relative from a previous life. In Buddhism it is the actions and chapters of material

lives that determine how the rebirth takes place. Buddha disallowed killing of animals for any

purpose including sacrifice, and one of the five Buddhist precepts is to "abstain from taking

life" (Spencer, 2000: 77-79). As discussed in chapter 2, the literature review explains in more

detail other religions and cultures who follow a vegetarian diet.

In addition to cultural and religious beliefs there are those who have developed a moral

philosophy to prevent animal cruelty and in support of this abstain from eating meat, in some

cases taking the activist role and becoming involved in protests and liberation of animals

being harmed.

Some believe that a diet without meat is beneficial to good health and reduces incidence of

heart disease, cancer, diabetes and other life-threatening conditions; in a study of 11,000

people carried out by 'Oxford study'(Germov and Williams, 2001:108-109), half of the

participants changed their diet to meat free whilst the other half continued a meat inclusive

diet. The study discovered that a vegetarian group experience fewer incidents of cancer and

heart disease. In 1990 there were national and global concerns over 'mad cow‟ disease ,

scientifically known as BSE (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy) which resulted in

legislation changes making it illegal to sell meat on the bone (Germov and Williams,

2001:110).

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The topic of vegetarianism not only touches upon religious, moral and health issues;

vegetarianism and the human diet also has an impact on our environment and climate change.

At the time of writing this dissertation, statements and campaigns are being formulated for

presentation in Copenhagen. The purpose of the Copenhagen summit is to establish and strike

global deals to reduce the negative process of climate change, and the impact on the planet

and its people. (http://actonco2.direct.gov.uk/actonco2). Organisations in the UK as part of

the 180 countries involved with the summit made statements relating to what they believed

would reduce emissions and slowdown climate change. The Vegetarian Society makes a

number of claims about climate change and vegetarianism:

"By going vegetarian you will help:

• Avoid excessive CO2 production

• Reduce methane/nitrous oxide production

• Save large amounts of water

• Avoid polluting our streams/rivers/oceans

• Reduce destruction of topsoil & tropical rainforest

• Reduce the destruction of wildlife habitats & endangered species

• Reduce the use of antibiotics, growth promoters and chemicals”

(http://www.vegsoc.org/news/2009/copenhagen.html)

Chief Executive of The Vegetarian Society, Anne Pinner (www.vegsoc.org) attended the

public hearing on „Global Warming and Food Policy: Less Meat = Less Heat‟ (December 3rd

2009) where for the first time health, animal well-being, livestock and climate change were

brought together of discussion simultaneously. The information may not be new to most

vegetarians and even some who eat meat. Environmentalists who focus on recycling and

composting may not be aware of the impact of the meat industry on the environment, if this is

the case it may be due to lack of education rather than ignorance.

There are individuals who consider themselves vegetarian but in fact eat fish. As defined by

the Vegetarian Society (www.vegsoc.org)

“A vegetarian is someone living on a diet of grains, pulses, nuts, seeds, vegetables and

fruits with or without the use of dairy products and eggs. A vegetarian does not eat

any meat, poultry, game, fish, shellfish or crustacea, or slaughter by-products.”

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Sustainability issues are not limited to meat production and livestock but extend to the fishing

industry also. “The fishing industry is responsible for some of the most environmentally

damaging practices affecting our seas and oceans today” (www.vegsoc.org). Methods used

for fish farming are polluting the oceans, fishing practises such as netting and dredging are

damaging the ecosystem and causing death by „bycatch‟ (a term used to describe non targeted

catch in nets). Fisheries are discharging chemicals and other waste into the sea; Scottish

salmon fisheries have breached pollution limits more than 400 times in three years (The

Vegetarian Society, quoting the Sunday Herald, 1 October 2006). Companies such as

„Young‟s‟ now display the „Marine Stewardship Council‟ (www.msc.org) emblem which is a

declaration that their products come from sustainable sources.

The remaining group of people are those who are not vegetarian and have no grasp of how a

diet without meat can have a positive impact on climate change. This dissertation focuses on

vegetarians‟ and meat eaters‟ concepts and ideals regarding dietary choices relating to the

environment, morals and ethics and most important to the purpose of this work; education of

the topic and its dearth.

Aims and objectives

The aims and objectives of this research project are formed on the premise that education of

environmental issues relating to vegetarianism of dietary choice is lacking, and the public is

mostly unaware of key statistics and facts stating the immensity of the problem. Additionally

the aim is to examine current literature on the topic and more specifically what is available to

the public without the need for academic searches. Firstly the dissertation will ascertain the

current level of knowledge regarding certain statistics as well as analysing opinions and

personal comments made during the primary research phase. With the aid of primary research

results the dissertation will endeavour to examine public awareness of issues attached to

vegetarianism.

The objectives of the research are summarised as follows:

to examine existing knowledge and understanding of the impact of vegetarianism on

the environment

to establish and analyse concepts, ideals and opinions via quantitative qualitative

research

To investigate what influences dietary choices; vegetarian or meat consumption.

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To ascertain if there is general deficiency in the education of vegetarianism as an

influence on climate change

To recommend further research if necessary and possible suggestions to improve

education should a need be identified.

The researcher reminds the reader that the dissertation aims to establish gaps in

knowledge of a random sample group, in relation to vegetarianism and meat based

dietary choices, and will not specifically examine the information that is or isn‟t

available although this will be discussed in part.

Dissertation Structure

To fulfil the academic aims of this dissertation it is divided into four chapters; Review of

Background Literature, Methodology, Results, and Conclusion. Chapter one presents a review

of literature providing background research to the history of vegetarianism. The review

commences with texts from research authors Bell (2005) and Denscombe (2008) and

additionally reference to Fransella and Bannister (1977) and George Kelly‟s (1977) work

relating to the repertory grid techniques used in this dissertation. The historical review of

vegetarianism communicates discussions about early culture and religion and refers to early

key dignitaries such as Buddha and Pythagoras. The review also looks at current literature

relating to climate change and specifics of environmental impact, use of land and linked

statistics. The review concludes with a summary and reflection of literature found by the

researcher, to be potentially most useful to the reader. Chapter Two concentrates on the

methodology of research; commencing with the hypothesis and problem to be investigated

followed by appropriate research methods and their usability for this dissertation. The

researcher looks at the mixed methods approach incorporating quantitative and qualitative

methods in conjunction with the repertory grid technique. The chapter next describes the

design, structure and distribution of specific research documents used to gather relevant data

in response to the hypothesis, detailing questions posed and supporting background evidence.

The third chapter is a correlation and interpretation of results for both parts of the research,

cited question responses, quotes from the quantitative sections and grid analyses. The fourth

and final chapter is a conclusion of the dissertation with recommendations for possible

solutions and further research and following results discovered in chapter three.

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Chapter One: Literature review

1.1 Introduction to the review

This review traces the development of vegetarianism from historical, sociological,

environmental and statistical aspects. One of the main areas of discussion is related to early

history of vegetarianism and its introduction to people via cultural, religious and ethical

routes. As discussed within this review historical information of the Vegetarian Society alone

dates back to 1847; however information of a religious and cultural nature dates back to many

hundreds of years previous to this in 500 BC when Buddha and Pythagoras imparted to the

public the ethos that killing and eating meat was immoral.

With relatively recent focus on global and environmental issues there are more people turning

to a vegetarian lifestyle; in support of slowing some of the damage to our planet caused by

uprooting of Amazon forest in order to breed cattle for the meat market, excessive energy

required by the meat industry for production, and the harmful gases produced by cattle which

damage the protective ozone layer thus off-balancing our climate and ecosystems.

In addition to the history of vegetarianism, the purpose of this review is to highlight the lack

of statistical information available to the public via books purchased in high-street shops,

television and newspapers. However, it will also highlight the availability of statistical and

factual information available via academic resources and more generally the Internet.

The reader will be taken through a combination of literature that in conjunction with research

both primary and secondary enables the study of vegetarianism, its impact on the environment

and more poignantly the public‟s awareness of the magnitude of the problem.

1.2 Research Texts

Essential reading prior to embarking on any research project should be primarily about

research and methods of research and additionally doing a literature review. Bell (2005) and

Denscombe (2007) both write about methods research; Bell (2005) concentrates on first time

researchers working on education, health and social science projects, while Denscombe

(2007) provides guidance for those writing small scale social research projects. Martin

Denscombe is Professor of social research at De Montfort University, Leicester.

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Both Bell (2005) and Denscombe (2007) have included similar content in their research

guide, the authors efficiently cover all aspects of research ranging from initial stages such as

selecting a topic, preparing the groundwork, how to approach ethics and methodology of

primary research (a common example of this is a questionnaire or survey). Both authors have

discussed benefits and disadvantages of different approaches to research, methodologies and

overall limitations of report writing such a time and finances. Another common theme is the

use of checklists; vitally important to the novice and first-time researcher.

Upon study of both texts it would appear that Bell (2005) has given more thorough

consideration to whom the research student is, and where they might be on their journey in

academia. The layout of this book is clear, well spaced and easy to follow. The form itself is

slightly larger than that of Denscombe (2007), also line spacing seems to be greater. These

details may seem insignificant on an academic level, but on a practical level a student may

prefer to read a text which is somewhat easier on the eye, that doesn't add to the already

existing pressure of study.

Whilst both Denscombe (2007) and Bell (2005) thoroughly cover nearly all aspects of

research, there is no mention of Repertory Grid methods. However there is mention by both

authors of concepts and initial ideas. “The Grounded Theory approach, by contrast, expects

the researcher to start research without any fixed ideas about the nature of the thing that is

about to be investigated or how it operates.” (Denscombe, 2007:93). This is the basis on

which Repertory Grids are devised. The researcher starts out with little or no knowledge of

the potential response of the subject to be interviewed, and is possibly where the term „The

Grounded Theory‟ originated.

An observation of Denscombe‟s (2007) guide to research is the lack of ease in finding the

topic of report layout. On scanning the contents page, the only reference to this subject is

under the heading „writing up the research‟. Bell (2005) includes subheading in the contents

page which specifically point to structuring the report itself. This part of the chapter is written

clearly and concisely, leaving little room for error in comprehension.

Neither of the authors discussed in the last few paragraphs relating to research guides cover

doing the actual literature review to any extent. For this reason it is advisable to obtain

literature that specifically focuses on this topic. One such text is „Doing a Literature Review‟

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(Hart, 2005). Hart (2005) is based at the University of Central England, Birmingham, UK. He

clarifies in his preface that the book is not meant to be a manual, it is an introduction on what

is involved in literature reviewing. Hart (2005) suggests that

„a review of the literature is important because without it you will not acquire an

understanding of your topic, of what has already been done on it, how it has been

researched, and what the key issues are.‟

(Hart, 2005:1).

He also goes on to discuss quality is breadth and depth, being clear and brief giving effective

analysis of the subject. It is worth mentioning that Hart (2005) suggests that a poorly written

review is not always the fault of the student, it may often be the tutor or trainer at fault.

Limitations to a literature search may be due to a lack of understanding of modern technology

and how it can be utilized, the researcher will need to be flexible in their approach and be able

to access their own transferable skills.

Hart (2005) describes the review as a “methodological story” (Hart, 2005:173) and the most

common and easy arrangement for this story is narrative chronology. This explanation is

straightforward and likely to be digestible to the reader. Hart (2005) briefly highlights the

importance of making the story fit with academia. Although his work has been written

predominantly for the postgraduate students, the simple description of a literature review

could be easily understood by an undergraduate who may not yet have delved into this level

of academic writing.

With reference to methodology and previous paragraphs commenting on the lack of

information about repertory grids, the reader would need to visit the website

„http://gigi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca:2000/‟ to view the actual method working in practice. The Web

Grid process is based upon the works of George Kelly (1977).

„George Kelly entitled his major work The Psychology of Personal Constructs and

thereby announced his intention of trying to create a new psychology rather than

present a new theory within the framework of orthodox psychology‟

(Bannister and Fransella, 1986:26).

Kelly (1977) explains that personal construct psychology is a method to understand how

people express their experiences.

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The process uses elements and constructs to assist the researcher with their interviews. The

data can be gathered and inputted into the Web Grid software, it can then be displayed

pictorially in various different guises such as; comparative graphs, cluster diagrams and maps.

It is the Web Grid process that will be used in the primary research method for this research

project.

Hall (1978) as part of an educational research guide (Rediguide 9: Guides in Educational

Research, University of Nottingham School of Education, July 1978) has compiled a chapter

on the use of personal constructs. The guide is a theoretical approach to the process and does

not provide information about the Webgrid software available online. Hall (1978:7) outlines

some of the limitations to using personal constructs; he writes that the process is easy, but

people may find it difficult to verbalize their perceptions. The guide along side the use of the

Webgrid software (http://gigi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca:2000/) provides a complete package with

which to carry the interviewing techniques and respective analyses.

