An Ethnobotanical survey of the uses forCitrus aurantium (Rutaceae) in Haiti

AN ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY OF THE USES FOR CITRUS AURANTIUM (RUTACEAE) IN HAITI

ALEXANDRA PAUL AND PAUL A. C o x I

Paul, Alexandra and Paul A. Cox (Department of Botany and Range Science, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 USA). Am ETm~OaOTAmCAL StmvEv OF THE USES FOR CrrRvs av~ ' r lVm (RtrrAcEAE) IN HAm. Economic Botany 49(3):249-256. 1995. A preliminary study on Haitian plant use revealed that Citrus aurantium (Rutaceae), common name "'zorange si" was utilized in a wide variety of ways. Citrus aurantium was found to be used medicinally to treat colds, fevers, hepatic disorders, gall bladder problems, rheumatism, epilepsy, emotional shock, bruising internally and externally, skin blemishes and digestive problems. The sour orange was also found to be considered valuable in food preparation, agriculture, construction and voodoo. Our study of Citrus aurantium provides evidence for continued traditional use of plants in Haiti.

Un Apergu des Usages Ethnobotanique de Citrus aurantium L. (Rutac6e) en Haiti. Une ~tude pr~liminaire des Mantes Haitiennes r~v~le que Citrus aurantium (Rutac~e), commun~ment appel~ "'zorange si'" a diff~rents usages. L'~tude a aussi d~montr~ l'utilisation de l'orange sure dans le traitement de grippe, fii'vre, les insuffTsances h~patiques, les probl~me de malfonctionment de la vescicale biliare, traitment de troubles ~motionels, contusion, tache de la peau, rhumatisme, ~pilepsie et probl~mes digestifs. I1 est aussi utilis~ dans la preparation de nourriture, dans l'agriculture, dans la construction et clans le vaudoo. Cette ~tude surC~trus aurantium prouve l" existence d'une tradition d'utilisation de plantes en Haiti.

Key Words: Citrus aurantium; Rutaceae; Haiti; sour orange.

Plants o f the genus Citrus are prized throughout their distr ibution for their fruits, their essential oils, their medicinal properties and are known to have a long history of use. Citrus fruits appear in Chinese and Sanskrit documents as early as 800 B.C. (Dymock 1890; McClure 1982; Scora 1975). Yet, few detailed accounts on the indigenous uses of individual species exist. One o f the more interesting species is Citrus aurantium L. During an ethnobotanical investigation in Haiti , C. aurantium was indicated by Hait ians to be a plant with remarkable properties.

This species originated in South-eastern Asia, specifically Cochin, China and by some accounts, was introduced into Europe in the 1 l th century (Purseglove 1968:496-500). Citrus aurantium was well known in Europe, particularly in Por- tugal and Italy at the t ime when slaves were being brought to Hispagnola, (Bently and Trimen 1981: 51; Kumamoto et al. 1987). Consequently, we

~ Received 1 September 1993; accepted 8 March 1995.

elected to focus on C. aurantium as a case study on the cultural transfer of t radit ional plant uses.

Hait i provides a unique historical and cultural setting for such a study. Hait i has a populat ion which boasts a rich cultural mix o f Nat ive Amer- ican, African, French and Spanish influences. The strong tradit ion of plant use in Hait i reflects this cultural diversity. For the majori ty o f the population in Haiti , houses, furniture, tools and various forms of art are all plant derived. Plants are also used medicinally. In addi t ion to the remedies known by the general population, there are specialists, "dokte feuilles," (literally: leaf doc- tors) healers, who are taught the trade by their parents. There are also "hougans" and " m a m - bos," voodoo priests and priestesses, who are contacted for grave, prolonged illnesses, or spiritual maladies.

Unfortunately, the religious, cultural, and political context o f Hait i has made the study of Hai t ian ethnomedicine difficult. The people o f Hait i are suspicious o f curious foreigners. This has caused difficulties for non-nat ives at tempting ethnographic and scientific research there. Most

Economic Botany 49(3) pp. 249-256. 1995 �9 1995, by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458 U.S.A.

