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Online Language Teacher Education: An Annotated Bibliography A commissioned bibliography for the Association for Quality Education and Training Online Denise E. Murray, Macquarie University MaryAnn Christison, University of Utah aqueduto.com

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Page 1: An Annotated Bibliography - aqueduto.com · An Annotated Bibliography A commissioned bibliography for the Association for Quality Education and Training Online Denise E. Murray, Macquarie

Online Language Teacher Education:

An Annotated BibliographyA commissioned bibliography for the

Association for Quality Education and Training Online

Denise E. Murray, Macquarie University

MaryAnn Christison, University of Utah

aqueduto.com

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About this bibliographyThis bibliography is made available free ofcharge by Aqueduto, and is available fromour website at: http://aqueduto.com/research/.

You may download, print, distribute andshare the bibliography in hard copy orelectronic means so long as it is not edited,changed, redesigned or broken up intosmaller sections.

Pleaseuse the followingdetails to refer to thispublication:

Murray. D.E. and Christison, M. (2020). AnAnnotatedBibliography forOnlineLanguageTeacher Education. Aqueduto, Norwich.

To organize the articles, chapters, and booksin this annotated bibliography for onlinelanguage teacher education (OLTE), we havecreated three categories for the documents:(1) research, (2) foundational, (3) andcommentary/descriptive. Research papersare focused primarily on reporting resultsfrom one empirical research study or from aseries of studies. Foundational papers andbooks may not be about OLTE directly, butthey are included because the ideaspresented in these documents have beenused to form the basis for theoretical andinstructional frameworks that have influencedOLTE and its research base or have thepotential to do so. Commentary anddescriptive papers offer opinions andremarks on specific aspects of research ordescribe experiences related to andreflections on OLTE. These categories

provide but one way of sorting thecontributions of these papers. We haveincluded a variety ofmaterials froma rangeofsources with varying quality: some are peerreviewed and others are less formal. Many ofthe OLTE-specific research studies used thecommunity of inquiry (CoI) framework ofsocial presence, teaching presence, andcognitive presence. This framework wasinitially articulated in Garrison, Anderson, &Archer (2000) and is included underfoundational papers.

Elsewhere (Christison & Murray, 2017), wehave classified “OLTE into five different typesbased on how online technologies are beingimplemented in the design of courses—enhanced, blended/hybrid, flipped, onlinewith a synchronous component, andasynchronous online” (p. 17). In thisannotated bibliography, we have included alltypes, not only those courses and programsthat are fully online, because there are fewextant empirical research studies that fall intothat category. We have also included articleson the use of videos for promoting teacherreflection.While thesearticlesarenot specificto OLTE, the use of video in OLTE is thoughtto be a useful tool, especially for thepracticum.

Note: There are many gaps in the extantresearch literature on OLTE. An AQUEDUTOcommissioned literature review identifiesthese gaps and recommends areas for futureresearch. The review is available at:

http://aqueduto.com/research/

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Research Papers

Arnold, N., & Ducate, L. (2006). Futureforeign language teachers’ social andcognitive collaboration in an onlineenvironment. Language Learning &Technology, 10(1), 42–66.

Arnold and Ducate studied the use ofdiscussion boards in a foreign languagemethodology course at two universities in theUnited States. They used the communities ofinquiry (CoI) framework for their analysisof thedata, finding that the participants were highlyengaged in dialoging with their peers.Participants used this social presence todevelop their understanding of pedagogy.Arnold and Ducate attributed cognitivepresence to the structure of the discussions:the teacher educators did not participate inthe discussions but were responsible forassigning specific topics and developinggrading criteria for the discussions, thus,focusing students’ attention on one anotherand the topic.

Banegas, D. L., & Manzur Busleimán, G.(2014). Motivating factors in online languageteacher education in southern Argentina.Computers & Education, 76, 131–142.

Banegas & Busleimán used an online surveyand interviews to investigate motivation in anonline English language teacher trainingcourse for practicing teachers acrossPatagonia,Argentina. Some teachersneededa degree to continue teaching, while otherswere interested in English language teaching(ELT) but could not move to towns for suchtraining. The authors found that studentsweremotivated to participate in the course toobtain the qualification. Those who

persevered were individually invested incompleting the required work, rather than inthe collaborative interactions. There was ahigh dropout rate, which the researcherspresumed was due to primitive technologyand poor tutoring.

Brooke, M. (2014). Developing the reflectivepractice capabilities of pre-service traineesthrough online means. 4th CELC SymposiumProceedings (pp. 50-60). Retrieved fromhttp : / /www.nus .edu.sg/ce lc/ research/books/4th%20Symposium%20proceedings/8).%20Mark%20Brooke%2017-10-2014.pdf

Brooke studied preservice ESOL teacherlearners during a practicum, wherein theyreflected on and shared their experiencesthrough asynchronous e-journaling andcollaborative discussion forums. For theirreflections to result in new understandings oflanguage teaching, he found that he neededto use intensive, explicit scaffolding throughquestioning. Participants asked themselves:What did I already know but still benefitedfrom when teaching in school? What did I notknow but learned from observing teaching inschool? What would I like to implement in myown teaching?Whataremycommentsonandreactions to the experiences that I have had?

Chiero, R., & Beare, P. (2010). An evaluationof online versus campus-based teacherpreparation Programs. MERLOT Journal ofOnline LearningandTeaching, 6(4). Retrievedf romh t tp : / / j o l t .me r l o t . o rg / vo l 6no4 /chiero_1210.pdf

The purpose of this study was to compare aninnovative online teacher education programwith traditional campus-based programswithin a large state university system in theUnited States. The study analyzed data from

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annual systemwide evaluations of teachers.Participants were supervisors and programgraduates who had completed one year ofprofessional teaching. Results showed thatsupervisors’ ratings were consistently higherfor teachers from the online program for boththe selected campus-based programs andthe system as a whole. Characteristicsidentified in the literature on effective onlinelearning and on effective teacher preparationprovided the frameworks that were used todescribe the advantages of online teachereducation programs over the traditionalpathways.