Fransella and Bannister (1977) write of the repertory grid technique in manual form, their

work creates the underpinnings to Kelly‟s (1977) technique and have been updated and

revised for use by health professionals and those in psychology or social roles such as

probation or the police force. This text is useful should the researcher not be familiar with

Internet software, „Webgrid‟ (http://gigi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca:2000/) have also been revised to

make the process even easier by providing examples of questions to use when eliciting

elements and constructs.

1.3 Vegetarianism

As this research project focuses on vegetarianism, exploration of relevant texts and websites

are necessary to give the reader insight to the subject. Following searches it would seem that

the website titled „The Vegetarian Society‟ is the most comprehensive collection of historical

information, to guide the non-vegetarian and similarly new vegetarian. As the text within the

website is written by the Society rather than an individual, it is difficult to assess credentials.

However, historical information is detailed and concise dating back to 1847 when the society

was formed, the president Mr. James Simpson. The following year there were 478 members,

of whom 232 attended the dinner following the first AGM which took place in Hayward‟s

hotel in Manchester.

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This brief history is by no means the extent of the record of events that led to the formation of

The Vegetarian Society. The society‟s formation history is preceded by further in-depth study

of early famous vegetarians, religions and philosophies condoning a diet without meat. More

recent records point to the formation of a charity to support young people up to the age of 25

years who follow a vegetarian diet.

The Vegetarian Society website does indeed cover some of the issues relating to the main

body of this dissertation, the most pertinent being that of the impact of vegetarianism on the

environment. In the pages titled „What Do We Do‟ there are Detailed and factual Statistics

supporting why a vegetarian diet is considered „Green‟.

A Vegetarian is defined by the Vegetarian Society

(http://www.vegsoc.org, 1st December 2008)

„as someone living on a diet of grains, pulses, nuts, seeds, vegetables and fruits, with

or without the use of dairy products and eggs. A vegetarian does not eat any meat,

poultry, game, fish, shellfish or crustacea, or slaughter by-products‟.

Further information provided gives a breakdown of the different types of vegetarian.

Simplistic language is used in defining foods eaten by lacto-ovo-vegetarian who eats both

dairy and eggs, the lacto-vegetarian will eat dairy but not eggs. The more stringent vegetarian

diet omits dairy products, eggs in addition to the omission of animal products as per the most

commonly understood vegetarian diet, and is known as veganism.

Following more in-depth research, there is a sister website (http://www.vegansociety.com, 1st

December 2008) available giving similar information to The Vegetarian Society, known as

The Vegan Society. Information on the website seems to be from a more educational and

factual aspect with fewer details regarding the history of the society. It does however go into

similar levels of information surrounding green issues and matters relating to the suffering

and exploitation of animals, which is clearly a common and strong theme throughout texts on

the subject of vegetarianism. In addition to this theme, and more recently, statistics are

available to do with the impact of the meat industry on availability of plant-based foods and

subsequently our environment.

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Both the Vegetarian Society and Vegan Society websites lean towards the positive side of not

eating meat, and both give extensive information about diets, nutrition, recipes as well as the

categories of people who currently are and could be vegetarian. What seems to be missing is

information around how to make informed choices should people wish to continue eating

meat. The information provided is quite exclusive of those falling into this category. Surely in

very ancient time periods prior to the farming trends and industries, it was natural for the

provider of the family to go out and hunt for their food, alongside growing vegetables and

grains. It is only more recently with the exploitation of farm animals and the dominance of

land for their use, people have investigated these issues and their impact on diets, morals and

of course the environment.

1.4 An Evolutionary and Religious History

Colin Spencer (2000) writes about a history of vegetarianism; the text entitled

„Vegetarianism: A History‟ goes into detail about the primates, the toolmakers and gatherers,

at a time when humans began to gather food and start to tame the environment. This is only

the beginning of his text which extends itself to a range of information from the beginning

and early man to almost the current day.

Spencer (2000) is thorough in his approach, and has paid attention to detail in the 2nd

edition

updating the definition of vegetarianism and highlighting the social acceptability. The reason

for such lengthy coverage of the literature is the ample content, it‟s relevance to the research

and the extent of topics covered.

Spencer (2000) touches issues such as the Renaissance period as well as certain religions,

periods of poverty and War, government influence and of course some nutritional

information. The text ends with the potential of our future. He predicts that in the future

incidents of food poisoning and health problems will increase, and people will become more

aware of such issues as the welfare of animals and our ecology. He suggests that these issues

will be responsible for people turning more and more toward vegetarianism.

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Spencer (2000), prior to embarking on his work about vegetarianism, had little knowledge of

the subject nor its history. He was unfamiliar with reasons for not eating meat. He states

(Spencer, 2000: Foreward, x) that he knew

"Hinduism in India made the cow sacred, and had created probably the most delicious

vegetarian cuisine in the world".

He was familiar that the within Buddhist precepts and most important instruction was not to

cause harm to any sentient being, there were however confusing conditions related to these

precepts. Spencer (2000) intended the text titled 'vegetarianism: a history' to be a history of

the concepts leading to be adoption of a diet without meat. He also explores the psychology

around vegetarianism, specifically to try to rationalise why the idea of a meat free diet is still

viewed as unusual.

Spencer (2000) delves into the confusion and assumptions over the dietary habits of

prehistoric man. In fact he quotes many writers who have expressed such views, within his

book. He infers that our path through evolution may be as a result of our omnivorous diet,

coupled with the human‟s adaptability and willingness to sample and test new environments,

foods and lifestyles. Spencer (2000) confirms that the text is not a catalogue of reasons why

people have been forced to follow a meat free diet, due to financial climate or lack of food.

The book discusses environmental issues in early history that had an impact on the

availability of food, some of these changes resulted in humans moving closer to the shores to

investigate the possibility of new food and how it can be introduced into daily diet.

A passionate theme within Spencer's pages (2000) is the discussion and debate of decisions

made by Pythagoras and The Buddha regarding their choice to omit the consumption of meat

entirely. It was during the lifespan of Pythagoras and Buddha in Greece and India

respectively, in (500 BC) that the first moral ideal to not kill for food held any degree of

significance. Spencer referred to a footnote which states that

"the dates for Pythagoras are less specific-born perhaps in 580 or 560 BC, died in

500 or 480 BC. However, scholars now favour a later date for Buddha, 482 400 BC.

So could Buddhism have been influenced by Pythagoras?"

(Spencer, 2000:77).

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Spencer is keen to investigate further back than these previously mentioned dates to

civilisations in Mesopotamia and Egypt, touching on Hinduism and the Rig Veda which is a

"collection of writings, over 1000 hymns" (2000:70). Spencer (2000) considers many other

religious schools in order to expand and elaborate early history concepts so that readers may

further assess their understanding of the development of vegetarianism.

Within a similar theme the reader can now begin to learn about a cultural history of

vegetarianism, with information that ranges from the 1600s to modern times. The Bloodless

Revolution (Stuart, 2006,) covers a multitude of issues relating to food and vegetarianism

from a historical and cultural aspect. A chapter (the epilogue) entitled „The Politics of

ecology: Thoreau, Gandhi and Hitler‟, similar to other literature reviewed refers to the

Vegetarian Society. Henry David Thoreau (1817 - 62) was indirectly introduced to an

American vegetarian reformer, Amos Bronson Alcott (1799-1888) and his cousin William

Alcott, and the inventor of everyday breakfast cereal, Sylvester Graham. One would guess

that this Sylvester Graham pioneered the American breakfast cereal known as Graham

Crackers. In 1842 Bronson Alcott, according to the text, visited England where Alcott house

was formed. Five years later Alcott house "were among the key contributors to the formation

of the vegetarian society." (Stuart, 2006:422).

As he further mentions, to the disgust of some modern vegetarians it came to light that Hitler

also was a vegetarian. Whilst these two pieces of information may be common knowledge,

the book goes into great depth of history, reasoning and the pathways of both Gandhi and

Hitler, thus giving the reader additional and unexpected examples of great vegetarians from

the past.

Most of Stuart‟s (2006) research took place at the British Library in London, but there is also

a reference to Cambridge University, the Bibliotheque Nationale and the National library of

India to mention a few. He humbly expresses his thanks to the world and humans that inspired

him to investigate and write his work. Stuart (2006) explains that during the 17th and 18th

centuries revolutionaries attacked the conventional public regarding their predominantly

animal-based diets. Demographers made claims that resources used for the meat industry

were wasted and would be better used for human consumption and there were suggestions

that humans were not able to properly digest meat. It was during the 18th century that 2

prominent philosophers of that period; Descartes (1596-1650) and rival Gassendi (1592-1655)

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decided that humans could benefit most from a vegetarian diet; no such intellectuals have

made such a statement since this time. Stuart (2006) thrusts the text into an immense journey

of political, historical and cultural substance. He immerses himself in religious records and

chapters of the French Revolution as well as the previously mentioned figures of our past;

Hitler and Gandhi.

Stuart‟s „The Bloodless Revolution‟ (2006,) echoes some of the issues discussed by Spencer

(2000) and to him it appears to almost succeed and complete some of the gaps. The text

would appeal to a different category of reader, someone who is prepared to accept and study

the more bloodthirsty facts of our food history, in relation to vegetarianism.

Like others already discussed, Tannahill (1988) writes more about the history of food; once

again as per the previous historical texts discussed in this review, Tannahill (1988) refers to

various religions and their relationship with the vegetarian diet; information is given about

Buddhism and Jainism both of which were influenced by the Vedic religion more commonly

known as Hinduism. Belief that any living thing is reincarnated after death is a basic tenet of

both these religions. It is for this reason that animals should not be eaten and in some cases

fruits and vegetables must be thoroughly checked to ensure there are no living things

remaining lest they be eaten by mistake!

Tannahill (1988) realised that no one had yet written an extensive book about food in world

history, information from archaeologists and anthropologists, zoologists and ecologists had

not been correlated. During the writing of „Food in History‟‟ Tannahill (1988) soon

understood that the task had not been previously attempted due to the vast nature of the work

involved. The book is intended to be

"a panoramic survey designed to readers with a general, civilised interest in food. It is

not for the dedicated gourmet."

(Tannahill, 1988:Preface xii)

Tannahill (1988) has attempted to condense 50,000 years of food history within 420 pages of

text. Vegetarianism is discussed on a number of occasions, with particular attention paid to

the introduction of the soya bean, its uses, origin, benefits and nutritional factors. „Food in

History‟ (Tannahill, 1988) gives clear insight of where vegetarianism and related issues fit

into our history and social/economical development. Whilst giving details of the origin of the

14

moral issues with regard to vegetarianism, the book does not appear to map this across to

modern day practices in the West that have no religious value, but are merely of a

compassionate nature responding to moral, ethical and environmental issues.

Moving away from the historical aspects of vegetarianism and food, an important contribution

to our understanding of vegetarianism is made by „The New Why You Don't Need Meat‟ by

Cox (1994). This book addresses the things we're not supposed to know about why we

shouldn‟t eat meat, Cox (1994:2) says

“I know from the original response to the original why you don't need meat that some

people found it extremely hard to accept that there could be a huge body of evidence,

clearly implicating the meat-based lifestyle, but no one had ever told them about."

It was Cox's understanding that people felt if they hadn't been told the facts about

vegetarianism and it couldn't possibly be true. Cox (1994) explores mortality rates and

compares mortality rate in terms of vegetarian and non-vegetarian deaths from heart disease,

and indicated potential risk of heart disease related deaths in terms of the frequency of meat

consumption. This text journeys through chapters of advice around good health, practical

advice including interesting and nourishing recipes as well as the nutritional composition of

vegetarian food.

Cox (1994) includes a rather substantial chapter within its pages which relays what would

appear to be a combination of short stories and journalism relating to concept and morals of

eating meat, yet possessing the knowledge that the animal may have suffered. Within this

chapter there is a section entitled "ideas to change the world" (Cox, 1994:93) which delves

into different schools of thought such as the utilitarian philosophy and alternatively those who

favour animal and human rights. In simple terms the utilitarian philosophy implies that some

experiments and even vivisection may not be considered wrong, as the benefits are such that a

greater number of people may be saved or cured as a result.

This particular book is informative and full of facts, figures and statistics. For the reader it

may appear somewhat dogmatic and give the impression that there is no alternative to a

meatless diet. In section 1.3 above, information is given about The Vegetarian and Vegan

Societies, and on further exploration of the websites people are encouraged to spend a day, a

week or where possible a month without meat. These different periods of time are given titles;

15

Bronze, Silver and Gold respectively. This approach is basically giving the public a single

„pat on the back‟ for effort and subsequently may have a more positive impact than that

intended by Cox (1994).