250 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 49

cthnobotanical accounts have been written by Hait ians compil ing their own observations. Wei- niger et al. (1986) compiled an inventory o f medicinal plants utilized in the plain regions. A list o f medicinal plants was published by Brutus and Pierre-Noel (1960). Pierre-Noel (1959) gathered recipes and modes o f usage for various plants and categorized them by illness. Prior to that date, many documents on the French colonies carry some ment ion of Hait ian ethnobotany. Apar t from these works, there are a few papers, some circulated mostly in Haiti , that discuss Hai t ian botany and the ways in which the people use plants.

C I T R U S AURANTIUM IN H A I T I

Prel iminary interviews revealed that Citrus aurantium L., the sour orange, was one of the most widely used plants in Haiti. Further investigation brought to light the extensive and varied uses that Hai t ians have for C. aurantium.

Citrus aurantium L., is commonly called "zorange si" in Creole (literally: "sour orange"). The plant can be found naturalized and in cultivation throughout most o f the tropical world (Purse- glove 1968:502-504). "According to Las Casas, Columbus brought the first [Citrus sp] seeds to Haiti on his second voyage in 1493" (Scora 1975). It is not known whether or not C. aurantium was one of the species he brought, but it was one of the first Citrus to be brought from Europe to the New Wor ld (McClure 1982; Purseglove 1968: 500-502; Scora 1975).

]~ATERIALS AND M E T H O D S

Interviews on the uses of C. aurantium were conducted in three phases. The first phase in- volved asking expatriate Hait ians to recall mem- orable plant uses they had observed in Haiti. Eleven individuals chosen at random were con- suited. Although other plants were mentioned, as indicated in the previous section, these pre- l iminary interviews revealed that C. aurantium was one of the most salient plants in Hait ian culture. All of the eleven persons recollected uses for sour orange in two or more o f the categories listed in the results. Consequently, C. aurantium was selected as the research focus.

The second set o f interviews was performed in Port-au-Prince and Fcrmathe, Haiti . The pur- pose o f these interviews was to locate specialists and interview generalists in each o f the five categories that C. aurantium was used in. Twenty

Hai t ian residents were questioned in this stage. The group of twenty included, five persons who rely solely on tradit ional medicine, but were not considered professionals, two Hait ian cooks, two persons who regularly part icipate in voodoo ceremonies, two painters, one person who worked in construction all his life, two agriculture specialists with western and Hai t ian training and six individuals who were consulted for their general knowledge on two or more areas.

In the third and final phase o f research, five herbalists were interviewed. These individuals were referred to as professionals by the members o f the general population, who had been ques- t ioned on medicine. Of the five specialists, three were "dokte feuille," healers and two were "hougans," voodoo priests. The bulk o f the data in the medicinal and voodoo sections was obtained from these five individuals. All o f the individuals contacted for each topic were in agreement unless specifically stated otherwise in the results. Gen- eralists were asked to recount when C. aurantium would be used, but detailed descriptions were obtained from specialists.

Herbar ium samples were deposited in the Brigham Young Universi ty Herbar ium (BRY), voucher numbers A P #003 and #124.

RESULTS

The uses o f Citrus aurantium in Hai t i can be divided into five categories: medicine, food, agriculture, construction and voodoo.

MEDICINE

The leaves of the sour orange are used with the leaves o f (corosol), Annona muricata L. to lower the temperature o f a fever that results from a cold. The leaves are boi led and placed in the pat ient 's bath. The individual is then massaged with the leaves and asked to sleep immediate ly following the treatment.

A tea made with C. aurantium leaves is also given to treat influenza symptoms.

The fruit is cooked in the ashes o f a fire, mashed, and mixed with (huile pa lma christie), Ricinus communis L. oil and massaged onto a bruised area. This procedure is said to remove the lo- calized coagulated blood and restore even cir- culation in that area.

One o f the healers reported that the leaves are heated and tied onto the forehead for headaches.

Citrus aurantium mashed in water and left out- side overnight is said to act as a clarifier for the

1995] PAUL & COX: CITRUSAURANTIUM IN HAITI 251

skin. Facial blemishes are said to be removed by washing the face with the water over a two week t ime period.

For liver ailments, the juice of the orange mixed with bicarbonate o f soda is adminis tered orally in the mornings.