Contijoch-Escontria, M. C., Burns, A., &Candlin, C. N. (2012). Feedback in themediation of learning in online languageteacher education. In L. England (Ed.),Onlinelanguage teacher education: TESOLperspectives (pp. 22-77).NewYork,NY:Taylor& Francis.

Contijoch-Escontria, Burns, and Candlinexamined how feedback in OLTE mediateslearning. They conducted an analysis of thefeedback discourse from tutors to teacherlearners in amasters’ level program inMexicoand analyzed data from questionnaires andinterviews with both tutors and learners. Theyfound that the tutors needed to reflectcritically on their methodological proceduresand assessment practices, with a specificfocus on the language used in the feedback,to prevent misunderstandings that resultedfrom online communication.

Copland, F., & Garton, S. (2012). Life afteronline learning. In L. England (Ed.), Onlinelanguage teacher education: TESOLperspectives (pp. 64-77).NewYork,NY:Taylor& Francis.

Through the use of a survey, Copland andGarton explored the impact of an OLTEcourse on teachers being able to implementnew ideas and approaches from the OLTEcourse into their own ELT classrooms. Forcomparison, on campus students alsocompleted the survey. They found that theonline program promoted continuingprofessional development and career growthof online teachers through this situatedlearning. However, they noted that thecohorts in the two programs differedconsiderably, which may have affected theresults.

Crichton, R., Edmett, A., & Mann, S. (2019).Video based observation and feedback forThai in-service teachers: The mentor’s role.ELTED, 22, 27-42.

Thisarticle focusedonanalyzingmentors’ andThai teachers’ interviews, as well asrecordings of teacher-mentor discourse. Thepurpose of the study was (1) to elaborate onelements of the mentors’ role that helpedThai teachers reflect on their practice and (2)to determine how mentors could support avideo-based intervention. The data camefrom a process wherein the mentors guidedteachers’ reflections on videos of their ownteaching and videos of other Thai teachers;both online and face-to-face discourses wereused. The research also considered thementors’ roles, identities, and interactions.Interviews revealed some of the challengesand affordances that video observationsprovided in this process.

Edmett, A.W. (2018). Online professionaldevelopment of English teachers: An analysisof cognitive presence via the community ofinquiry framework (Unpublished doctoral

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dissertation), University of Bath, Bath,England.

This study explored the educational benefitsof online dialogue using a Community ofInquiry (CoI) framework, which allows learnersto collaboratively construct knowledgethrough critical discourse. CoI research hassuggested that higher levels of reflectivethought are not occurring in onlinediscussions. This doctoral researchinvestigated the extent to which teachingpresence, in other words, the online coursedesign and facilitation, affected thedevelopment of reflective thought. Twogroups of in-service teachers were givendiffering discussion forum tasks. Resultsshowed that thegroupusingdebate and casestudy-type tasks had increased incidences ofcognitive presence.

Ernest, P., Catasús, M. G., Hampel. R.,Heiser. S., Hopkins. J., Murphy. L., &Sticker, U. (2013). Online teacherdevelopment: collaborating in a virtuallearning environment. Computer AssistedLanguage Learning, 26(4), 311-333.

Because teachers play an important role infacilitating learner collaboration online, theyneed skills to do so successfully. This researchwas piloted by two universities with the aim ofadvancing teachers’ experiences of onlinegroup work. Twenty teachers trialed a set ofpilot activities to raise awareness of factorsthat contribute to successful collaborativeonline activity. The research examined thecompetencesandskills of the teachers as theyimplemented the activities. Quantitative andqualitative data were collected, allowingresearchers to examine the amount ofparticipation among participants, the

collaborative activity of two groups, andteachers’ perceptions of the collaborationthat took place.

Eröz-Tuğa, B. (2013). Reflective feedbacksessions using video recordings. ELT Journal,67, 175–183.

The practicum is an important component inthe education of pre-service teachers. Itintroduces prospective English languageteaching (ELT) professionals to the real worldof teaching, which includes observingexperienced teachers and putting theoreticalknowledge into practice. This articlepresented the results of a qualitative casestudy investigating the contribution ofreflective feedback sessions, which usedvideo recordings, to the professionalpreparation of English language pre-serviceteachers. The results demonstrated theimportance of clarifying expectations forteaching, sharing assessment criteria inadvance, and giving regular feedback onteaching performances. Using videos ofteachers’ own classroom presentationscontributed to the development of teachingskills and was more effective that simplytalking about teaching.

Gakonga, J. (2012).Collaborationorbust?Aninquiry into theuseofdifferingon-linemodelsof delivery for a pre-service grammar coursefor English teachers (Masters dissertation).University of Warwick. Retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/jo_gakonga_glt_0.pdf.

The Internet has changed teacher educationso that many in-service courses are nowoffered exclusively online. This mixedmethods study traced the development of an

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online course that was aimed at teacherlanguage awareness. It described how thecourse could be taughtmost effectively usinga range of technology and a balance ofinteractive and independent learning.Synchronous learning using a virtualclassroom and asynchronously accessedrecordings were compared. Results showedthat asynchronously accessed recordingswere preferable because they were bothconvenient and pedagogically useful,allowing for the freedom to replay, pause,take notes, and consult other referencematerials for the consolidation of learning.The results also showed that asynchronouscollaborative learning via the Internet hadmotivational value as the majority ofparticipants in this study preferredindependent learning.

Garton, G., & Edge, J. (2012). Why be anonline learner in TESOL? In L. England (Ed,),Online language teacher education: TESOLPerspectives (pp.9-21). New York, NY:Routledge.

Using student data, Garton & Edge sought toreconceptualize distance learning so thatteacher learners were not considered to bedistant, but to be situated. In thisreconceptualization, the scaffolding ofconcepts and different approaches topractice supported teacher learningascourseparticipants experimented with their ownpractice in context. Through thisexperimentation of action, reflection, andaction, teachers no longer saw theory andpractice as separate.

Hall, D. R., & Knox, J. S. (2009). Issues in theeducation of TESOL teachers by distanceeducation. Distance Education, 30(1), 63-85.