A concluding point about the work by Cox (1994) is that it is held in very high esteem by

Linda McCartney, who has spent many years getting involved in methods to reduce the

consumption of meat and educate people are the reasons why it should be done. Linda

McCartney has also been responsible for the production of a variety of meatless convenience

products that we now find readily available on the supermarket counters. McCartney states

that "in this remarkable book, Peter has researched argument that the majority can not ignore-

not if they care for their health or their lives." (Cox, 1994:Back cover).

As discussed earlier in this review a stricter version of vegetarianism is veganism, and as

previously mentioned is a diet without any animal products whatsoever. Joanne Stepaniak

(2000) has written a comprehensive, informative and thought provoking text titled „The

Vegan Sourcebook‟. This book is considered to be "the most comprehensive account of

veganism seen to date."-Tom Regan, author of The Case of Animal Rights (cited by

Stepaniak, J, 2000: Front Cover).

Stepaniak (2000) is a spiritual approach in educating people about veganism and on opening

the book one is greeted with a simple prayer and a request to the animals that we may be

forgiven. Joanne Stepaniak (2000) is not only an educator; she is also an experienced cook

and recipe writer. Within her work Stepaniak (2000) manages to express how the preparation

of food without using meat or animal products can be combined with people‟s compassion for

the planet. Carol J Adams, author of „The Sexual Politics of Meat‟ (cited by Stepaniak, J,

2000:Forward) suggests that Stepaniak "speaks vegan" and that she crystallises the

compassionate action that is veganism. The text is intended to encourage people to commence

a meat free way of life, and that those who contemplate this path are not alone in wondering

how our choices impact on not only animals suffering but also our very own planet. Stepaniak

(2000) discusses how we can become awakened and changed, and become prepared for

psychological adaptations that would undoubtedly occur.

As it states in the title of the text, it is a sourcebook. This title would indicate that it is a piece

of educational and informative piece of material that provides details of resources ranging

16

from nutritional information, animal exploitation specifics, alternative products, religious and

cultural issues, right through to recipes. A very relevant chapter in the text is „Chapter 2 - The

Vegan Identity‟. This chapter describes how "vegans are a heterogeneous group and cannot be

categorised by age, race, gender, ethnicity, ability, religion, income, sexual orientation,

educational level, or physical traits." (Stepaniak, J, 2000:19) It is explained that vegan come

from a variety of backgrounds and work in a variety of occupations. The vegan can be found

all over the world. Within this chapter is also a definition of veganism as written by The

American Vegan Society;

"veganism means living solely on the products of the plant kingdom, to the exclusion

of flesh, fish, fowl, animal milk, and all dairy products, eggs, honey, and all other

foods of animal origin."

(Stepaniak, J, 2000:19)

It is also written that veganism excludes the use of animal products such as wall, leather,

further and even silk. Those who choose to follow the vegan path are encouraged to find

alternatives. This more stringent approach may appear too harsh for some, but in some

respects provides easy to follow, rigid guidelines.

Within chapter 17 „Challenges, Gifts, and Offering‟ there are a number of quotes and thoughts

shared by vegans from all over the world. These quotations concentrate on the challenges of

being vegan. One page points to useful thoughts for those who are new to veganism and

equally for those who still eat meat or animal products. An apparent difference between the

text written by Stepaniak (2000) and by Cox (1994) is that there is no suggestion that a

meatless path is the only way forward. Quotes suggest that people should simply try it! This is

a common theme throughout the text, the reader is unlikely to feel uncomfortably guilty or

obliged to launch themselves immediately into a completely animal product free way of life.

The advantage of Joanne Stepaniak‟s (2000) book is that it incorporates not only the

essentials that one would expect to find in a sourcebook, such as where to purchase alternative

commodities and other resources providing further information, but there is also an extensive

section dedicated to the nutritional aspects of a vegan diet and many comprehensive and

explanatory recipes. The only downside to this section as with many similar texts, the

information within is mostly relevant to readers living in America. However, it should not be

17

too complicated to translate some of the phraseology and ingredients vocabulary to English

used in the UK.

1.5 Livestock and Land

Environmental vegetarianism is based on the principle that meat production is less energy

efficient than plant based food production. In 2006 the United Nations produced a document

highlighting this claim, and confirming facts regarding planet degradation and increase in

negative climate change as a result of the meat industry.

"the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant

contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to

global."

"Livestock's long shadow - Environmental issues and options".

(www.Fao.org)

The document further discusses the impact of livestock production in relation to five sectors

considered for gas reporting. 50% of the total calculation for greenhouse emissions coming

from livestock production is apportioned to the land use and forestry sectors, a huge

proportion considering the sector range includes energy use, waste. The information is

displayed in table format showing a detailed breakdown of percentages and tonnage in

relation to green house gas emissions and anthropogenic influences.

„The Vegetarian Times‟ (www.vegetariantimes.com), a monthly American publication is

filled with articles about vegetarianism and specialist topics such as „environmental

vegetarianism‟. Issue 574 contains an article written by a twelve year old girl; she states “I

always knew that becoming a vegetarian would help prevent cruelty to animals but I was not

aware of the environmental consequences of a meat-eating diet.” (Ogden, 2008). The article

then reveals statistics relating to vast quantities of water required to raise livestock and the

land used to provide grain feed, pollution of aquatic life due to large quantities of chemicals

discharged from farms and resulting from animal waste. This type of material is the education

available to the public along with leaflets available from „The Vegetarian Society‟

(www.vegsociety.org) and „The Vegan Society‟ (www.vegansociety.com); but they rarely

find their way to schools or community facilities where they are most needed.

http://www.vegansociety.com/

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1.6 Related Statistics

So what about the barriers to changing one's lifestyle to that of a vegetarian? Lea and Worsley

(2002) submitted an article entitled „Benefits and barriers to the consumption of a vegetarian

diet in Australia‟ to the journal Public Health Nutrition: 6(5), 505–511. The purpose of the

study was to identify perceptions of the barriers and benefits of a vegetarian diet, in a South

Australian settling, with the main focus being its impact on health. A random selection of 601

subjects was surveyed via the questionnaire route, with results pointing to a preference of a

plant-based diet (vegetarian) which still contained animal products and meat versus a meatless

diet alone.

There is no reason why the results from the Australian study should differ from results studied

on a global scale, provided subjects are still chosen randomly and cultural, ethical or religious

influences are not considered.

An article titled „Diet and the environment: does what you eat matter?‟ published by the

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (Marlow, J, et al, 2008 ) appropriately focuses on the

impact of dietary choices on our environment, making the article relevant to this review of

literature. The study is set in California and concentrates on agricultural issues such as water

and soil pollution and loss of biodiversity. Attention was given to a comparison of the

environmental impact of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian diets with reference to fertiliser

and pesticide input.

This particular study gives detailed statistics and findings relating to the amount of energy,

water, fertiliser and pesticides required by the non-vegetarian diet. More specifically results

pointed to a vegetarian diet requiring less of these elements for use in production, with

greatest influence from the consumption of beef. Without too much difficulty the abstract of

the article points toward the vegetarian but I being less costly to the environment.

Reijnders, L and Soret, S (2003) wrote of „Quantification of the Environmental Impact of

Different Dietary Protein Choices‟, which evaluates processed foods made from soya beans

and meat protein. This article also contains statistics pointing to the disadvantage of a diet

containing meat. Even energy used in the manufacturing of fish-based products is higher than

that required by the production of vegetarian goods, according to the article. However to

balance these disadvantages there is information relating to the environmental impact of

19

produce imports, storage options such as deep-freeze and some horticultural practices. The

study has concentrated survey results into brief comprehensive facts that could easily be

incorporated into cookery books and other literature available to the general public.

Unfortunately the general public is unlikely to come across academic journals when merely

researching the benefits and disadvantages of a vegetarian diet.

1.7 The Counter Argument

There would appear to be very little literature available to counterbalance the argument that a

vegetarian diet is of more benefit to us than a diet with meat. However, there is one theory

that suggests an individual's blood type has an impact on the type of diet they should follow,

and how their health can be affected as a result. D‟Adamo and Whitney (2001) have written

specifically about eating correctly for your blood type. It is clarified in the preface of the text

that the book should not be used in place of recommendations by doctors or any other health

care providers. D‟Adamo (2001) claims to have found the missing blood type link. He is a

second-generation naturopathic physician, who observed patients following a variety of dire

presumed helpfully, some of whom had improved conditions that some worsens.

D‟Adamo and Whitney (2001) include a blood type chart in their appendices, with details of

certain medical risks, Keith to weight loss, required supplement, recommended exercise, and

diet profile. The charts suggest that blood type O requires a diet of high protein to include

meat, fish as well as vegetables and fruit. Apparently blood type O would be less tolerant to

modern diet. Similarly type A B and type B should have a balanced diet incorporating meat,

dairy products, fruit and vegetables, grains and pulses.

"Eat right for your type" (D‟Adamo and Whitney, 2001) is an interesting, comprehensive text.

It may appeal to someone who believes in and practices holistic therapies.

1.7.1 The ‘Liars’ and ‘Deniers’

Whilst not directly related to vegetarianism, climate change as a whole is being challenged by

the public and industries out to “dupe” them. The liars of climate are apparently the scientists

and the deniers are those believe climate change is not anthropogenic, Monbiot (2009) writes

that US Coal companies are making claims that scientific research is not necessarily correct

and specific target groups to convince of this are uneducated males and young, low income

20

women. This information can only fall into the category of „counter argument‟, but there are

few confirmed statistics to support the concept.

1.8 The Sociology of Food

Sociology in a study of people, how society is structured and how changes in society impact

on our lives. Why do we need to discuss the sociology of food? Germov and Williams (2001)

believe that

“a social logical explanation of food habits examines the role played by the

underlying social environment in which food is produced and consumed”.

(Germov and Williams, 2001:3)

In relation to the study of vegetarianism and the environment, Germov and Williams (2001)

referred to the fact that some vegetarians make their choice based on VE impact of meat

production on the environment. They go on to discuss that there are facts to suggest that the

production of meat is energy inefficient. For example grain used to feed animals to raise for

meat consumption could be used to feed people directly. „The European Union is the largest

buyer of animal feed in the world, and 60% of imported grain comes from developing

country.‟ (Germov and Williams, 2001:106). There are more detailed statistics referring to the

many disadvantages of producing meat throughout the chapter „The Vegetarian Option‟.

Beardswoth and Keil (2000) and Caplan (1997) discuss many sociological and identity issues,

with specific chapters on the vegetarian diet. Beardswoth and Keil (2000) repeat the chapter

„The Vegetarian Option‟ in the study by Germov and Williams (2001). The chapter delves

into historical and religious examples of early vegetarianism; additionally the chapter is split

into subheadings such as „The Moral Theme, The Food Production Theme, The

Religious/Spiritual Theme, The Health/Physiological Theme‟. It is the section „The Food

Production Theme‟ that specifically goes into detail about environmental impact, energy

losses in the production process of meat beginning with the grain. Interestingly Beardswoth

and Keil (2000) began research into the sociology of food and eating, and then went on to

research further into the subject of vegetarianism. By the 1990s they felt confident enough to

design a course entitled „Food and Society: Sociological Perspectives‟. It is the course itself

that create the foundation for the text „Sociology on the Menu‟, (Beardsworth and Keil, 2000).

21

Caplan (1997) addresses the issues of what we eat and how our identities and perceptions

influence choices. Caplan (1997) is Professor of Social Anthropology at Goldsmith‟s College,

University of London. Caplan (1997) includes aspects of vegetarianism throughout the text,

Introducing theories and concepts not discussed in other books reviewed. There is of course

the usual definition of vegetarianism, what constitutes a true vegetarian, the cultural issues

and health. Additionally and usefully there is reference to vegetarianism in terms of trying

teenagers, cranks and faddists. The main body of this research project explores whether these

categories play a part in people's awareness of the impact of vegetarianism on our

environment.

Rather than quoting statistics and facts, Caplan (1997) cites quotes by other authors giving

their view on meat-eating and environmentalism as an example. Whilst this style of writing is

attention grabbing, the reader would be obliged to study other literature in order to grasp the

full extent of the vast issue and arguments pointing towards the production of meat being

detrimental to our ecosystem. The force impact on the reader is likely to come from straight

facts and statistics on this subject.

.

1.9 Conclusion of the review

It would appear that from the literature; with the exception of the Vegetarian and Vegan

Societies, the general public has little statistical information available for discussing the

advantages and disadvantages of a vegetarian diet and its relevance to environmental issues.