For digestive disorders, the juice o f C. auran- t ium is mixed with large amounts of salt and used as a washing enema.

The juice o f the sour orange is adminis tered to patients suffering from anemia.

A tea ofC. aurantium leaves combined in equal quantit ies with the leaves o f (care), Coffea arabica L. is adminis tered for emotional shock. It is said to be calming and to regularize heart beat. Figure 1 shows the preparat ion o f this remedy.

FOOD PREPARATION

The sour orange is used to clean meats before cooking, and is added to the meat during the preparat ions for taste and to help browning. Al- though other sour citrus fruits are used to clean meats, the sour orange is said to be more desir- able in marinat ing and cleaning meats, especially pork. A substance referred to as "vinalgre" (lit: vinegar) is made by boiling the juice with salt and straining through a fine cloth. This vinegar serves to pickle (piment), Capsicumfrutescens L. and a mixture o f vegetables. The skin is used in the production o f rums and liqueurs. Preserves are made with the white part o f the orange. This part icular practice was more widespread until the large scale production of(chadeque), Citras gran- dis Osbeck fruit which gives a preserve which has a similar taste but is easier to prepare.

AGRICULTURE

Ripe C. aurantium fruit are stored with other fruits to hasten their ripening. The sour orange is cultivated mostly as a stock for (zorange douce), C. siniensis (L.) Osbeck. When asked why this was so, farmers said that the plants are hardy, easier to take care o f and less expensive to obtain. This practice is fairly well known worldwide in the cult ivation o f citrus fruits (Barrett and Hutchison 1978; Kumamoto et al. 1987; Purse- glove 1968:512-514). As is common in many countries, the skins o f the sour orange, along with those ofC. sinensis are used as flavorings in rums (Bently and Tr imen 1981: 51; Burkill 1966:566- 567; Purseglove 1968:496) and are exported for use in the preparat ion of Grand Mamier , a li- queur.

Fig. 1. Preparation of tea from leaves of Citrus aurantium and Coffea arabica.

CONSTRUCTION

In the past, when oil paints were more common, painters used sour oranges cut in half to "detoxify" the air. It is claimed that the negative effects o f the paint fumes on ones health can be controlled using the following method. I f one is an artist, the two halves o f the sour orange are placed on the easel or somewhere nearby. I f an entire room is being painted, the orange can be cut in half. The juice is then mixed with very little water and placed, with the orange, at the bo t tom of a bucket. After a day o f painting in a closed environment where the sour oranges are being used, observers noted that droplets o f col- ored material could be seen at the cut surface o f the orange. The chemical constitution o f this pre- cipitate is unclear. However, the painters stated that this practice has become rare because acrylic paints, which are now predominant , do not emit the same kinds o f fumes. Masonry workers also wash their hands with the juice o f the orange to remove cement and paint that cannot be removed otherwise.

Another use in construction involves slaked l ime or "la chaud." The l ime is mixed with water and immedia te ly before applying to the wall the juice o f one sour orange is added. The solution o f water, slaked lime, and sour orange juice is


mixed and quickly spread onto the wall. The sour orange is said to cause the hardening of the mixture. The sour orange and slaked lime covering is used for walls that otherwise would be left unfinished and is very well known among those who work in masonry. When asked why this use was significant, some stated that a wall covered with the slake lime and sour orange finish was a symbol o f economic status.

VOODOO

All of the individuals interviewed on voodoo mentioned that the juice o f the sour orange is an important ingredient in many potions or "wan- ga'" prepared for large voodoo ceremonies. One "hougan" said that the sour orange is believed to be cleansing and therefore is the second ingredient in the mixtures. (Water is the first.)

The sour orange is also used in magic which deals with personal issues. To strengthen or call upon one's own spirit the orange is peeled and half of it is cut into seven pieces. Ricinus communis L. oil is then poured over the skins. A piece o f cotton is set on fire in the middle. For another kind of spell, one against someone who has done you harm, half the orange is peeled, cut into three pieces and lit in the manner previously described. Care must be taken to use the appro- priate half of the fruit. The side which was at- tached to the branch is considered the good or beneficial part. The half which is furthest from the fruit's attachment is considered useful only in black magic.