Hall and Knox reported on an internationalsurvey of OLTE providers to present anunderstanding of the range of programs andtheir characteristics. They identified 116programs, receiving responses from 24individuals from 23 institutions. Theseinstitutions represented a variety of differenttypes in terms of size, utilization oftechnology, qualifications offered, quality,staffing configurations, and geographicallocation. Respondents identified issues, suchas the need for quality standards, the highworkload, the challenge in communicatingdigitally, and their changing roles as teachereducators. The authors conclude with adiscussion of the need for research into thechallenges and affordances of OLTE.

Hall, D. & Knox, J. S. (2012). Investigatingassessment inonlinediscussions:Acasestudyof peer assessment in an LTED course. In L.England (Ed,), Online language teachereducation: TESOL Perspectives (pp.137-153).New York, NY: Routledge.

Hall and Knox first reported on the results ofsurveys administered to bothOLTE providersand students, which comprised onlineassessment issues, such as technology,situated learning, and the pedagogical valueof assessing discussions. The chapter thenreported on a case study in which theyinvestigated peer assessment ofcontributions in online discussions from bothdistance and on campus students. Studentsfound the task to be challenging as did theinstructors whose workload increasedsignificantly. The researchers concluded thatthe innovationwasworthwhile, but ultimately,the validity of peer assessment of onlinediscussions was critically dependent onindividuals’ responses to the taskandcontext.

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Johnson, M. (2002). The role of computer-supported discussion for language teachers:What do the students say? CALICO Journal,20, 1, 59-80.

This article reported on findings from theauthor's on-going study of the use ofcomputer-mediated communication (CMC)to support postgraduate second-languageteacher education (SLTE). Participants werestudents enrolled in a distance education,computer assisted language learning (CALL)course that used web-based conferencing tosupport both required and optionalcomputer-based assignments. Transcripts ofstudents’ online communication wereanalyzed to determine what they discussedand whether social cohesion in thediscussions was enhanced through use ofCMC. Findings from the study are reportedaccording to organizing categories of socialinteraction and the different tasks thataffected the online communicativeexchanges. In addition, the article discussedcurriculum design features and theimplications of these design features fortechnology-enhanced instructional practice.

Legg, M. & Knox, J. S. (2012). Reflections onlearning TESOL at a distance. In L. England(Ed,), Online language teacher education:TESOL Perspectives (pp.54-63). New York,NY: Routledge.

Using narrative inquiry, Legg and Knoxexamined their own experiences in the samedistance learning master’s program—Legg,whenonline discussion groupswere availableand Knox, when communication wasrestricted to paper/post and primitive earlyemail. They shared similar experiencesaround the social nature of learning, in

particular, the challenges of studyingcomplex concepts without intenseengagement with other students. Theyidentifiedstrategies theyused tocompensatefor lack of engagement. They emphasizedboth the importance of how qualityinstruction was organized, delivered, andassessed and how technology could facilitateor hinder learning.

Mann, S.&Talandis, Jr, J. (2012).Developingcommunities of practice at a distance. In L.England (Ed.), Online language teachereducation: TESOLperspectives (pp. 122-136).New York, NY: Routledge.

Mann and Talandis researched two differenttechnologies for facilitating communities ofpractice (CoPs) in university-based OLTEs: adiscussion list that was archived and aplatform for networking groups. The archivewas available to potential students, courseparticipants, and program graduates. Theother platform was available to courseparticipants and program graduates. Theresearchers found that forming andsupporting online CoPs was highly complexand needed to be carefully designed for theCoP to be sustained. In particular, theywarned that the needs of individual CoPmembers should not be sacrificed in favor ofthe cognitive and social needs of thecommunity.

McLoughlin, D. & Mynard, J. (2009). Ananalysis of higher order thinking in onlinediscussions. Innovations in Education andTeaching International, 46(2), 147-160.

This paper described a study of onlinediscussion forums as tools for promotinghigher-order thinking. Online discussion

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forum transcripts were collected over a 20�week semester, analyzed for evidence ofhigher�order thinking, and placed within oneof the model’s categories of triggering,exploration, integration, or resolution, (seeGarrison et al, 2001 in foundational papers).The results showed evidence of higher-orderthinkingprocesses as themajority of thepostswere categorized as exploration orintegration. Specific conditions needed to bepresent in order for higher�order thinking toarise, suggesting that initial teacher promptshad abearingon the nature of learners’ posts.

Murphy, E. (2004). Recognising andpromoting collaboration in an onlineasynchronous discussion. British Journal ofEducational Technology, 35(4), 421-431.

Murphy’s research of an online asynchronousdiscussion among pre-service teachers ofFrench in a methods course was designed toinvestigate the efficacy of a collaborationframework. The instrument consisted of acontinuum of six processes that move fromsocial presence through to producing sharedartefacts. She found the instrument to beeffective in uncovering the teachers’processes. Participants engaged primarily inprocesses related to social presence andarticulating individual perspectives, but theydid not reach a stage of sharing goals andproducing shared artefacts.

Murray, D. E. (2013). A case for onlinelanguage teacher education. Retrieved fromhttp://www.t i r fonl ine.org/wp-content/u p l o a d s / 2 0 1 3 / 0 5 / T I R F _O L T E _ Two -PageSpread_May2013.pdf.

Murray’s study on the state of OLTE involveda literature review, webpage analyses, and

case reports. The results identified whatprograms, workshops, and/or courses werebeing offered online, the levels at which sucheducation was being offered (e.g.,undergraduate, diploma, masters’ degree,workshops, courses), and the issues that arosein delivering teacher education online andhow to address them. Of the 186 institutionsoffering OLTE, 18 agreed to write casereports. The issues identified through thethree data sets included distinguishingappropriate candidates forOLTE,developingcommunities of practice, the intersection oftechnology andpedagogy, andOLTEquality.

Murray, D. E., & Christison, M. A. (2017).Online language teacher education:Participants’ perceptions and experiences.Retrieved from https://www.tirfonline.org/wp-c o n t e n t / u p l o a d s / 2 0 1 7 / 0 3 /TIRF_OLTE_2017_Report_Final.pdf.