From time to time the tabloids publish articles encouraging their readers to dedicate one day

or one week to vegetarianism, but this seems to have a novel impact focusing heavily on

health issues. The carnivorous public either ignore or don‟t comprehend the more laden issue

behind their lifestyle. Contrary to belief many vegetarians follow a particularly unhealthy diet

full of processed products high in salt and saturated fats.

Having reviewed much literature relating to the topic of vegetarianism and the environment

only a few stand out in terms of directness, accessibility, ease of reading and simple use of

vocabulary. The Vegetarian and Vegan Society websites are instantly accessible to the general

public provided they have internet access. A quick search on Google on any subject relating

to vegetarianism quickly points to both websites. As discussed in the review, Spencer (2000)

writes of the history and evolutionary journey of vegetarianism. The title alone;

„Vegetarianism: A History‟, permits a quick decision when browsing the library shelves.

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The problem with this particular topic is that statistics are constantly changing and theories

vary according to scientist, politician or governing body. The „green‟ campaign has been

active for many years and until recently the public have either followed advice to make to a

change to their lifestyles or ignored it. Today there is the further complication that people are

becoming sceptical of scientists‟ research, is there really a human influenced problem with

our ecosystem? Perhaps a suggested topic for another research project could be related to the

„liars and the deniers‟; a whole new branch of research related to the problem discussed in this

dissertation, and one that has not yet been scrutinised nor qualified sufficiently to put on the

literature shelves. What literature we have of a non academic nature, is still insufficient for

those who believe and follow and those who ignore; the concern now is the addition of

research which is against the theory that humans can make a difference to the global climate

decline.

The next chapter focuses on the process of primary research. The literature review has been

utilised in the preparation and formation of this aspect of the study. The review conclusion

indicates there is a lack of accessible information available to the general public. It is

necessary to investigate the reasons for this and establish the extent of the problem.

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Chapter Two: Methods of data collection

2.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to describe in detail the methods of research used to gather

information in support of this dissertation. Prior to choosing the most appropriate research

approach it is necessary to review the various methods of research available for use in a social

research project.

The first part of the chapter will focus on the overall hypothesis and a commentary of the

problem detailing issues to be questioned, subdivided into subject areas. The second part will

concentrate on the research method chosen for this dissertation and reasons for choice, and in

contrast reasons for omitting alternative methods. The paper will then follow a detailed

account of the data collection planning process including the method design, the selection of

subjects and they were chosen, questionnaire formulation and structure of questions, citation

of questions used and how the method was implemented. The last part of the chapter will be a

summary of results with analysis and conclusions.

2.2 The Problem Hypothesis and Statement

This investigation centres on an examination of issues attached to vegetarianism. What do

people understand about food choices and the impact on the ecosystem?

The intended purpose of the questions posed is to ascertain the public‟s knowledge in relation

to differing aspects of the dissertation topic, more specifically levels of understanding and

acknowledgement of the negative impact of a meat based diet on the environment. Following

studies of literature on the subject of vegetarianism and gathering unrecorded and non

analysed data via observation and discussion, it is apparent that there is still insufficient

awareness of information promoting the impact of dietary choices on our eco system.

As outlined in the previous chapter, past research as surveys and questionnaires relates to the

number of people who have become vegetarian and the barriers accompanying their decisions

(Lea and Worsley, 2002). This type of academic paper is quite digestible to the general public

and statistics are in line with current views of vegetarianism. Other papers are more in depth

and use technical phraseology; these documents are less easily accessed unless one is

searching specifically through academic resources.

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2.3 Choosing an appropriate research method

It is possible to implement investigations into a research project topic without prior

knowledge of the methods available, but studying some of the approaches outline by Bell

(2005) and Denscombe (2008) will give a more in depth understanding of how to effectively

carry out investigations and “will also enhance your understanding of the literature”, (Bell,

2005:7) which in turn assists with understanding the vocabulary used in research documents

in general. No particular method is correct but the approach must be appropriate for the type

of research being carried out, the topic and subject group, observation or material being used.

“The crucial things for good research is that the choices are reasonable and that they

are made explicit as part of any research report”

(Denscombe, 2008:3)

Prior to conducting investigations the researcher needs to consider some relevant issues and

questions; the relevance of the research, is it feasible or are there financial limitations, is the

time set realistic, is the data accurate with relevant content, is the researcher able to remain

impartial or do they have preconceptions and personal interest in the topic, and finally are

there ethical considerations involved (working with children or subjects who should remain

anonymous). A parent or guardian‟s consent is required if working with children

(Denscombe, 2008: 5).

Research approaches are split into Strategies and Methods; strategies are a combination or

series of methods, for example the „mixed methods‟ approach is a combination of qualitative

and quantitative methods. This strategy is useful because the researcher can cross reference

their data to achieve more accurate results. This method will be discussed in more detail

further on in this chapter.

Other strategies outlined by Bell (2005) and Denscombe (2008) are surveys, case studies,

experiments, ethnography, phenomoniolgy, grounded theory and action reseacrh. The

methods using a combination of qualititive and quantitive are questionnaires, interviews,

observation and reviewing documents. Choosing a suitable approach and deciding on a

classification,

“does not mean that once an approach has been selectedthe researcher may not move

from the methods normally associated with that style”. Bell (2005: 24)

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2.4 A Background of Available Methods of Research

2.4.1 Surveys

Perhaps one of the most common methods of social research is the survey. Surveys provide

wide ranging coverage and can be easily implemented during a short period of time. A Survey

is not a method but a strategy; a combination of methods can be used in social research

(Denscombe, 2008: 8). There are different types of surveys which can be implemented using

different methods, questionnaires are the most common research method related to the survey

staretegy, Denscombe (2008).The most commonly used type of survey is the postal

questionnaire, this method is inpersonal and involves no contact with the participant, in some

cases the participant is not consulted prior to delivery of the questionnaire.

"The proportion of people who respond as requested to such 'cold' postal

questionnaires is quite low. The actual proportion will depend on the nature of the

topic (s) and the length of the questionnaire."

Denscombe (2008:9)

Internet surveys can be e-mail or web based; a questionnaire can be sent as part of the e-mail

itself or an attachment, alternatively a hyper link can be sent by e-mail which will direct the

participant to a website where a questionnaire is to be completed. In the case of this

dissertation the respondents were sent the questionnaire by email and were able to complete it

without being online, then at their convenience return the questionnaire by email.

Provided the researcher is competent in the use of word processing software, it is possible to

design and build a user-friendly, simple questionnaire that requires a basic level of technical

skill to complete. A drawback of this assumption is that the researcher should be aware that

responses will be limited to those with computer access and basic technical skills. Commonly

used word processing software provides field entries such as text entry boxes and tick boxes,

and predefined answers in drop-down menus which creates the impression of speed and ease

to benefit the participant. These limitations may be revealed during a pilot process or once the

survey is complete.

Surveys can also be carried out over the telephone or face-to-face interviews. The data being

collected may essentially be similar to that of the postal or Internet questionnaire; the

difference in face-to-face interviews is that the researcher is able to gauge responses by

observing body language and facial expressions.

26

"The response rate will be better than with other survey approaches. Part of the

researcher's skill is to engage the potential respondents and quickly manoeuvre the

person to get his or her cooperation".

Denscombe (2008:10)

Face to face interviews may have been an option for this dissertation but would require much

time to be spent with paticipants; due to the circumstances and restrictions of the researcher

this method was not used.

Telephone interviewing is less expensive and takes less time and effort than other methods, an

added advantage is that the research can easily collect global data. It should be noted that this

method is often frowned upon by potential participants as telephone surveys are often carried

out during prime family times such as mealtimes or children's bedtime.

When choosing a sample group to use in a survey it is important to keep the samples

nonbiased, for example if choosing subjects on the electoral register only people over the age

of 18 will be included. It is possible to obtain distribution lists from companies giving private

addresses and age groups should this data complement the survey being carried out. What size

should sample group be? It is not appear to be a definite answer to this question and is very

much dependent on the method used and the complexity of data being collected. If the survey

is being carried out using a quantitive questionnaire method using web based software, it is

relatively easy to target a very large sample group. Data can be collected and correlated using

databases. If information to be collected is qualitative then a smaller group may be considered

as data will need to be analysed in more detail, and each individual response will require

reading and interpretation.

In small-scale research sample size can vary and can be as small as 30 cases. However, as

Denscombe (2008) points out,

"the smaller the sample, the simpler the analysis should be, in the sense that the data

should be subjected to fewer subdivisions. Keeping the analysis down to four factors,

for instance, greatly increases the prospect of having a reasonable number of cases in

each category."

Denscombe (2008:28)

27

In this dissertation the sample group is quite small as quantitive and qualititive methods have

been combined and used to create an even smaller sample group on which to carry out a

reprtory grid method. In addition the primary research in this work uses the internet and email

as tools of distribution, as stated in previous paragrahs in this section, this makes the use of

surveys appropriate.

2.4.2 Repertory Grid Method

One common method of research is the repertory grid method which uses personal construct

psychology, popularised by George Kelly in 1977. It was Kelly's intention to create a new

psychology approach rather than a theory. This method explores how we experience things

and how we interpret those experiences in relation to others. Kelly (1977) describes the

process of construing as an “attempt to transcend the obvious” (Kelly, 1977, p4, cited by

Bannister and Fransella, 1986, p26). The full definition of this method is quite complex but

can be simplified as follows: the repertory grid method is used to gather data about a person's

attitude or concept of a particular element. This can be done by either supplying the elements

and constructs or through an elicitation process. If elicitation is used then the subject will be

asked to provide a number of elements (usually between eight or ten), they are then guided

through a triadic elicitation process whereby each element described dependant on the type of

element. For example; if the element is a person they might be construed as being boring or

unfriendly, a car could be described by its speed or „sportiness‟. The subject then provides an

opposite construct e.g. „boring‟ becomes „interesting, and each element is construed using the

elicited constructs. If supplied constructs and elements are used then none of these processes

take place, the subject is simply asked to construe the given element giving a positive or

negative answer, or an answer using a scale rating (usually between one and five). The

information is then entered into a webgrid software programme available at

http://gigi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca:2000, which is capable of producing various analyses which can

be use in small scale social research. In this dissertation the supplied elements process is used,

this has enabled the participant to complete the grid at leisure in their own home and is

designed to be completed using a computer, this process will be discussed later in this chapter

2.4.3 Mixed Method Approaches

Mixed methods can be used to give a more accurate result when carrying out primary

research. It usual to combine three different methods to aid in cross referencing of results, in

28

this research qualitative, quantitative and construct analysis are combined to provide thorough

results in response to the hypothesis. As defined by Denscombe (2008)

"The mixed methods approach has three characteristic features that set it apart from

other strategies for social research. These can be summarised as follows:

use of qualitative and quantitative approaches within a single research project

explicit focus on the link between approaches (Triangulation)

emphasis on practical approaches to research problems (Pragmatist)"

Denscombe (2008:108)

He goes on to discuss the idea that methods usually considered individual or alternative

options can be combined, this usually applied to the quantitative and qualitative aspects of

research. In this dissertation a questionnaire is constructed using the quantitative approach

whereby the participant can choose from a number of pre-entered responses in addition to

selecting their occupation and age group. For a qualitative component there are sections in the

questionnaire where the participant can import their own words, the analysis of which will be

based on opinions and attitudes which will provide grounding for the further repertory grid

analyses. The qualitative aspect of the questionnaire replaces the need for interviews, they

should benefit to the researcher due to lack of time and resources.

Triangulation is used in identifying how the alternative approaches are interlinked

(Denscombe, 2008:108), and as the name suggests relates to triangles and geometric laws

(Denscombe, 2008:134-135). It should be noted at this juncture that the association with

triangles is metaphorical and not mathematical.

Mixed methods and use of triangulation does not necessarily prove the hypothesis exactly.

Denscombe (2008:138) explains that the method can be used in "providing more support,

reducing the possibility of error"; applied to the research in this dissertation where the

hypothesis questions the lack of education in environmental issues relating to the vegetarian

or meat dietary choices, the researcher can look to solutions for bridging the education gap. It

is unlikely that the research will be entirely conclusive in that it is inevitable more in-depth

research will be required, a beneficial subsequent phase would involve interviews either in

group or individual scenarios, there may be ethical considerations if schoolchildren or young

people are to be interviewed. Unfortunately this dissertation does not accommodate research

29

of this depth, the aim at this stage is to provide response to the hypothesis and reveal whether

people believe the education of this topic should begin in compulsory or post compulsory

education.