The orange is also used to transfer a spell. The spell is spoken in a ceremony. A piece of the orange's skin is then pricked through with a pin. This magic is believed to be very potent and great care must be taken not to prick oneself with the pin. The first person pricked by this pin will suffer the consequences of the spell. After one person has been pricked, the spell is complete. The orange then loses its potency and can be handled by anyone without fear or harm. This kind of magic is considered a negative force and uses the distal half. Each of these applications has their own accompanying rituals. The rituals are not reported here, per the requests o f our collabo- rators.

DISCUSSION

I f we accept the premise that citrus fruits, in particular C. aurantium, originated in Asia, pri-

marily in Malaysia, China, and India (Bently and Trimen 1981:51; Burkill 1966:561-562; Kirtikar and Basu 1987:491--495; Li 1970; Tanaka 1976: 173), and began their journey west early in history, then comparing uses from North Africa, Asia, Arabia and Europe with modern Haitian uses may provide some insight into the possible origins o f the uses found in Haiti. Citrus aurantium was well known in the Mediterranean area and throughout most o f Europe by the eleventh century, long before the introduction of sweet oranges (Burkill 1966:566--567; Purseglove 1968: 496--500). During the time of the Atlantic slave trade, Citrus plants and knowledge of their uses was brought from Africa to the New World (Webber et al. 1967:14). It is possible that new uses were learned via the slave trade routes (Mc- Clure 1982).

Much more investigation would be required to adequately compare amounts o f overlap and postulate on the origins o f traditional Haitian uses in all the areas included in our ethnobotanical inquiry on Haiti. However, a few general observations in each of the five areas are worth noting. Citrus aurantium's use as a base preparation in voodoo and as a transmitter of spiritual force is similar to Malay traditions where citrus fruits are used to cure illnesses caused by spiritual disharmony (Burkill 1966:566-567; McClure 1982). In Malay, the citrus is seen as having the ability or potency to act in the spiritual realm, to repel spirits and spiritual illnesses (Burkill 1966:566-567). This, in addition to its use as a medicinal cleansing agent (see appendix) may ac- count for statements made by the hougans which referred to C. aurantium's role as being one of cleansing. The concept of C. aurantium fruit act- ing as a cleanser or purifier could also be part o f the reason why it was said by painters to "detoxify" the air. Further analysis is needed to de- termine the most likely origins o f these uses.

All o f the Haitian practices using C. aurantium in agriculture are well known by Citrus horti- culturalists around the world. Some, such as the use o f stock plants have served an important role in maximizing the hardiness o f citrus crop trees (Burkill 1966:562; Gmitter and Hu 1990; Purse- glove 1968:512-514).

During medieval times oranges and citrus jel- lies were favorite desserts of the aristocracy in Europe (Bently and Trimen 1981:51). In 1483 Louis XI, king of France wrote to the governor of Languedoc and requested that the governor

1995] PAUL & COX: CITR US A URANTIUM IN HAITI 253

send him "citron and sweet oranges, muscatel pears and parsnips, and you will be doing me a very great pleasure" (Webber et al. 1967:10). Since the second half of the first century B.c., greenhouses have been built in France specifically to house citrus plants (Bently and Trimen 1981:51; Webber et al. 1967:14). These facts serve to illustrate that Citrus fruits were an important item to the French aristocracy and was one of the items they would have brought with them as they traveled to French colonies. The uses which they had for Citrus are also likely to have made the journey to the New World. Consequently, it was not surprising to find that C. aurantium was used in the preparation of preserves in Haiti, which was once a French colony. The exporta- tion of peels for use in rums and liquors is also to be expected. Citrus fruit peels are used as fla- voring agents in rums, liqueurs, and medicines in many places. This use is common in India, Europe, the Americas and the Caribbean (Bently and Trimen 1981:51; Chopra 1982:624-625; Gade 1979).

It is not clear why C. aurantium is preferred in the preparation of meats. Some individuals would not prepare pork with any other citrus fruit. Although, the pork, when cooked would be served with C. aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle, this fruit was not considered acceptable for the preparation prior to cooking. An interesting personal observation is that C. aurantium is also used in the preparation of pork by people in the Dominican Republic and by Cubans.