This research focusedon the experiences andperceptions of teacher educators (instructors)and teacher learners (students) in onlinelanguage teacher education (OLTE). To carryout the study, two online questionnaires weredeveloped. One hundred eighty-fiveprograms/courses were invited to participateand a total of 446 questionnaires werereturned.Thequantitativedatawereanalyzedusing Qualtrics, while the qualitative datawere coded to create categories that relatedto the main constructs represented in theresearch questions. The results shed light onwho isparticipating inOLTE, teacher learners’reasons for choosing OLTE, as well as bothteacher educators’ and teacher learners’perceptions of the different types orconfigurations possible for OLTE (i.e.,enhanced, hybrid, synchronous online),indicators of quality, learning management

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systems, and assessment practices.

Murray, D. E., & Christison, M. A. (2018).Online language teacher education: A reviewof the literature. A commissioned researchreport for the Association of QualityEducation and Training Online. Norwich,England: AQUEDUTO. Retrieved from http://aqueduto.com/research/.

The spread of English as the global languagefor commerce, science, and technology andthe development of new digital technologieshave transformed transnational educationandmade online learning the fastest growingarea of education in the 21st century. AsmoreOLTE programs emerge in response to thedemand for online learning, issues of qualityin OLTE naturally emerge and practitionersturn to research for guidance. The authorsnote that there is a dearth of researchavailable on OLTE, especially relative tolearner outcomes. The authors structure theirreview of the research around the followingissues: (a) factors that determine howOLTE isdefined; (b) variouspurposes teacher learnershave for learning online; (c) reasons whyteacher learners choose OLTE; (d) issues inOLTE, such as the readiness of teacherlearners, (d) the preparation of teachereducators for teaching online, (e) assuringquality; (f) teacher educators’ and teacherlearners’ attitudes and perceptions; (g) andframeworks for examining OLTE. Sixrecommendations for OLTE are given.

Nunan, D. C. (1999). A foot in the world ofideas: Graduate study through the internet.LanguageLearning&Technology, 3(1): 43-60.Retrieved from https://www.lltjournal.org/item/2286.

Nunan conducted a case study of a web-based course in a distance TESOLprogram todetermine the potential of this mode ofdelivery. Data included chat transcripts andteacher learner interviews. He found that thechat feature allowed teacher learners toengage in conversations with one anotherand the professor and was used to questionhow the knowledge from the course appliedto their own classrooms. The participantsfound this new way of learning challenging,especiallywhen logjamsoccurredduring chatsessions. The author noted that web-basedinstruction could be used for collaborativelearning but could also facilitate traditionaltransmission modes.

Pawan, F., Paulus, T.M., Yalcin, S.,&Chang,C. (2003). Online learning: Patterns ofengagement and interaction among in-service teachers. Language Learning &Technology, 7(3), 119–140. Retrieved fromhttp://llt.msu.edu/vol7num3/pawan/.

Collaborative interactions are an essentialelement of any pedagogy that assumes thatlearning is collaborative and thatunderstanding develops as a result ofmodeling,participation in, and reaction to thebehaviors and thoughts of others. This studywas conducted to analyze the collaborativeinteractions that were used duringdiscussions in three online classes. The goalwas to support instructors in includingcollaborative interactions in their courses. Asa framework for the study, thepractical inquirymodel (Garrison et al., 2001) was used.Findings suggested that without explicitguidance from the course instructors,students engaged primarily in "serialmonologues." Three intervention strategieswere offered to increase collaborative

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interaction during online discussions.

Rodriquez, M. E. (2016). Effectivepedagogical practice in online Englishlanguage teacher education. Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation. University of Arizona.Retrieved from https://repository.arizona.edu/b i t s t r e a m / h a n d l e / 1 0 1 5 0 / 6 1 3 2 4 1 /azu_etd_14601_sip1_m.pdf?sequence=1.

It is essential for providers of OLTE todemonstrate quality in online instruction andfor students to receive a quality educationalexperience. This study explored students’and instructors' perceptions of effectivepedagogical practices in OLTE. Participantswere 18 instructors and 125 former studentsfrom non-credit certificate, professionaldevelopment, and post-secondary creditOLTEcourses. Eachparticipant completedanonline survey. Twenty-two students, eightinstructors, and two program coordinatorsparticipated in semi-structured interviews.Results of this study indicated thatparticipants had positive perceptions aboutthe current pedagogical practices. However,an analysis of surveys and interviews showedthat instructional strategies could beimproved as students perceived there to belittle variety in online instructional activities.Thedifference inperceptionsof collaborationbetween the student and instructor groupssurveyedwas statistically significant. Studentsalso perceived instructor online presence tobe low, particularly in the discussions.

Satar, H. M. & Akcan, S. (2018). Pre-serviceEFL teachers’ online participation,interaction, and social presence. LanguageLearning&Technology, 22(1), 157-183. https//dx.doi.org/10125/44586.

Participation in online communities is anincreasing need for future language teachersand their professional development. Thisresearch investigated participation,interaction patterns, and levels of socialpresence (SP) of pre-service English as aforeign language (EFL) teachers in onlinecommunication within a longitudinal studyand a blended learning setting. A second aimwas to explore social network analysis (SNA)asanalternativemethodofmeasuringSP.Theresults indicated that an online course thatfocused on tutoring skills and SP improvedpreservice EFL teachers’ online participationskills. Increased interaction and thedevelopment of a more cohesive networkwere observed as the course progressed. Thefindings suggested a relationship betweencontent analysis for SP (especially theinteractive dimension) and SNA measures(centrality, influence, and prestige), showingpromise for SNA as an emerging researchmethod for the investigation of SP.

Shin, D., & Kang, H-S. (2017). Onlinelanguage teacher education: Practices andpossibilities. RELC Journal, 1-2. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217716535.

Along with the expansion of computertechnologies in education, an increasingnumber of academic degrees andprofessional development credentials inlanguage teacher education are offeredonline. Despite the rapid growth in thenumber of OLTE programs, there is still adearth of research about OLTE, itsimplementation practices and its overallefficacy. The aim of this article was to criticallyreview emerging patterns surrounding OLTEprograms and to contribute to promoting theefficacy of these programs. The review was

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based on a synthesis of the existing literatureon OLTE and the supplementary studies ofother related areas, such as computer-assisted language learning (CALL) andcomputer-mediated communication (CMC).The authors discussed the purposes, learningexperiences, and evaluations of OLTEprogramswith the aimof supporting teachersthrough collaborative, reflective, andexperiential learning. The discussionilluminatedcritical issuesandpossibilities thatemerged at the programmatic andpedagogical levels of OLTE. The authors alsoidentified the challenges unique to OLTEprograms, aswell as a future researchagenda.