2.4.4 Case Studies

Case studies can be used to complement a survey following findings to explore a particular

topic or result in depth; in contrast they can be used prior to a survey to identify an issue

requiring wider investigation. Bell (2005:10) states that “all organisations and individuals

have their common and their unique features”, she goes on to explain that the aim of the

researcher is to recognise and classify these features and explore the practices at work. This

will show how the behaviour or process impacts on the organisation or individual. This

method would not be appropriate for initial broad research but may be used in conjunction

with other methods. In this dissertation a case study may be appropriate as a follow on phase;

The repertory grid technique can perform as a deep analytical tool in conjunction with a

questionnaire and focuses on few participants; a case study could further discover

shortcomings in a particular organisation or institution and look to a solution. In addition to

this type of study face to face interviews may beneficial to support the findings and reveal

suggestions for improvement, this will be discussed in the final concluding chapter.

2.5 Description of Samples and Research Resource

Modern communication regularly takes place via the Internet; e-mail, blogs (web logs),

forums, video conferencing, web cams and social networking are at the forefront of

residential, commercial, individual and organisational communications. It is possible to obtain

distribution lists for use in social research from organisations set up for that purpose, it is

becoming more and more difficult to obtain personal information such as e-mail addresses,

phone numbers and postal addresses due to data protection acts. The public now have the

capacity to prevent sharing of personal information; when completing a survey there is

usually a number of options in the form of checkboxes where the participant can accept or

refuse certain offers such as sharing of information with similar organisations or receipt of

further related offers and information.

„Facebook‟ is a globally recognised social networking website where people can congregate

and discuss personal issues as well as current affairs, and provided the ideal portal for social

research using a non-probability sampling procedure. The topic is not biased and therefore is

30

not restricted by age, location, gender or social background. The subject of the dissertation is

of global concern, hence 'Facebook' can accommodate this research by using the researcher‟s

existing contacts who in turn can raise interest via second level contacts and so on. Non-

probability sampling was used in this research as it was not feasible to target a large number

of subjects in the study and due to the nature of the topic it would be difficult to implement

probability based sampling because of the lack of knowledge of the total population in respect

of the topic (Denscombe, 2008:16). Within this sampling method the „snowball‟ approach

was also implemented; "with snowballing, the sample images through a process of reference

from one person to the next" (Denscombe, 2008:17), in this dissertation the researcher‟s

contacts were asked to forward their original e-mail with questionnaire attachment, to their

own contacts who were willing to take part.

2.6 Limitations of Sample Selection

This method may seem academically unconventional but in this case the research is limited by

both finances and personal circumstances. With broadband readily accessible and low-cost

this method is the most direct and practical way in which to gather the data. Unfortunately via

this method a great number of potential participants will not be reached. Preferably should

time and finances allow a larger sample group would be chosen and questionnaires distributed

by the postal method, and repertory grids would be completed with the participant

Children and vulnerable adults were not approached for this research, participant identity was

kept anonymous and responses were coded only for the researcher‟s benefit, the information

was not passed on to any third party. The questions were not of a sensitive nature and were

designed so as not to cause feelings of awkwardness. Participants were informed of the

research topic and what the research would be used for. The questionnaires and methods of

distribution were ethically sound in line with Bangor University‟s Ethical Framework and

Principles as set out by the University Registrar's Office

(http://www.bangor.ac.uk/ar/ro/recordsmanagement/REF.php.en)

2.7 The Questions

One objective of the study is to firstly ascertain whether people believe that changing their

diet to meat free can help protect the environment. Current research in global issues and the

ecosystem argues that damage already done to the planet cannot be reversed, in contrast there

31

are those who believe humans are not to blame for the climate change and we can continue

living without the need for change.

“In spite of growing scientific evidence that points to anthropogenic sources of global

warming, many dissenters staunchly believe that human activities do not contribute much to

global warming. The debate is open on both sides with plenty of facts to support both points

of view.”

YgoY (YgoY.com, 2007, arguments against global warming)

At this stage of the research both quantitative and qualitative questions were asked, based

upon their concept of green house gases, the fishing industry and some less common concepts

such as phraseology used on the topic of climate change and food choice. These questions

coherently form the overall research question and are intended to enlighten the hypothesis

statement. Whilst attempting to establish where there are gaps in knowledge and education, it

may be possible to discover how to bridge them and via which routes this can be achieved.

Part one of the primary research is structured with questions directly related to the title „An

Examination of People‟s Awareness of Issues Attached to Vegetarianism‟ and is designed to

test the participant‟s lateral thinking process and imagination. Even though the participant

may not know the exact answer to a question, a range of possible answers are given to

stimulate a speculation. To enable the reader to judge clarity of the questions, the sub topics

and definitions are detailed as follows:

2.8 Primary Research Part One

2.8.1 Land Use for Meat Production

What is understood by the question „is more land is needed to breed animals for meat

compared to what is required for plants?‟. This topic is not commonly discussed in relation to

vegetarianism and the environment; people seem more aware of recycling and energy

conservation in terms of ecological impact. Current statistics suggest that twenty times more

land is required to produce meat than plant based food (Heller et al, 2009) and the meat

industry is energy inefficient (Reijnders and Soret 2003). The public seem to have sufficient

difficulty adhering to government initiatives to improve recycling processes without having to

think about changing their diet. Television follows the average family exploring energy

32

consumption and attitudes towards using low energy appliances and renewable energy

sources, but rarely addresses diet other than a food miles aspect and packaging.

2.8.2 Footprints

Carbon is defined as:

“The total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and indirectly support

human activities, usually expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide (CO2).” (Rohrer

and Peterson, 2009)

A Food footprint is defined as:

”It is the part of the ecological footprint that is due to food production. This is a measure

of the environmental impacts of food production.” (Clutterbuck and Thompson, 2009)

In this work the definition of a „food footprint‟ is relevant; and can be further defined by

Clutterbuck and Thompson (2009) as an estimation and measure of land used for food

production, forest area required to absorb the carbon dioxide given off by food production and

area of sea required for fishing. A carbon (ecological) footprint may be the most familiar term

and knowledge of this will be examined as part of the primary research.

2.8.3 Green House Gases

What is a „greenhouse gas‟ (GHG)? So many use the phrase freely when discussing

ecological issues, scientifically a greenhouse gas can be defined as:

“A gas composed of molecules that absorb and reradiate infrared electromagnetic

radiation. When present in the atmosphere, therefore, the gas contributes to the

greenhouse effect.”

Allaby and Allaby (1999)

Gases that belong to this category are methane, carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide, water

vapour and ozone. Most people may know the origin of these gases, but some are likely to be

aware only of CO2, from car emissions. This question does not expect a great scientific

response, but should ascertain where there are gaps in knowledge, therefore making a valid

case for recommendations. This question is qualitative; to input text is available to the

33

participant giving the opportunity to express what they believe to be the most damaging of

greenhouse gases.

2.8.4 Vegetarian Diet and Nutrition

Research questions answered by both vegetarians and meat eaters may produce biased results.

Clarification of results may be obtained through further questioning about knowledge of

nutrition. If thought and planning are given to vegetarian style cookery then it is certain to

contain the required amount of nutrition including protein, a fact frequently doubted

(www.vegsoc.org). The Vegetarian Society also state that “research shows that in many ways

a vegetarian diet is healthier than that of a typical meat-eater”. Again the response to this

question and questions in the second part of the primary research (repertory grid) will show if

the respondent has a basic comprehension or not of this fact. The Vegan Society also provides

detailed information relating to protein contents of various vegetarian foods, the highest being

chickpeas containing 8%, the humble egg contains only 7.5gm of protein which can often be

considered a high protein food. Meat, especially chicken is undoubtedly high in protein, but

this can be easily substituted with highly nutritious plant based foods.

2.8.5 Breaching of Pollution Limits

This is the final knowledge based question and relies on the respondent‟s integrity to not

research the correct answer. Pollution limits in the fishing industry have been discussed in

Chapter one, Literature Review and the correct answer of over four hundred times is

published at http://www.vegsoc.org. The answer is not finite but gives an indication of the

magnitude of the problem, awareness of which will be indicated in the questionnaire

responses. The information related to this question may seem unnecessary at first glance; as

mentioned earlier in this work a vegetarian does not eat fish and fish whilst being an animal is

not considered to be meat. The fishing industry does not impact on the land required to feed

cattle, but have an overall impact on food footprints and should be considered in the education

of environmental issues and food.

2.8.6 Identity questions

The remaining questions relate to identity and food choices. They are not designed to exclude

any groups, but will be used to help identify why there are gaps in knowledge and awareness

for those categories. This part of the questionnaire considers dietary choice, occupation and

age range. The questions were not designed to include or exclude any particular category but

34

are used to provide information which may correspond to the results, and also give a basis on

which to choose suitable participants to complete the repertory grid. Only six of the received

grids were used due to the size of the task for the participant and also the researcher. In order

to achieve a balanced approach the researcher decided to choose three participants who

included meat and three who excluded meat from their diet. One of those who exclude meat

eats fish; four participants selected this dietary choice option.

2.9 Questionnaire Design and Distribution

2.9.1 Questionnaire Email Invitation

The questionnaire invitation was written with the questionnaire document as an attachment

and an introduction to the task which is cited below:

“Dear all,

Here it is!! The long awaited MA Research Survey.

You do not print out the document. It can be completed on your computer.

Follow the instruction on the survey, click in the grey boxes to reveal answer options.

There is a section towards the end of the survey where you can write any thoughts or

comments about the topic. Be frank, it will be beneficial when correlating the results.

Please do not use Google or search the internet for the answers, it will not make for

better results.

Many thanks for your time and effort, in advance!

Please return your saved document within 7 days.

Kind regards

Alison C Jones”

35

The questionnaire was headed with a further introduction giving a statement the purpose of

the research, a statement of ethical consideration and simple instructions for completing the

questionnaire:

“MA Education Studies – Dissertation Research

Meat v Vegetarianism and The Environment.

The purpose of this survey is to ascertain current knowledge of the impact of dietary

choices in relation to our ecosystem. The information will be correlated and used to

help provide solutions to fill possible gaps in the education of this topic.

If possible your completed survey should be returned within 7 days.

Your name, address or any other details relating to your identity are not required.

Look at the questions and statements below, and click on the drop down menu to give

the answer you think is correct:”

The questionnaire document was designed using a word processing software package, making

good use of the 'forms toolbar' and „form fields‟. A form field was inserted below each

question with either a selection of responses or a space where text could be typed. For ease

the form fields were filled in grey, and the first option as “click here” to encourage the

participant to view the alternatives. Codes (Denscombe, 2008: 292) were applied to possible

comments made in the qualitative questions five and eleven which will be discussed in detail

in the results, chapter four. Expected themes within these questions are as follows:

Question five: methane from cattle, CO2 from vehicle emissions, CFCs

(Chlorofluorocarbons), nitrous oxide from aerosols, ozone and water vapour.

Question eleven: recycling efforts, cost, government, denial/complacency, organic

produce and globalisation.

36

The following table is a representation of the cited questions and answer options used in the

questionnaire design and structure:

Question 1 How much more land does it

take to produce 1 kg of meat,

compared to 1 kg of plant

protein?

5

10

15

20

50

100

Question 2 Do you believe cutting down on

meat in our diet could really

help the environment?

Yes No Unsure

Question 3 Are you familiar with the

phrases „carbon footprint‟ and

„food footprint‟?

Yes for both

No for both

Carbon but not food

Food but not carbon

Unsure

Question 4 How much could we reduce our

food footprint by not eating

meat?

0-25%

26-35%

36-45%

46-55%

56-65%

66-80%

81-100%

Question 5 Can you name any greenhouse

gases, and where they come

from? (These are gases that

cause the hole in the Ozone

Layer to get bigger)

Please type your answer in the grey box below:

Question6 Can we get as much balanced

nutrition from vegetarian food

as we can from meat?

Yes No Unsure

Question 7 In a 3 year research period, how

many times did Scottish salmon

farms breach pollution limits?

25-100

100-150

150-200

200-250

250-300

350-400

Over 400

37

Question 8 What is your occupation? Manager

Hotel Trade

Retail Trade

IT

Farming

Business/Finance

Education/Training

Engineering

Building Construction

Transport

Community/Social Care

Emergency Services

Health Profession

Civil Servant

Charity Organisation

Employee

Volunteer

Student

Househusband/Wife

Self-Employed

Unemployed

Other

Question 9 Which of the following

describes your food choices?

Meat

Vegetarian

Vegan

No meat but eat fish

No dairy

Vegetarian no eggs

Anything Everything

Allergy/Intolerance related

Culture/Religion related

Other

Question 10 Which age group do you fit into

to?