Most of the Haitian medicinal uses found in this study were recorded by Pierre-Noel (1959), Leon (1959), Kebreau (1963), Weiniger et al. (1986) and Brutus and Pierre-Noel (1960). There was also some correlation between the medicinal uses we recorded and the uses for C. aurantium around the world. This would tend to indicate that the strong traditions of Haitian plant use have survived despite and perhaps because of the extreme poverty and the constant political battles which have plagued that nation.

Our results indicate that, in Haiti, various parts of C. aurantium were used to treat fevers, influenza, bruises, headaches, skin blemishes, liver ailments, digestive disorders, anemia and emotional shock. Many similar applieations could be found in the literature.

Citrus aurantium is mentioned as a fever, cold and/or flu remedy in the Bahamas (Eldridge 1975), Guatemala (Giron et al. 1991), Haiti (Bru-

tus and Pierre-Noel 1960; Pierre-Noel 1959; Weiniger et al. 1986), India (Kirtikar and Basu 1987:491-495) and in Mexico (Browner 1985; Heinrich and Rimpler 1987).

Pierre-Noel (1959), mentions that in Haiti the juice is used to alleviate internal bruising and bleeding.

The leaves are also used to treat headaches in Mexico (Lipp 1971) and throughout Haiti (Pierre- Noel 1959; Weiniger et al. 1986).

It is mentioned as a skin clarifier in Haiti (Pierre-Noel 1959), and as a treatment for skin disorders in Haiti (Weiniger et al. 1986) and in India (Kirtikar and Basu 1987:491-495).

The use of C. aurantium to combat liver ailments has been reported in Haiti (Pierre-Noel 1959; Weiniger et al. 1986), India (Kirtikar and Basu 1987), in the West Indies (Morton 1968) and as a hepatoprotectant in China (Chang and Yun 1984).

Use of C. aurantium against a multitude of digestive system disorders is widespread and has been documented in Africa (Iwu 1993:61), the Bahamas (Eldridge 1975), China (Huang 1993: 107), Curacao (Morton 1968), Guatemala (Giron et al. 1991), Haiti (Brutus and Pierre-Noel 1960; Kebreau 1963; Leon 1959; Pierre-Noel 1959; Weiniger et al. 1986), India (Chopra 1982:669; Jain and Defilipps 1991:535; Kirtikar and Basu 1987:491-495), Mexico (Lipp 1971), North Af- rica (Boulos 1983:155), Puerto Rico (Masuda, Muroya, and Nakatani 1992; Melendez 1982: 229), Santals (Jain and Tarafder 1970), Trinidad (Wong 1976), U.S. (Lust 1987:299), and West Indies (Ayensu 1981:165; Morton 1968).

A use similar to the one found in Haiti to treat anemia may be found in India (Kirtikar and Basu 1987:491-495).

Citrus aurantium's value as a sedative has been recognized in Curacao (Morton 1968), Guate- mala (Giron et al. 1991), Haiti (Pierre-Noel 1959), India (Kirtikar and Basu 1987:491-495), IndoChina (Perry 1980:361-362), North Africa (Boulos 1983:155), Puerto Rico (Masuda, Mu- roya, and Nakatani 1992; Melendez 1982"229), Spain (Farga and Lastra 1988:63), Trinidad (Wong 1976), and U.S. (Lust 1987:299).

Although many of the indications revealed by this study are similar to those found in the literature for this species, the methods of admin- istration are often different. The uses of C. aurantium to remove facial blemishes and internal bruises appears to be endemic to Haiti. The ap-


pendix contains a more detailed list of medicinal uses for C. aurantium in Haiti and in other areas.

A review of all the medicinal uses around the world indicates that C. aurantium is primarily used in digestive disorders, hepatic disorders, circulatory/blood metabolism problems, colds/ influenza/fevers, various dermatological problems and in a variety of applications aimed at calming the nervous system. These uses also figure prominently in Haitian ethnomedicine. As is to be expected, the overlap of uses is greatest in the Caribbean and in the Americas. However, there is a large amount of overlap with Asia, where citrus fruits are native. Many of the uses found in Asian nations such as India, China, and Malaysia can also be found in a similar form in Haiti. These similarities imply that a number of Haitians are still using plants in a manner which probably represents a cultural and empirical dis- tillation of the traditional old world uses for C. aurantium.