Shin, J. K. & Bickel, B. (2012). Building anonline community of inquiry with participant-moderated discussions. In L. England (Ed.).Online language teacher education (pp.102-121). New York, NY: Routledge.

Shin and Bickel discussed the results ofmultiple investigations into buildingcommunities of inquiry (CoIs) in onlineprofessional development courses forinternational English teachers. The programused participatory discussions that weremoderated and modeled by instructors, withthe goal of increasing participants’ cognitivepresence and distributing teaching presenceby having participants became effectivestarters and wrappers in online discussions.Although different instructors used differentinstructional approaches (direct,participatory, and facilitating), all courseswere evaluated highly by teachers for bothcontent and delivery.

Smith, S. U. (2014). Frameworks shaping andonlineprofessionaldevelopmentprogramforK-12 teachersof ELLs: Toward supportingand

sharing of ideas for empowering classroomteachers online.TESOL Journal, 5(3), 444-464.

In efforts to maintain America's globalcompetitiveness in the knowledge�basedeconomy, teacher professional developmenthas moved to center stage. With increasingnumbers of English learners in U.S. schools,several states have adopted mandatoryprofessional development for classroomteachers, intended to equip them with theknowledge and skills they need to shapestudents’ future capacities to contribute tothe well-being of the country. This researchaddressed the question of whether usingonline delivery for teachers’ professionaldevelopment was a more viable option thanusing school- or site-based programs. It thendescribed the frameworks that guided thedesign and organizational structures for anonline teacher development program for K12teachersofEnglish learners. Insights shared inthis article might serve as guidelines forframing the implementation of similarprograms that aimed to create empoweredteachers who know how to work with Englishlearners.

Foundational Papers

Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D. R., &Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teachingpresence in a computer conferencingcontext. Journal of Asynchronous LearningNetworks, 5(2). Retrieved from http://www . a l n . o r g /pub i c a t i o n s / j a l n . v 4 n 2 /v5n2...anderson.asp.

Andersonetal.’sarticlepresentedastudy thatapplied the community of inquiry (CoI)framework to assess teaching presence inonline graduate courses. The analyzed

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transcripts for the three categories ofteaching presence found differences in theoccurrence of the categories across differentcourses.

Annand, D. (2011). Social presencewithin thecommunity of inquiry framework. TheInternational Reviewof Research inOpen andDistributed Learning, 12(5). Retrieved fromhttp://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/924/1855.

The role of social presence in the CoIframework is critiqued, and evidence ispresented that questions the extent ofknowledge co-construction that occurs inmost higher education settings, thereby,challenging the framework’s underlyingassumption. CoI has evolved from adescription of a learning process within asocial constructivist paradigm to anempirically testable construct in an objectivistone. The argument is that social presencedoes not impact cognitive presence in ameaningful way and that best teachingpractices, which are suggested by CoI-basedstudies, are informed by objectivist,cognitively oriented learning theories.

Darling-Hammond, L., Hammerness, K.,Grossman, P., Rust, F., & Shulman, L. (2005).Thedesignof teacher educationprograms. InL. Darling-Hammond & K. Bransford (Eds.),Preparing teachers for a changing world:What teachers should learn and be able to do(pp. 390-440). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

This chapter reviews classic andcontemporary theoryand researchon teacherlearning and development. The areas ofteacher development covered are equallyimportant for teachers in face-to-face (f2f) and

online contexts. The areas of teacherdevelopment covered include the notion ofadaptive expertise for lifelong learning asteachers’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes arenot fully developed in pre-service programsand the complexity problemas teachersmustdeal with and juggle multiple academic andsocial goals on an ongoing basis.

Dede, C., Ketelhut, D. J., Whitehouse, P.,Breit, L., & McCloskey, E. M. (2009). Aresearch agenda for online teacherprofessional development. Journal ofTeacher Education, 60, 8-19.

This article highlights key online teacherprofessional development (oTPD) areas thatneed to be researched. The literature reviewdocumented thatmuchwork is anecdotal andfocuses on describing professionaldevelopment programs or “lessons learned”without providing full details related toparticipants, setting, research questions,methods of data collection, or analyticstrategies. Research on oTPD needs to beconducted for software developers to knowthe best design features to include and foreducators to remain informedabout the typesof programs that support teacher change andstudent learning. The recommendations inthis article can be used to guide OLTEscholarship toward the development of anevidence-based conceptual framework.

Education Endowment Foundation (EEF)(n.d.). IRIS Connect: Developing classroomdialogue and feedback through collectivevideo reflection. Retrieved from https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/projects-and-evaluation/projects/iris-connect.

This paper described a professional

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development project that was aimed atimproving dialogue and feedback practicesamong teachers in 11 schools through the useof online videos and collective videoreflection.On thebasis of a rangeof evidencefrom videos of lessons, interviews, and beforeand after surveys; there was moderateevidence of change in the school climate;strong evidence that out-of-class activities,such as film clubs, promoted discussion ofteaching and learning; moderate evidence ofchange in teachers’ thinking; and moderateevidence of change in teachers’ practice. Alarge majority of teachers responding to anend-of-project surveywerepositive about thevalue of the project for their practice.

Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T. & Archer, W.(2000). Critical inquiry in a text-basedenvironment: computer conferencing inhigher education. The Internet and HigherEducation, 2, 87–105.

Garrison et al.’s article articulated a newframework for analyzing higher educationprograms taught through computerconferencing. The framework identifies threecomponents: social presence, teachingpresence, and cognitive presence. Accordingto themodel, it is the interaction between thethree components that results in learning.

Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T. & Archer, W.(2001). Critical thinking and computerconferencing: A model and tool to accesscognitive presence. American Journal ofDistance Education, 15(1), 87-105.