14-19yrs

20-25yrs

26-35yrs

36-45yrs

46-55yrs

56-65yrs

66-75yrs

76-85yrs

Question 11 Please use the space below to

write down your thoughts or

comments about food choices

and our environment:

Please type in the grey box below:

Table 2.1 Questionnaire questions and response choices

Limitations and errors have been identified by the researcher and will be discussed in the final

chapter of recommendations and conclusions.

38

2.10 Primary Research Part Two

The second part of the primary research is more detailed and is designed as a result of

responses from the first part; repertory grids are used to ascertain concepts, attitudes and

opinions towards certain aspects of the food industry. The specifics of the repertory grid

technique are outlined earlier in this chapter, as previously stated supplied elements and

constructs were used for ease in completion and to allow for time constraints of the

researcher. Fransella and Bannister (1977, p19) state that when using supplied elements and

constructs we need to “bear in mind here that one is essentially supplying the verbal label to

which the person will attach his personal construct”, the person may interpret the construct

differently to the way it is intended. For example in the repertory grid used in this dissertation

a construct reads "I know a lot about this topic", the person completing the grid may have a

different concept of the meaning and believe they know a great deal about the topic whereas

comparatively another person may have an average knowledge and rate the construct equally

as high.

Using the results from Part One of the primary research, three meat eaters and three non-meat

eaters were selected and sent an e-mail with a repertory grid attached. As this was the second

document to be completed the researcher felt it necessary to make the process as easy and

attractive as possible. The introduction written in the e-mail read as follows:

"Dear all

First of all I would like to thank you for taking part in the first leg of my dissertation

research. I have correlated the results from all returned surveys, and have now chosen

new participants for the final section. This involves completion of the attached table.

Please don't panic! It should be a simple process, and as with the last survey, answer

options have been provided. The greyed out areas within the table are where you can

use your cursor to 'click' and reveal the answer options.

The instructions for completion are at the top of the table. If possible I would like the

tables returned within 7 days by the 20th of November or sooner to:

[email protected]

Once again, many thanks for your time and effort in helping with my research project.

Kind regards

Alison C Jones”

39

The actual grid document also had an introduction; the aim of this was to provide the

participant with easy instructions to complete the document electronically, and explained in a

simple manner the best way to import their choice in response to the constructs available. The

introduction reads as follows:

"Please look at the table below; there is a selection of elements relating to food and

lifestyle (in bold across the top of the table) and descriptions (in bold in the left hand

column) to match the elements. Please click in each box to give the statement that

describes how you feel.

E.g. Food Choices – School Education = always. This would mean that you believe

Food Choices are part of our School Education."

A combination of eleven supplied elements and constructs were chosen by the researcher,

relating to the dissertation hypothesis. Other aspects of the topic were included to provide a

system of cross referencing in types of constructs for example; attitudes towards ethical issues

may match attitudes towards free range farming, and environment may match energy

efficiency. The same design process was used as for the questionnaire, this time all form

fields were configured with identical responses which corresponded to a one to five scale

rating, so as to fit with the rating process on Webgrid (http://gigi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca:2000/). The

process used to give a number representation in place of a word is „coding‟ (Denscombe,

2008: 292) and makes for simpler analysis with qualitative data.

The scaled responses were set out as follows:

Table 2.2 Constructs and corresponding ratings

Not at all 5

Rarely 4

Unsure 3

Sometimes 2

Always 1

40

The following table is a list of the cited elements and constructs respectively, used in the

repertory grid analyses:

Elements – Horizontal Grid Headings Constructs – Vertical Grid Headings

Food Choices Affects our future

Free Range farming Influences the food products I buy

Vegetarian Diet Does cost/money have an impact?

Meat and our diet Information can be found on the internet

Food Availability School Education

Health and Wellbeing Education through newspapers

Morals and Principles Are there lots of statistics?

Ethical issues Information is easy to find

Energy Efficiency This is important to me

Environment I know a lot about this topic

Hole in Ozone This influences which restaurants I eat in

Table 2.3 Elements and constructs use in the repertory grid analyses

2.11 Data Analysis

Part One of the research was a combination of quantitative and qualitative questions; the

researcher analysed the quantitative questions by first correlating the results from each

question by how many responses there were for each answer option, paying particular

attention to Question One. „How much more land does it take it to produce 1kg of meat,

compared to 1kg of plant protein?‟ and Question Two. „Do you believe cutting down on meat

in our diet could really help the environment?‟ Each of the quantitative results was analyses

in percentage format to give a general overview of opinions and preconceptions. As a mixed

methods approach was used the qualitative questions were "used to produce further data that

might shed light on things" (Denscombe, 2008: 111). Within Question 9 about food choices,

those who selected „meat‟, and „anything and everything‟ were grouped for the purpose of

three of the repertory grids, and „vegetarian‟, „vegan‟ and „no meat but eat fish‟ were grouped

for the other three. The qualitative and quantitative questions together provided the basis on

which to decide who would be asked to complete repertory grids which combined fulfilled the

triangulation process (Denscombe, 2008:134). Limitations of the triangulation process will be

41

discussed as recommendations and conclusions in chapter 4. Coding (Denscombe, 2008: 292)

was used in the qualitative analysis prior to distribution and was applied to possible themes

revealed from comments; this was mentioned earlier in this chapter within design discussions.

Coding themes changed with additional data arising from the questionnaires. Coding has also

been used to identify each questionnaire to track qualitative data (Denscombe, 2008: 292)

Part Two of the research involved the use of repertory grids; the analysis is less manual than

was required for Part One as data was inputted into online analysis software (Webgrid 5),

coding (was used to establish rating settings from the selected responses from the grids. Data

was collected from the six completed repertory grids and entered into the online software

following the website‟s explicit instructions. Once all elements and constructs, and their

respective ratings were entered it was possible to view a number of different analysis

displays. The most useful of these are the „Focus Cluster‟ and „Cross Plot‟ (Webgrid 5) which

can be compared with other similar representations. This will be more apparent in the results,

chapter four.

Chapter Three will focus on the results of both Part One and Part Two of the primary

research; the questionnaire and repertory grid analysis interpretation. This chapter will also

look at the benefits of using the „mixed methods‟ research approach in relation to how the

results corresponded through triangulation and the advantages of the alternative methods.

42

Chapter Three: The Results

3.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to analyse and interpret the results from the quantitative and

qualitative data, and the repertory grids in response to the hypothesis. The problem being

investigated in this dissertation is people‟s lack of awareness and education of issues relating

to vegetarianism and meat consumption, and the environment. The researcher will analyse

data received via questionnaires of both quantitative and qualitative content to attempt to

identify where there are knowledge gaps. The chapter will then focus on the results from the

repertory grids and compare the six analyses to support the alternative methods.

43

3.2 Part One - The Questionnaire

3.2.1 Summary of Results for Questions 1 - 10

Table 3.1 – Question 1

Profile of Sample Group

Age 20-25yrs

26-35yrs

36-45yrs

46-55yrs

66-75yrs

76-85yrs

2

9

12

7

1

1

Dietary choice Meat

Vegetarian

Vegan

No meat but eat fish

Anything Everything

Other

5

4

2

4

13

4

Occupation Manager

Retail Trade

Farming

Business/Finance

Education/Training

Community/Social Care

Emergency Services

Health Profession

Civil Servant

Charity Organisation

Student

Self-Employed

Other

2

1

1

1

4

1

2

1

3

3

2

5

6

44

Number of times more land Responses

5

10

15

20

50

100

No answer

2

9

6

6

2

6

1

Table 3.2 - Question 2

Answer Responses

Yes

No

Unsure

21

6

5

Table 3.3 - Question 3

Answer Responses

Yes for both

No for both

Carbon but not food

15

1

16


45

Answer Responses

0-25%

26-35%

36-45%

46-55%

56-65%

66-80%

81-100%

No answer

6

7

7

3

3

3

1

1


Gases mentioned Responses

Methane

CO2

Nitrous Oxide

CFCs

Ozone

Water Vapour

Carbon Monoxide

No Answer

24

21

4

7

2

2

1

3

Table 3.6- Question 6

Answer Responses

Yes

No

Unsure

23

5

4


46

Answer Responses

25-100

100-150

150-200

200-250

250-300

Over 400

No answer

11

4

5

3

4

3

2


Table 3.1 shows the largest age group who took part in the survey was the 36-45 yrs group, at

37.5% of the total responses. The greatest food choice profile was „anything and everything‟

at 40.5% and most frequent occupation selected was „other‟ at 19%. Total vegetarian

percentage revealed by the study was 19% including vegans and 12.5% didn‟t eat meat but ate

fish. Hence 31.5% of the total sample group stated they didn‟t eat meat which is quite a high

proportion of the whole. The Vegetarian Society (The Vegetarian Society, 2000) stated that

four million people or about 12% of the population of the UK are vegetarian, and 41% eat far

less meat which indicates that the survey carried out for this dissertation is a fair

representation.

Question 1. How much more land does it take to produce 1 kg of meat, compared to 1 kg

of plant protein?

The correct answer to Question 1 is 20 times. Table 3.2 shows 19% of the sample group

selected the correct answer. Equally 19% selected 15 times which would indicate that the

participants were able to realistically speculate an answer. The response at this stage partially

confirms the hypothesis. Heller (2009) at EarthFirst.com refer to a number of facts linked to

food choices and land use, amongst some of them is “The livestock sector is responsible for

18% of greenhouse gas emissions globally” (Heller, 2009), a concept either denied or ignored

by those who eat meat, and those who don‟t. This result will be discussed further in the final

chapter under „Recommendations‟.

47

Question 2. Do you believe cutting down on meat in our diet could really help the

environment?

Table 3.3 illustrates that 66.5% of the participants answered „yes‟ to Question 2. It is almost

twice the 31.5% who stated they didn‟t eat meat; this suggests that approximately half the

meat eaters believe that reducing meat consumption can improve the environment. A further

15.5% were unsure of their response which leaves a remainder of 18% who believe a

vegetarian diet has no bearing on the environment. It is the 15.5% who would benefit most

from deeper education on the topic being investigated.

Question 3. Are you familiar with the phrases ‘carbon footprint’ and ‘food footprint’?

The intention behind Question 3 is to ascertain levels of knowledge and possible willingness

to learn more. As shown in Table 3.4 many people are familiar with the term „carbon

footprint‟ but are often unfamiliar with terms that are in the same category. The very positive

response of 47% stating they were familiar with both terms, and exactly half familiar with the

carbon footprint is encouraging from an educational stance, the results suggest that people are

open to the concept that a difference can be made. However, the fact that only half the

participants were familiar with a food footprint suggests a need for more knowledge from an

authoritative source. This will be discussed in recommendations.

Question 4. How much could we reduce our food footprint by not eating meat?

Question 4 is intended to correspond with question two, where 21% believed that cutting

down on meat consumption could help the environment. Table 3.5 reveals that 19% have

selected the lowest response of 0-25% reduction in food footprint, and 22% have chosen the

correct percentage bracket. The Vegetarian Society states

“Comparisons of a healthy vegetarian diet with that of diet low in meat that also

meets nutritional recommendations have shown that a vegetarian diet can reduce the

footprint by 40%”

http://www.vegsoc.org (sustainability)

This response is important to the overall results and hypothesis. An emerging theme from

responses so far is that there is some confusion of terminology and concepts. Again, a need

for education is identified.

48

Question 5. Can you name any greenhouse gases, and where they come from?

The responses to Question 5 cannot be calculated as a percentage of the whole as participants

were given the opportunity to provide as much information as felt necessary. Table 3.6 shows

that the most common answers are methane and CO2 (Carbon dioxide) other less frequent

responses referred to CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons once used in. Participants were on the

whole able to identify where the gases originated. Stepaniak (2000) explains that four gases

responsible for global warming come from the agriculture industry; methane, carbon dioxide,

nitrous oxide and methyl bromide. Methyl bromide is more efficient at ozone layer depletion

than the chlorofluorocarbons (Stepaniak, 2000: 67), the lack of mention by participants

suggests the need for education and specifically about agriculture‟s contribution to global

warming.

Question 6. Can we get as much balanced nutrition from vegetarian food as we can from

meat?

Question 6 was designed to explore attitudes towards the vegetarian diet from a social

perspective. Table 3.7 illustrates an unexpectedly large percentage of participants believe that

one can obtain sufficient nutrition from a vegetarian diet. It is nevertheless encouraging to

read that some are unsure, and perhaps this represents a group who may be open to education

in vegetarian nutrition. The Vegetarian Society (http://www.vegsoc.com) has produced a

number of publications which are available for downloading, further research may reveal

where their information is distributed.

Question 7. In a 3 year research period, how many times did Scottish salmon farms

breach pollution limits?