Yet, few of the traditional Haitian medicinal uses of C. aurantium seem to be derived from Africa. African uses deal primarily with ailments of the digestive and nervous systems (see Ap- pendix). Although these uses are often similar to those found in Haiti, there was a greater diversity of applications for C. aurantium in Haiti than there was in Africa. This variety of uses could also be observed in Latin America and the Ca- ribbean. The lack of multiplicity seen in African uses may indicate that the uses of C. aurantium traveled to the New World via European influences, particularly Spanish and French, more than they did by African influences.

In conclusion, it should be noted that many Haitian medicinal uses of C. aurantium, although well known, have yet to be tested clini- cally. Some applications such as C. aurantium's anti-biotic, anti-fungal, and carminative properties have been investigated and bioactivity has been observed (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Wong 1976). Citrus aurantium's use in the treatment of hemorrhoids and other circulatory system difficulties can be traced to specific chemical modes of action (Oliver-Bever 1986:47; Paris and Delaveau 1977; Pourrat 1977). Nonetheless, fu- ture investigations on Citrus pharmacology and ethnobotany should strive to elucidate the rea- sons why C. aurantium and other Citrus plants enjoy such widespread medicinal uses throughout the tropical world.

APPENDIX: MEDICINAL USES FOR C. AU~NrWM

Country or Area: symptoms or me (part used), Reference

Africa: Carminative, stomachic, tonic (fruits and leaves) (lwu 1993:61). East Africa: Ear-acbe 0uice from leaves) (Kokwaro 1976:195). North Africa: Stomach pains, dysentery (bark), stomachic, carminative (bark tonic), digestive, antispasmodic, mild sedative, diaphoretic (leaf infusion)+ babies agitanon, adult aerophagy (flower water), stimulant, antidiarrheic (infusion of flowers) (Boulus 1983:155). West A f r l ~ Rheumatism (fruit) (Daziel 1955). Arab: Fertility (flowers) (Moursi, Khatib, and Shabibi 1980). Bahamas: Colds (leaves), increase appetite (roots) (EIdridge 1975). Cambedla: Bronchitis (leaves) (KirUkar and Basu 1987:491--495).