This article described a practical approach tojudging the nature and quality of criticaldiscourse in a computer conference. Amodelof a critical community of inquiry (CoI) framed

the research and was a core concept indefining cognitive presence in a CoI. Thepractical inquiry model was used tooperationalize cognitive presence for thepurpose of developing a tool to assess criticaldiscourse and reflection. The authorspresented encouraging empirical findingsrelated to creating an efficient and reliableinstrument to assess the nature and quality ofcritical discourse and thinking in a text-basededucational context.

Gaudin, C., & Chaliès, S. (2015). Videoviewing in teachereducationandprofessionaldevelopment: A literature review.Educational Research Review 16, 41–67.

This article reviewed the internationalliterature on video viewing in teachereducation and professional development.Two hundred and fifty-five articles werecollected, summarized and categorized,using a conceptualization that included fouraspects: teachers’ activities as they viewedclassroom videos, the objectives of videoviewing, the types of videos viewed, and theeffects of video viewing on teacher educationand professional development. The findingssuggested focused on three questions forguiding future research. These questionswere related to (a)whether teacherswereableto identify and interpret teachingeventsusingvideo and create diverse objectives (for videoviewing and for including diverse videos), (b)whether video was being used in bothpreservice teacher education and in-serviceprofessional development, and (c) how it wasbeing used. The findings from this study havepotential for guiding future research in OLTEas videos provide important tools forunderstanding teaching and learning inclassroom contexts.

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Hockly, N., & Clandfield, L. (2010). Teachingonline. Surrey, England: Delta Publishing.

OLTE requires knowledge and skills in bothteacher education and online teaching;therefore, this book provides a criticalresource for language teacher educators whoare interested in OLTE, as well as languageteachers who are interested in onlineteaching. It contains three distinct sectionsthat focus on the theory andpractice of onlineteaching, as well as on teacher development.The first section focuses on getting started,designing and building online courses, andlearning more about what tools are availablefor teaching online. The second sectionfocuses onpractical activities for the four skillsand using beginning and ending activitieseffectively. The final section providesresources and references for teachereducators.

Huss, J. A. (2007). Administrator attitudestoward online teacher preparation programs:Are principals logging on—or logging off?Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ987301.pdf.

This study investigated the attitudes of U.S.school principals toward the legitimacy ofonline programs for the education ofpreservice teachers. A random clustersampling was used to select participants, anda total of 326 principals completed thequestionnaires. The results showed thatprincipals were apprehensive about whetherteachers coming from online programs coulddevelop appropriate dispositions towardteaching in face-to-facecontexts andwhetherthe social aspects of teaching would becompromised. They also worried about theethical issues and the legitimacy (e.g., the

quality of online programs) of online teacherpreparation programs.

Kebritchi, M., Lipschuetz, A., & Santiague,L. (2017). Issues and challenges for teachingsuccessful online courses in higher education:A literature review. Journal of EducationalTechnology Systems, 46(1), 4-29.

This article synthesizedprior empirical studiesand provided an overview of the issues inonline courses. Three major categories offindings were identified. Learners’ issuesincluded their expectations, readiness,identity, and participation in online courses.Instructors’ issues included changing facultyroles, transitioning from face-to-face toonline, time management, and teachingstyles. Content issues included the role ofinstructors in content development,integration of multimedia in content, role ofinstructional strategies in contentdevelopment, and considerations for contentdevelopment.

Luyt, I. (2013). Bridging spaces: Cross culturalperspectives on promoting positive onlinelearning experiences. Journal of EducationalTechnology Systems, 42(1), 3-20.

Online learning has been transformed into across-cultural learning space as students fromnon-English backgrounds enroll in credit-bearing courses and adjust their thinking andwriting to adapt to online practices. Thisarticle explored how the globalization ofonline learninghascreateduniquechallengesfor teaching and learning online in terms ofhowdominantWestern educational practicesreinforce ways of knowing, thinking, andwriting. The conclusion from the review wasthat online courses, including OLTE, can

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transform learning when culturally inclusiveassignments are included.

Marsh, B., & Mitchell, N. (2014). The role ofvideo in teacher professionaldevelopment. Teacher Development, 18(3),403-417.

Understanding the potential for video use isessential in OLTE as video can play a criticalrole in learning online and is a criticalcomponent of the teaching practicum. Thisliterature review focuseson theuseof video inboth preservice teacher education and in-service professional development. Researchsupports the use of video technologysynchronously and asynchronously. It canextend the quantity and quality of classroomobservation experiences and, therefore, hasthe potential to help teachers develop theirobservation skills, their abilities to analyzeteaching, and reflect on and learn from theirobservations. In this article, the authorsdescribe how linking theory to practice,developing pedagogical language, andlearning through communities of practicemight be achieved through theuseof video ine-contexts. Claims for gains that were madein relation to subject matter knowledge areless convincing.

Rourke, L. & Kauka, H. (2009). Learning incommunities of inquiry: A review of theliterature. Journal of Distance Education, 23(1), 19-48.

The purpose of this study was to investigatelearning within the CoI framework. Twohundred and fifty-two research reports thatreferenced CoI were reviewed. From the 252reports, only 48 collected and analyzed datafor one or more aspects of the CoI framework

and only five included measures of studentlearning. Learning was principally defined asperceived learning and assessedwith a singleitem on a closed-form survey. The authorsexpressed concerns over the soundness ofsuch measures. The review indicated thatdeep andmeaningful learning did not arise inthese research reports on CoI as learning wasassociated with independent activities anddidactic instruction and not with learning thatresulted from sustained communication,which is critical for the CoI framework. Theresults suggest that the research reports thatwere considered in this article, neitherconfirmednordisconfirmedtheefficacyof theCoI framework.

Zhao, Y., Lei, J., Lai, B. Y. C., & Tan, H. S.(2005).Whatmakes thedifference?Apracticalanalysis of research on the effectiveness ofdistance education. Teachers CollegeRecord, 107, 1836-1884.

The purpose of this study was to identifyfactors related to effectiveness in distanceeducation. Although aggregated data ofavailable studies have shown no significantdifference in outcomes between distanceeducationand face-to-faceeducation, furtherexamination of the differences revealed thatdistance education programs, just liketraditional education programs, vary a greatdeal in their outcomes. Effectiveness indistance education was associated with anumber of different pedagogical andtechnological factors. This study led to someimportant data-driven suggestions for andabout distance education.