The Vegetarian Society claim that Scottish salmon farms have breached aquatic pollution

limits over four hundred times in the last three years (http://www.vegsoc.org/fish/facts4.html),

chemicals and other wastes are pumped out of the farms damaging surrounding sea life and

affecting the aquatic ecosystem. It is still thought by some that vegetarians eat fish, a fact that

has never changed since the founding of The Vegetarian Society in 1847. Table 3.8 shows the

greatest number of participants selected 25-100 times, which might suggest they would have

chosen a lesser number if it were it available. From this result it can be seen that there is need

for education in the hidden environmental issues with focus on farmed fish, and the

vegetarian diet and fish consumption.

49

Questions 8, 9 and 10 are detailed at the beginning of this analysis and are identity/profile

questions.

3.3 Question 11. Please use the space below to write down your thoughts or comments

about food choices and our environment:

As every questionnaire contained an individual comment the researcher has selected the

common themes from each, and compiled a condensed version.

Parts of the data are subsequently prioritised and key concepts identified. Coding used in the

method design phase has been used to classify predicted themes which have been extended

following analysis of results. Having studied the comments common themes emerge in

addition to the expected themes; recycling efforts, cost, government, denial/complacency,

organic produce and globalisation

3.3.1 Qualitative data for Question 11:

„My partner prefers me to eat less meat, but it's mostly for my health than anything else.‟

„A plant based diet seriously lowers one‟s carbon footprint and improves health. Providing

you have done your homework and eat the best foods available.‟

The first theme revealed is health; some participants state that their decision to cut down or

cease meat consumption is health related. As mentioned in the introduction to this dissertation

(Germov and Williams, 2001:108-109) the health benefits are extensive and chances of

prolonged life are increased. People sometimes make this assumption because of the amount

of saturated fats in certain meats, but in contrast a vegetarian diet can also be very fatty if too

much cheese or eggs are eaten. Animal fats, usually more saturated than vegetable fats, can

lead to high cholesterol and heart disease. The Vegetarian Society provides information about

a varied diet in their information pages (http://www.vegsoc.org/info/basic-nutrition.html).

People are becoming more health conscious, so can be educated of the added benefits of

cutting down meat consumption, namely slowing down climate change. The next comment

reflects this theory nicely:

„being plant based (vegan), I think my carbon footprint is lower than the average person with

wonderful health benefits.‟

50

To add to this positive comment, there are those who are proactive, changing their diet for in

support of climate change but as can be seen some still have reservations that can possibly be

overcome through education and practice;

'I only eat white meat and fish, I believe as well as other gases contributing to the greenhouse

gases methane is a direct contribution caused by the over-farming of cows and pigs.'

'We try not to eat meat, but my daughter is only 10yrs old and I don't want to alienate her

food choices at the moment. We do talk about having only free range eggs and making sure

we have the environment as a current topic on a regular basis.'

„I try to avoid meat and fish where possible but dairy is really tough. Would be interested to

know the carbon footprint of eggs.‟

'It's such a shame that not enough people know about how much land we need for cattle, if it

was for plants we would be able to resolve food shortage issues.'

'I fully believe the world needs people to eat a lot less meat and I do know that the whole meat

industry does produce more greenhouse gases than the rest of the world's pollutants put

together. Sometimes there is still hostility toward you for being a veggi.‟

The last comment above, whilst in line with a meatless diet being beneficial to the

environment, the person touches on the issue of hostility towards vegetarians, or „veggies‟.

Sadly vegetarians still sometimes referred to as „hippies‟ or „cranks‟ (Germov and Williams,

2001:113), can often feel ostracised at social events. It is apparent from the responses in

Question 11. that some people are unaware of meat alternatives, and vegetarians must be

accepting of a meal, just without the meat. The comments below are indicative of this

concept as are those who believe no pleasure could be found in food without meat:

'I recycle news papers and tins. I have always had the same foods, traditional meals of meat

with potatoes and vegetables. I don't think I'd like vegetarian food, what would I eat?'

„Food choices are based primarily on taste. Taste overrides other considerations such as

animal cruelty, personal health and environment.‟

51

The above comments were not a recurrent theme, and taken from the whole sample group

were in the minority. Germov and Williams (2001: 112) suggest that vegetarians are

constantly confronted with the statement “I would love to eat less meat but I don‟t know what

to cook” and further discuss that these people need more than just a cookbook, they need

direction and probably in agreement with the hypothesis, education.

Eco solutions, organic produce and good quality foods all come at a cost, and are a constant

cause for concern. People want to make changes but find they are restricted by income and

time. Food has become subject to globalisation leaving even organic produce and health foods

in the hands of worldwide trade (Beardsworth and Keil, 2000: 169-170). Whilst the lower cost

of imports is good news, the added air miles are not and have a „knock on‟ effect on climate

change. The following comments address this problem and although are not specifically

related to the hypothesis, are related to the broad spectrum of environmental issues. The

assumption is the third comment below will be discussed as a limitation in the final chapter:

„Everything is so expensive, I'm worried that we won't be able to afford organic food or make

choices that I'm happy with ethically.‟

„One of my main concerns is the cost. I am lucky enough to be able afford my preferred food

choices - non-GM, organic, local produce etc. Supermarkets need to take a more active role.

e.g. 'Iceland' have maintained there commitment to GM free products.'

„Have assumed question one is a percentage comparison. I believe we should try to shop local

and use locally produced produce where possible to reduce carbon / food footprint. I also

think that global food production and allocation is something which needs to be addressed‟

The final set of comments are possibly made by the „deniers‟ of anthropogenic climate

change; along with those who believe humans are not to blame, are those who feel there is

little more that can be done to slow down environmental damage, a theory supported by a

small number of scientists (Monbiot 2009) .

'We are doing enough by recycling, people aren't to blame for all the environment problems,

there's not much more we can do'

„I'll be long gone by the time anything happens‟

52

„Personally I think that there are things that affect the environment much more than food

choices, and it would not make a large enough difference to be effective on a large scale.'

What can be done about this apathy towards future generations? This group of participants

would certainly benefit from an education into the damage of the environments; agricultural

and industrial emissions, intertwined with meat production from rearing and grazing, to

packaging and transport are amongst the many components contributing towards climate

change. There is no use simply providing this information without the tools with which

people can make the required changes. Possible solutions to the obvious lack of knowledge

and education related to vegetarianism, the meat industry and the environment will be

discussed under recommendations in the concluding chapter, and after reading the final

comment below albeit in the minority, there may be hope for the cause;

'I have guessed the majority of the answers due to the lack of knowledge surrounding this

area. I believe that my ignorance of the topic suggests that I might be surprised by the actual

answers and am sure will take them into consideration.'

3.3.2 Comments from Participants Who Also Completed Repertory Grids:

Person 1

„I'm happy with my food choices.'

Person 2

„Try to eat organic and use local farm shops rather than supermarkets but don't really

consider a "food" footprint - its more to get better quality products.‟

Person 4

No comment

Person 3

„I am a little concerned that all of the info on the environment is government scaremongering.

But I'll keep on with my food choices, if things were cheaper I could do better ethically with

purchases.‟

53

Person 5

„I have made the choice to give up meat not only for the welfare aspect but also because

reducing meat significantly reduces my food footprint.‟

Person 6

„I believe in a world where people are more connected to their food production, value the

food they eat and its producers, this would include meat produced on local small scale farms,

not factory production. grazing animals are an important part of our landscape in the uk and

important in the conservation of our wildlife and 'wild' areas. i try to buy local produce when

i can, but i understand why supermarkets and mass production are successful as we are

cratures of convenience and habit, so i think it is vital that supermarkets become more local

and more green.‟

The first two comments here are by meat eaters, and the third, also a meat eater omitted this

part of the questionnaire. Comments from „person one‟ gives little insight into their view of

the topic in question, but suggests they are not willing to put effort into thinking about it.

„Person two‟ is clearly uninformed of the differences between a carbon or food footprint, and

that the definition of latter is integrated within the former, lack of knowledge, or merely

denial? It would not be possible to retrieve this information without an interview with the

participant. The repertory grids will be more representative of their views and opinions

towards the topic of food and the environment.

Persons three, five and six do not eat meat, and mostly appear to have an understanding of

environmental issues, food footprint and the influence of their diet upon these global issues.

„Person six‟ makes a sensible comment referring to supermarket trade and their success; from

all the comments so far it would seem that the meat eaters generally have a lot to learn and

more to experience, those who exclude meat, or who have reduced meat in their diet already

have much knowledge and clarity of their rationale of choice.

The next section is a set of analyses from repertory grids completed by persons one to six.

They are grouped into meat eaters (one, two and four), the remainder are vegetarian/non meat

eaters and „person five‟ eats fish.

54

3.4 Part Two – Repertory Grid Analyses

The analyses are shown as firstly a „focus cluster‟; a grouping method which indicates

similarities between elements and then constructs, which makes comparison between

participants clear and defined. Secondly each participant is represented using the „cross plot‟

analysis; a special distribution of elements in relation to constructs on set axis. The order of

analyses will firstly be; comparisons and similarities of meat eaters as „Focus Cluster‟ and

„Cross Plot‟, secondly the same approach applied to vegetarians/nonmeat eaters, finally

comparisons and differences will be made between the first and second groups.

55

Focus Cluster Person 1

Fig. 3.1

Cross Plot Person 1

Fig. 3.2

56


Fig. 3.3

Cross Plot Person 2

Fig. 3.4

57


Fig. 3.5

Cross Plot Person 4

Fig. 3.6

58

Figures 3.1 and 3.2 show analyses of Person One, immediately it can be seen that their

understanding of a „vegetarian diet‟ and „environment‟ are at opposite poles suggesting they

have much knowledge of the latter. In reference to the hypothesis this result is contradictory,

and as the meat industry with related green house gases are responsible for a great proportion

of the changes in climate (Stepaniak, 2000: 67), suggests the participant knows less about the

environment and closely linked issues that they perceive. Morals and ethical issues are

strongly linked; but their perception of these must be linked to other issues such as integrity

and honest rather than the environment. Alternatively the participant needs educating in food

choice and ethical concerns in relation to the environment. This person believes few of the

issues are taught through school education, does this give rise to possible paths forward?

Person Two (Figures 3.3 and 3.4) comparatively has a similar of a vegetarian diet, but in

contrast to Person One does not claim to have much knowledge of environmental issues.

Closest linked elements are energy efficiency and the environment, and free range farming

with ethical issues. This person commented that they make free range purchases but pay little

attention to a food footprint (Clutterbuck and Thompson, 2009), again, a lack of knowledge

about the generic and poignant term „carbon or „ecological‟ footprint (Rohrer and Peterson,

2009).

Figures 3.5 and 3.6 represent responses from Person Four; a participant who doesn‟t eat meat

but eats fish. Most closely matched elements are the environment with hole in the ozone, and

ethical issues with energy efficiency and morals. As expected the participant claims they

know little about a vegetarian diet, but believes they have knowledge of most of the

remaining topics, excluding free range farming and food choices. This participant did add any

comments to their questionnaire which makes further analysis difficult. The participant does

however believe knowledge of most topics can be gained through school education, differing

considerably from the previous two.

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Fig. 3.7

Cross Plot Person 3

Fig. 3.8

60


Fig. 3.9

Cross Plot Person 5

Fig. 3.10

61


Fig. 3.11

Cross Plot Person 6

Fig. 3.12

62

Persons three, five and six do not eat meat, Person five (figures 3.9 and 3.10) eats fish;

looking at the three sets of analyses together there is similarity between three and five, and

differences to Person six. Person three (Figures 3.7 and 3.8) appears to have a lot of

knowledge in all topics on the repertory grid, but mostly this is not gained via school

education. Person Five claims to have little or no knowledge of ethical issues, but surely

environment and morals are ethically linked? Does this confirm that even the non meat eaters

would also benefit from clarification of phrases and definitions, in relation to dietary choices

and the environment?

Analyses of Person six (Figures 3.11 and 3.12) show clearly a knowledge of most topics and

belief of the educational source, as expected meat and diet issues are middle range on the axis

of knowledge, and food availability is marked centrally indicating a lack of surety. Their

comment “I believe in a world where people are more connected to their food production….”

indicates they are dedicated to the environmental cause in relation to food, and even as a

vegetarian is not against meat if from small local farms.

A common link between all three of the non meat eaters is a close match between elements

„vegetarian diet‟ and „free range farming‟ and for the two vegetarians morals, ethics and

morals are closely linked. This would indicate the main reasons for their dietary choices are

concerning morals and ethics concurrent with animals than the environment.