Antishock, indigestion, abdominal di$~e~lfion, ptosis of anus or of uterus (fruits) (Hnang 1993). Liver disorders as a hepatoprotectant (infusion of dried peel) (Chang and Yun 1984). Cm'acan: High blood pressure, gall bladder trouble, nervousness, induce sleep (leaf decoction) (Morton 1968). Europe: Nervous stimulant (orange flower water), stimu/ant (peel) (Bently and Trimen 1981:5 I). France: Tonic (fruit) (Lieutaghi 1986:231). Germany: Expectorant (chemical extract) (Balandrin and Kloeke 1988: 17). Ghana: Yaws and ulcers (roasted fruit), gout (fruit) (Irvine 1961:494). Gnatemin: Flatulence (leaf decoction), nervousness, cardiac weakness (bud decoction), vominng, diarrhea (pericaTp decoction), fever (fruit juice) (Giron ct al. 1991). Haiti: Purgative (fruit rind) (Leon 1959). Strengthen stomach (leaves), infected wounds (leaves with salt water) (Kebrean 1963). Body aches, cold with body aches, rheumatism, laxative (fruit juice) (Brutus and Plerre-Noel 1960). Lack of appetite, liver troubles, skin disorders (fruit juice), coughs, colds (leaves, fruit juice) (Wemiger ct al. 1986). Headaches (leaves, heated leaves), acid indigestion, lack of appetite, expel tape worms, diabetes, constipation, purgative (peel), liver problems (enema from peel), prevent nightmares (tea of leaves), heat of eyes or head, purigttive, fever (fruit), anorexia (leaves and fruit juice), hair loss, cholera, gall bladder problems, fetid odors of feet, excess bile, laryngitis, diphtheria, eczema, diarrhea with colic, internal brutsing (fruit juice), palpitations of heart, epilepsy, stomach pain v, qth general heart problems (tea with flowe~), toothache (juice from peel), purgative (roots), strong emotions (young leaves), internal bleeding (salted fruit j u/ce), fatigue (ripe fruit), fever (very green fruit), cough, cold (peel and leaves), inflammation (cooked frmt), insomnia (three buds), intestinal fever, hemorrhoids (skinned fruit), skin clarifier (smashed frutt) (Pierre-Noel 1959:19-425). India: Epilepsy, chorea, convulsive, anUscorbuUc, stomachic, tincture, carminative (leaves), gastric irritabitities (rind) (Chopra 1982:669). Tonic (peel) (lkntly and Tnmen 1981:5 I). Laxative (fruit), stomachic, anthel- mintic Oeaves), aphrodisiac (ripe fruit), digestive, appetizer, tonic (unripe fruit) (Jain and Defilipps 1991:535). Cardiotonic, laxative, anthelminttc, removes fatigue (unripe fruit), laxattve, aphrodisiac (ripe fruit), smell relieves cold (flowers), diuretic, useful in piles, enlarged spleen, chest troubles, lumbago, bilious diarrhea (fruit juice), cooling, astringent to bowels, tonic to liver, relieves vomiting, biliousness, fortifies chest, pso- riasis, disinfectant (fruit), good in vomiting, skin diseases, atomic dyspepsia, general debility or anemia, intestinal worms (peel), antispasmodic, sedative (flower water) (Kirtikar and Baso 1987:491-495). lmloCldna: Agitation (flowers) (puny 1980:361-362). Italy (Southern):. Tonic-eupeptie (infusion of rind) (Antonone et al. 1988). JalmU and China: Hypercholesterolemia (fruit) CUmeda, Ama Lqya, and Og/hara 1989). Libya; Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal (oil of riod) (Ayoub 1990). Mexl~ . Speeds birthing, induces abortion, cold, flu, mange, insecticide (fruit)/dysmenorrhea, postpartum ~covery menstrual bemorrhage, uri- nary infection (leaves) (Browner 1985). Nervousness, mdace sleep (leaves in hot tea) (LIpp 1971). Fever (tea from Uark) (Heinrich and Rimpler 1987). Philippilws: Stimulant, rheumatism (oil from rind) (Qmsumbing 195 l). Ringworm (fruit juice), stimulant (seeds) (Perry 1980:361-362).

1995] PAUL & COX: C I T R U S A U R A N T I U M IN HAITI 255

Puerto Rico: Carminative, antispasmodic, gastrointestinal (fruit), sedative (flower water) (Melendez 1982:229). Sedative, intestinal disorder (fruit) (Masuda, Muroya, and Nakatani 1992). Santals: Enlarged spleen, stomachache, menorrhagia (fruit) (Jain and Tarafder 1970). Slmln: Antislmsmodic, sedative, hypnotic (leaves) (Farga and Lastra 1988: 63). Surinam: Anti-microbial (leaves) (Verpoorte and Di.haI 1987). Trinidad: Heat, oliguria, cough, purgative, mouthwash for thrush (fruit juice), indigestion, flatulence, poultice on sores (fruit peel), promote sleep (tea of leaves) (Wong 1976). High blood pressure (juice), painful men- struation (peel in decoction) (Seaforth, Adams, and Sylvester 1983:40, i 32). United States: Carminative, stimulant, stomachic, tonic (fruit and rind), dyspepsia (dried exoearp), dispel flatulence, chronic bronchitis (oil from fresh rind), hypnotic properties (oil from flowers), mild nervous stimulant (infusion of dried flowers), promote regularity, influenza (fruit juice), digestive, sedative, antispasmodic (leaves), tonic (fruit), epilepsy (tea of flowers) (Lust 1987:298-299, 474). West ladies: Stomach, liver, chest ailments, emmenagogue (leaves) (Mor- ton 1968). Purgative, cough, heat, oliguria (frmt juice) (Ayensu 1981: 165).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research was made possible by the cooperation of Julio Barthc- iemy, the members of the Ministry of Agriculture in Haiti, Yves and Marie-Rose Saintil, Raymonde and Lilianne Berrou~t.

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An Ethnobotanical survey of the uses forCitrus aurantium (Rutaceae) in Haiti

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