Commentary or Descriptive Papers

Bonadeo, F. S. (2013). Using a virtual

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classroom in the practicum: Innovations andenhanced practices. Argentinian Journal ofApplied Linguistics, 1(2), 79-87.

Bonadeo reflected on her experiencesteaching the practicum via the virtualplatform, Moodle. Participants exchangedand commented on lesson plans, materials,and teaching ideas, as well as their practicumteaching experiences. This engagement inthe collaborative and reflective activities wasinstrumental in building a community ofpractice (CoP) that continued aftergraduation.

Bauer-Ramazani, C. (2006). Training CALLteachers online. In P. Hubbard & M. Levy(Eds.), Teacher education in CALL (pp.183-200). Amsterdam, NL: John BenjaminsPublishing Company.

In her 2006 chapter, Bauer-Ramanaziexplained how her college migrated from aface-to-face course on computer assistedlanguage learning (CALL) to a fully onlinedistance course. She explained theimplementation stages, principles, andstructure of the course, as well as instructionaltasks, and concluded with a discussion ofchallenges and future directions trainingteachers online.

Bauer-Ramazani, C. (2017). Teacher trainingwith CALL online (distance): A standards-based approach. In J. B. Son & S. Windeatt(Eds.), Language teacher education andtechnology: Approaches and practices (pp.129-32). London, England: BloomsburyAcademic.

Inher 2017chapter,Bauer-Ramanzi explainedhowanonlineCALLcoursehadbeenadapted

in response to the TESOL TechnologyStandards Framework. She detailed thedesign and delivery features of the course, aswell as its contentandpedagogicalprinciples,its alignment to the standards, and thechallenges faced in teaching CALL online.

Compton, L. K. L. (2009). Preparing languageteachers to teach language online: A look atskills, roles, and responsibilities. ComputerAssisted Language Learning, 22(1), 73-91.

This paper reviewed and critiqued an existingskills framework for online language teachingand highlighted the complexity of identifyingonline language teaching skills. The critique isfollowed by an alternative framework foronline language teaching skills, which coversthree categories of skills (technology,pedagogy, and evaluation) at three levels ofexpertise (novice, proficient, and expert). Theframework is meant to guide languageteacher education programs. This paper alsouses a systems view (i.e., parts that areconnected and joined together by specificrelationships) to look at the roles andresponsibilities of various stakeholders in anonline learning system. Four majorrecommendations are provided to helplanguage teacher training programs preparefuture language teachers for online languageteaching.

England, L. (2012). Online distance TESOL inthe 21st century: From the trench. In L.England (Ed.), Online language teachereducation:TESOLperspectives (pp. 1-6).NewYork, NY: Routledge.

In this introductory chapter, Englanddescribed the landscapeofOLTE inwhich heredited volume is situated. She overviews its

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reach (who takes online classes and why),content (what is taught, who teaches online,and what media and devices are used), andstatus (the advantages and challenges ofonline TESOL).

England, L. & Hall, D. (2012). The future ofonline TESOL. In L. England (Ed.), Onlinelanguage teacher education: TESOLperspectives (pp. 187-199). New York, NY:Routledge.

England and Hall note the proliferation ofOLTEandseek tochart futuredirections.Theyoutline key issues and also discuss the rolesand responsibilities of instructors andadministrators, paying particular attention tothe need for standards of quality for OLTEprovision.

Gruber, P. 2017). Blended approaches toteaching languages with computers. In J. B.Son & S. Windeatt (Eds.), Language teachereducation and technology: Approaches andpractices (pp. 35-49). London, England:Bloomsbury Academic.

Gruber describes a graduate course titled,Technology and Language Learning, that heteaches across three modes of delivery: face-to-face, blended, and fully online. He detailsthe course content, the course features, andissues he has encountered relative to thedifferent modes. The course uses a learningmanagement system in which all students arerequired to participate.

Hall, D. & Knox, J. (2012). Rewards andchallenges of online program administration.In L. England (Ed.), Online language teachereducation: TESOLperspectives (pp. 137-153).New York, NY: Routledge.

Hall and Knox discuss the difficulties teachershave when teaching online. They note thatworkloads are increased and administrativesupport staff are a lifeline for students. Theyalso acknowledge the marginalized status ofonline teaching resulting from lack of uppermanagement engagement in and awarenessof their distant student population.

Healey, D. (2012) Planning a distanceeducation course for language teachers:What administrators need to consider. In L.England (Ed.), Online language teachereducation: TESOLperspectives (pp. 172-184).New York, NY: Routledge.

Healey elaborates on the issues thatadministrators need to address before thedevelopment of fully online language teachereducation. These issues cover all stages ofimplementation (planning, coursepreparation, teaching, and marketing) interms of both the human resources and thetechnology infrastructure that need to beselected and deployed.

Hockly, N. (2018). Video-based observationin teacher education. ELT Journal, 72(3), 1-7.doi: 10.1093/elt/ccy022.

Video recordings of classroom practice canbe effective vehicles for analyzing teachingand supporting and developing reflectivepractices among both pre-service and in-service teachers. This article focused on theuse of recorded video for self- and peerobservations for professional developmentrather than the use of video for externalevaluative purposes. Although the focus ofthis article was on face-to-face contexts, weincluded it in this bibliography because videoobservation in OLTE is important, particularly

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for the practicum. In addition, there is littlepublished research to date relative to onlinepractices; however, the article reviewed twoEnglish language teacher educationprograms that involved teachers in viewingvideos.

Humphries, S. &Mihai, F. (2012). Addressingthe challenges of online assessment: Practicalsolutions for TESOL instructors. In L. England(Ed,), Online language teacher education:TESOL Perspectives (pp.39-53). New York,NY: Routledge.

Humphries and Mihai’s exploration of bothsummative and formative assessment wasconducted through the lens of assessmentvalidity, reliability, practicality, andauthenticity. Within each concept, theyarticulated issues online teachers need toconsider, as well as recommendations fordesigning online assessments.