There seems to be little consistency between the three meat eaters, and their analyses alone

are somewhat inconclusive in relation to the hypothesis. In comparison to the three who don‟t

eat meat, their inconsistency suggests dearth of clarity and facts. It could be said that those

who claim to know much about environmental issues and food, are aware only within their

experience parameters, and whilst showing compassion towards to the topics maybe

teachable.

The researcher employed the triangulation method in attempt to intensify results from the

alternative methods; quantitative, qualitative and repertory grid technique. The overall

benefits of this process are predominantly clarification that there is a lack of knowledge and

therefore education in matters regarding a vegetarian diet and the environment. The

quantitative data gave simplified results based on selection of pre-entered answers. This

information specifically provided a rigid analysis base on which to build the qualitative

63

analyses. The comments from participants gave the researcher insight into the persona of each

category, which fed into the repertory grid analysis. The combination of all three methods

indicated that the majority of participants felt some obligation towards protecting their

environment, and some already consider themselves sustainable and energy efficient in all

aspects of their lives. A minority felt the cause to be lost and impossible to slow down future

progression of the problem. Nearly all participants would benefit from education at varying

stages, as the results were not mathematical a definitive response to the hypothesis is not yet

available, and more statistical based research is required which will be discussed in the next

chapter.

The fourth and final chapter aims to discuss the dissertation and limitations experienced by

the researcher, a summary of results as a whole and some recommendations for further

research.

64

Chapter Four: Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Introduction and Aims of the Chapter

The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the findings from the results in relation to the aims

and objectives set out in the Introduction; First to examine existing knowledge and

understanding of the impact of vegetarianism on the environment, second to establish and

analyse concepts, ideals and opinions via quantitative qualitative research, thirdly to

investigate what influences dietary choices, vegetarian or meat consumption and finally to

ascertain if there is general deficiency in the education of vegetarianism as an influence on

climate change. In addition to the objectives the chapter will explore limitations experienced

by both researcher and participants, implications of results, suggestions for improvement of

current practises in education of vegetarianism and the environment and recommendations for

future research and methods for „best practice‟.

4.2 Overall Analysis and Discussion of Results

Vegetarianism was once associated with hippies and eccentrics (Germov and Williams,

2001); it is also recognised as a dietary choice within religion and culture and more recently

as a means to slow down the negative influence of climate change. The literature review

reveals a wealth of information relating to the history of vegetarianism, its diverse origins

dating back to 500 BC during the era of Pythagoras and Buddha, and more recently in 1884

when vegetarianism was defined as a dietary choice (Spencer, 2000). As indicated throughout

most of this dissertation, environmental concerns and global climate change are at the

forefront of many current discussions and summits, focussing on how to reduce impact and

slow down damage on a global and united level. As quoted by The Vegetarian Society in

2000 there were in the region of four million vegetarian in the UK, and if the trend continues

then by 2030 everyone in the UK will be vegetarians. Also revealed is that the concept of

vegetarianism diet and lifestyle is constantly changing due to television and newspapers. It is

no longer an unmanageable task to include vegetarian options in weekly shopping trips,

specialist sources have become unnecessary. Vegetarianism is becoming a story of success

continually unfolding with people becoming more insightful of the benefits; the research for

this dissertation explores a small sample group, and where they are on the ladder of

knowledge and understanding with regard to dietary choice and the environment.

As revealed in the results of 31.5% of the sample group said they didn't eat meat which is in

line with the statistics provided by The Vegetarian Society, in response to a Question two in

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the questionnaire 66.5% responded positively, and believed that cutting down on meat could

help the environment. This would suggest that there is overall inconsistency between assumed

knowledge and actual knowledge. The participants mostly revealed positive responses

concerning global and ethical issues, it was most apparent from the repertory grid analyses.

Nearly all participants were aware of the main greenhouse gases and their origins, but were

possibly unaware of exactly how much damage the meat industry is responsible for. For the

purpose of further research it is questionable whether responses would be favourable: if faced

with the facts and statistics, how much would people be willing to sacrifice?

The literature review reveals definitions in relation to climate change and our dietary choices;

greenhouse gases, food footprint and carbon footprint. Almost half the participants claimed

they were familiar with the term 'food footprint', but did not have an opportunity to justify

their claim. Considering responses in other parts of the research this would indicate that

participants are indeed familiar with the term yet possess insufficient knowledge of the topic.

Knowledge of vegetarian nutrition and practical sources, where to buy particular products and

how to prepare them is an additional problem, Germov and Williams (2001) highlight this

problem. The simple fact that this problem exists is suggestive of insufficient education and

information available to the public, which is the core of this dissertation hypothesis.

In summary the results reveal that vegetarians and meat eaters alike mostly want to make a

difference, and unite in creating an environment beneficial to future generations. The diversity

of the literature available points mostly towards cultural, religious and moral reasons for

becoming a vegetarian, a person would usually need to specify their interest in vegetarianism

and the environment, as did the researcher of this dissertation. A more efficient way of

educating people is by targeting related topics such as recycling or saving energy and

including some fringe benefits of becoming a vegetarian, to make the change more appealing.

As previously mentioned the triangulation method is not without fault and does not claim to

wholly provide a solution to the problem or hypothesis of this dissertation, the next section

will explore this within limitations of the research.

4.3 Limitations

As with most research projects the researcher of this dissertation was restricted by finance and

time, and the practicalities involved with identifying a suitably sized research group. It is for

66

these reasons the researcher decided to conduct questionnaires and repertory grids via e-mail,

which allowed for greater depth of qualitative research without the time commitment

necessary for in depth face-to-face interviews. As a result the sample group was fairly small

and the researcher was dependent on participants with a computer, and the ability to complete

electronic documents successfully, saving and returning them to the researcher. Following a

review of the responses, it was apparent that two of the questions were ambiguous. Question

One referred to participants‟ knowledge of greenhouse gases, an error was made on the

researcher's behalf and incorrect information was given. The question suggested that

greenhouse gases were responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer; as pointed out by a

participant only some gases affect the ozone layer. The explanation with the question was

designed to make comprehension simpler for the participant, but was incorrect information.

Question One explored participants‟ knowledge of the amount of land required to produce

meat in comparison to vegetarian produce, one participant assumed this was a percentage

based question, whereas it referred to the number of times more land was required.

Further limitations relate to the triangulation process; for this approach the researcher needs to

develop diverse skills and gain knowledge of other methods, which can dilute expertise in

single methods making room for mistakes. Additionally the process is more time-consuming

and dependent on the type of research cost can increase (Denscombe, 2008: 119). Mixed

methods and triangulation are not recommended for emergent research, but are suggested for

problem-based research as with this dissertation. A final limitation coincides with literature

available in explanation of personal construct theory; with regard to providing the reader a

description of the process there is limited hard literature.

4.4 Recommendations for Current and Future Practice

Ideal recommendations for current practice would be to increase publicity of vegetarianism

and vegetarian produce via popular educational sources such as television and newspapers. As

this is unlikely to happen due to practicalities and cost it is appropriate to explore less

complex solutions; national newspapers may not be an option but local/regional newspapers

may provide a viable route by which to impart knowledge to the public. On a global level

where a vegetarian dietary choice is more prominent due to cultural or religious beliefs, in

line with current recent discussions such as the Copenhagen summit

(http://actonco2.direct.gov.uk/actonco2), local government may benefit from publicising

statements that support vegetarianism in relation to the environment.

67

With regard to recommendations for future research and „best practice‟, possibly the most

appropriate stage at which to commence the level of education required is during the early

years in school. Suggested future research in support of the hypothesis for this dissertation

would involve in depth surveys and interviews in primary and secondary schools, involving

pupils and teachers, and teachers specifically within design and technology departments. First

research should be developed to establish what types of education being delivered in relation

to climate change and specifically food, second research would ascertain levels of knowledge

in children and young people, and by what methods they learn. To complete the research

ideally statistics should be gathered and correlated, and a detailed report submitted to

government offices at both local and national level. This level of research would require

greater financial support and more intensive time commitment compared to requirements of

this dissertation.

4.5 Final Conclusions

To conclude the research and work for this dissertation it would be reasonable to suggest that

the hypothesis is justified, and there is indeed great requirement for further education and

even popularisation of vegetarianism to reduce environmental breakdown, as opposed to more

commonly renowned philosophies of animals and morality. These statistics clearly illustrate

how much can be achieved by simple sacrifices and changes, people need to be carefully

guided through the process and be given thorough information based on fact and not

speculation. If Pythagoras and Buddha were capable of setting a trend based on moral

philosophy, amongst their people then surely the power and strength of governing bodies can

influence people sufficiently to change their diet and lifestyle in support of their planet, and

stated by Einstein

"Nothing will benefit human health and increase chances for survival of life on Earth

as much as the evolution to a vegetarian diet."

(Albert Einstein ,1879 – 195, Physicist and Theorist, cited by The Vegetarian Society)

68

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71

Appendix 1 Research Questionnaire MA Education Studies – Dissertation Research Meat v Vegetarianism and The Environment. The purpose of this survey is to ascertain current knowledge of the impact of dietary choices in relation to our ecosystem. The information will be correlated and used to help provide solutions to fill possible gaps in the education of this topic. If possible your completed survey should be returned within 7 days. Your name, address or any other details relating to your identity are not required. Look at the questions and statements below, and click on the drop down menu to give the answer you think is correct:

1. Q. How much more land does it take to produce 1 kg of meat, compared to 1

kg of plant protein?

A. Click here

2. Q. Do you believe cutting down on meat in our diet could really help the

environment?

A. Click here

3. Q. Are you familiar with the phrases ‘carbon footprint’ and ‘food footprint’?

A. Click here

4. Q. How much could we reduce our food footprint by not eating meat?

A. Click here

72

5. Q. Can you name any greenhouse gases, and where they come from? (These are gases that cause the hole in the Ozone Layer to get bigger)

A. Please type your answer in the grey box below:

6. Q. Can we get as much balanced nutrition from vegetarian food as we can from meat?

A. Click here

7. Q. In a 3 year research period, how many times did Scottish salmon farms


A. Click here

8. Q. What is your occupation?

A. Click here

9. Q. Which of the following describes your food choices?

A. Click here

10. Q. Which age group do you fit into to?

A. Click here

11. Please use the space below to write down your thoughts or comments about food choices and our environment:


73

Please save your survey and return it to me at: [email protected] I would like to take this opportunity to thank you for your time and effort taken to complete this survey Alison C Jones MA Education Studies Student Bangor University

mailto:[email protected]

74

Appendix 2 Research Questionnaire (Completed) MA Education Studies – Dissertation Research Meat v Vegetarianism and The Environment. The purpose of this survey is to ascertain current knowledge of the impact of dietary choices in relation to our ecosystem. The information will be correlated and used to help provide solutions to fill possible gaps in the education of this topic. If possible your completed survey should be returned within 7 days. Your name, address or any other details relating to your identity are not required. Please DO NOT Google the answers, it would not make for better results. Look at the questions and statements below, and click on the drop down menu to give the answer you think is correct:

1. Q. How much more land does it take to produce 1 kg of meat, compared to 1

kg of plant protein?

A. 15

2. Q. Do you believe cutting down on meat in our diet could really help the

environment?

A. Yes

3. Q. Are you familiar with the phrases ‘carbon footprint’ and ‘food footprint’?

A. Yes for both

4. Q. How much could we reduce our food footprint by not eating meat?

75

A. 26 - 35%

5. Q. Can you name any greenhouse gases, and where they come from? (These are gases that cause the hole in the Ozone Layer to get bigger)

A. Please type your answer in the grey box below:

Carbon dioxide and methane - caused by industrial pollution, cars etc and

excreted/exhaled by animals and humans (eg cows)

6. Q. Can we get as much balanced nutrition from vegetarian food as we can from meat?

A. Yes

7. Q. In a 3 year research period, how many times did Scottish salmon farms


A. 250 - 300

8. Q. What is your occupation?

A. Self Employed

9. Q. Which of the following describes your food choices?

A. Anything Everything

10. Q. Which age group do you fit into to?

A. 36 - 45yrs

11. Please use the space below to write down your thoughts or comments about food choices and our environment:


76

Have assumed question one is a percentage comparison. I believe we should try to shop local and use locally produced produce where possible to reduce carbon / food footprint. I also think that global food production and allocation is something which needs to be addressed as there are far too many people struggling to survive across the world whilst consumers in the EU and USA have plentiful food and vast choice over where there food comes from. However, shortages and climate change may have an impact on the availability in the future, so we need to think now to protect everyone.

Please save your completed survey and return it to me at: [email protected] I would like to take this opportunity to thank you for your time and effort taken to complete this survey Alison C Jones MA Education Studies Student Bangor University

mailto:[email protected]

An Examination of vegetarianism issues January preprint 2011

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