Khalsa, D. K. (2012). Creating communities ofpractice. In L. England (Ed.),Online languageteacher education: TESOL perspectives (pp.81-92). New York: NY: Routledge.

Khalsa identified areas of OLTE research thatneed to be explored to ensure that thedevelopment of communities of practice(CoPs) result in learning, such as sharedidentity, empowering human relationships,more student choices, trust in a virtual teamsetting, guidelines for a virtual team setting,and issues of power.

Kiddle, T., &Dudeney, G. (2019).Monitoringand evaluating the quality of online TESOLteacher education courses: Ensuring qualityassurance standards. In J. D. Agudo (Ed.)Quality in TESOL and teacher education:

From results culture to quality culture (pp.252-261). New York, NY: Routledge.

This chapter provided commentary on themeaning and quality of OLTE. Two importantfactors framed the content of this chapter.The first factor concerned the nature of OLTEas theeducationofEnglish language teachersonline is distinct from other types of teachereducation and professional development interms of its online delivery and interaction;therefore, it warrants consideration as anindependentdomainof research. The secondfactor focuses on the tensions between the“ever-expanding possibilities of the onlinespace” (p. 252) and the temptation thatproviders of OLTE face relative to OLTE. Thetendency is to view OLTE in terms ofconvenience and its financial benefits ratherthan in terms of asserting quality.

Kiddle, T., & Prince, T. (2019). Digital andonline approaches to language teachereducation. In S. Walsh & S. Mann (Eds.) TheRoutledge handbook of English languageteacher education (pp. 111-125). New York,NY: Routledge.

This chapter provides an overview of theapproaches available for using digital andonline tools and platforms for languageteacher education. As such, it is an importantarticle forOLTE. The authors provide a historyof digital technology in language and teachereducation and consider challenges andopportunities. In addition, they delve intointeraction, design, platforms and tools, andoptions for assessment. These variables arediscussed in blended and fully online teachereducation programs of various sizes. Finally,the implications of these variables areconsidered for individuals and organizations,

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for trainers and trainees, and for those whomake decisions relative to digital teachereducation practices.

Kouritzin, S. (2002). The personal, practical,and professional rewards of teaching MA-TESOL courses online. TESOL Quarterly, 36(4), 621-624.

In this article, the author described herexperiences using WEBCT for a pilot coursewith four TESOL teachers. Kouritzinacknowledged that she faced each of thechallenges that Nunan (2002) had described,but she added one more—the relentlessnessof the reading andwriting commitment that isrequired of the online teacher.

McAllister, P. G. (2012). Teaching researchmethods in an online distance course. In L.England (Ed.), Online language teachereducation: TESOL Perspectives (pp.93-101).New York, NY: Routledge.

McAllister described the challenges ofbuilding a research methods course online,especially given students’ apprehensionregarding research methods courses in face-to-face contexts. She listed the essentialcomponents fora successful course, includingengagement in discussion forums, usingrubrics for grading assignments in the course,and explicit instruction.

Motteram, G. (2017). Language learning andtechnology: A thirty-year journey. In J. B. Son& S. Windeatt (Eds.), Language teachereducation and technology: Approaches andpractices (pp. 63-76). London, England:Bloomsbury Academic.

Motteramexplainedhowthemasters’degree

course content was adapted for teacherlearners who were proficient users oftechnology. Taught both face-to-face andonline, the course focused on the content oflanguage learning, but it did include anoptional practical tutorial for those whoneeded it.

Nunan, D. (2002). Teaching MA-TESOLcourses online: challenges and rewards.TESOL Quarterly, 36(4), 617-621.

In this paper, the author looked at thechallenges and rewards of developing andimplementing a web-based master’sprogram in TESOL for a relatively new virtualunversity. The program targeted TESOLteachers working in parts of the world whereopportunites for graduate studywere limited.Four challenges were described along withpotential solutions.

Nunan, D. (2012). Preface. In L. England (Ed.),Online language teacher education: TESOLPerspectives (pp. vii-xv). New York, NY:Routledge

As well as summarizing the themes of thevolume’s chapters, Nunan also traced his ownexperiences with OLTE and identified theroles of online technology in learning: as acarrier of content, as a practice tool, as alearning management system, and as acommunication device.

Opp-Beckman, L. (2012). Administration ofonlinedistanceeducation:Academic servicesin support of ESOL e-learners. In L. England(Ed,), Online language teacher education:TESOL Perspectives (pp.157-65). New York,NY: Routledge.

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Opp-Beckman discussed the supportservices, both human and computer-based,that are needed to deliver online services toeducators in remote and low-resourcedsettings. Participants from over 100 countriesidentified their priorities, such as timely andcourteous communication, and then listedother issues to consider, such as capacity.

Son, J.-B., & Windeatt, S. (Eds.) (2017).Language teachereducationand technology:Approaches and practices. London, England:Bloomsbury Academic.

Son & Windeatt’s edited volume is primarilyfocused on how CALL pedagogy is beingincluded in language teacher educationprograms so that teachers have theknowledge and skills for employingtechnology in their language classes.However, several chapters also discussedteacher development courses that weredeliveredonline (chaptersauthoredbyBauer-Ramanazani, Gruba, Hubbard, Motteram,and Son).

Son, J. B. (2017). CALL research, practice andteachers’ roles. In J. B. Son & S. Windeatt,Language teachereducationand technology:Approaches and practices (pp. 51-62).London, England: Bloomsbury Academic.

Describing an elective masters’ course, Sonfocused on the features of the course and theissues and challenges in teaching it. Thefeatures included task-based learning, theteacher’s role in a CALL context, interaction,and collaboration. The course was offeredboth online and on-campus.

Son, J.-B. (2018). Teacher development intechnology-enhanced language teaching.

London, England: Palgrave Macmillan.

The goal of Son’s volume was to provideguidance on how teachers could develop theknowledge, skills, and strategies they neededto use CALL in their classrooms. It includesspecific suggestions for how to improvelanguage teacher education anddevelopment.

Please use the following details torefer to this publication:

Murray. D.E. and Christison, M. (2020). AnAnnotatedBibliography forOnline LanguageTeacher Education. Aqueduto, Norwich.

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