AN ANIMATED OVERVIEW OF PLANETARY …robotics.estec.esa.int/.../Papers/astra2002_3.1-02.pdfASTRA...
Transcript of AN ANIMATED OVERVIEW OF PLANETARY …robotics.estec.esa.int/.../Papers/astra2002_3.1-02.pdfASTRA...
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Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
AN ANIMATED OVERVIEW OFPLANETARY ROBOTICS:
Past, Present and Future
Michel Van Winnendael*, Francesco Grassini*, James Garry**, Gianfranco Visentin*
*European Space Agency, Automation and Robotics Section**Planetary and Space Sciences Research Institute, Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
ASTRA 2002 19-21 November 2002ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands
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Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Introduction
The subject of this slide show is planetary robotics, defined as
“systems which provide manipulation and/or mobility functions, which moreover have a certain flexibility to perform a variety of tasks, and which are designed to operate on or near the surface of celestial bodies”.
Typically these functions consist of moving around on celestial bodies (on, above or under the surface), transporting, loading/ unloading and positioning items on the surface of a planet, moon, asteroid or comet nucleus.
We have made a (necessarily subjective) selection of missions and developments which we consider most relevant in the frame of planetary robotics.
ASTRA 2002 19-21 November 2002ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands
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e.g. Lunokhods, Russia 1970
e.g Marsokhod, Russia 1990’s
e.g. Nanokhod (ESA R&D 1999)
e.g. Sojourner NASA/JPL 1997
e.g. MUSES-CN, NASA/JPL R&D
For classification of planetary rovers we use the following definitions:
Rover Categories
• “micro rovers” from a few kg
• “large rovers” from few 100s kg to ~1000 kg
to ~10 kg
• “nano rovers” from 10s of g to ~1 kg
• “mini rovers” from few 10s kg to ~100 kg
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Past Activities and Missions under Development
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Luna 16 lander with arm and drilling rig (Credit: NPO Lavochkin / NASA NSSDC)
Russia (1970-1976)
Luna 16, Luna 20, Luna 24: Lunar Sample Return, returned Lunar soil sample to Earth (100g on Luna 16 in 1970, 30 g on Luna 20 in 1972, 170 g on Luna 24 in 1976))
Luna 16, 20, 24
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Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Luna 16 sample return(Credit:CD 'Soviets in Space‘ by
“Compact Book Publishing Co, Moscow”)
Russia (1970-1976)
Luna 16, Luna 20, Luna 24: Lunar Sample Return, returned Lunar soil sample to Earth (100g on Luna 16 in 1970, 30 g on Luna 20 in 1972, 170 g on Luna 24 in 1976)
Luna 16, 20, 24
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Luna24 sample return
Russia (1970-1976)
Luna 16, Luna 20, Luna 24: Lunar Sample Return, returned Lunar soil sample to Earth (100g on Luna 16 in 1970, 30 g on Luna 20 in 1972, 170 g on Luna 24 in 1976)
Luna 16, 20 & 24
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Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Lunokhod 1 on lander before deployment(Credit: NPO Lavochkin)
Russia (1970-1973)
Luna 17: carried the Lunokhod1 rover, the first rover on another world, which traveled 10 km on the Lunar Surface (Nov. 1970-Oct. 1971)
Luna 21: carried the Lunokhod2 rover, which covered 37 km of terrain (Jan 1973-Jun 1973)
Luna 17 & 21
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Russia (1970-1973)
Luna 17: carried the Lunokhod1 rover, the first rover on another world, which traveled 10 km on the Lunar Surface (Nov. 1970-Oct. 1971)
Luna 21: carried the Lunokhod2 rover, which covered 37 km of terrain (Jan 1973-Jun 1973)
Luna 17 & 21
Lunokhod mobility system testing (Credit: VNII Transmash)
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Russia (1970-1973)
Luna 17: carried the Lunokhod1 rover, the first rover on another world, which traveled 10 km on the Lunar Surface (Nov. 1970-Oct. 1971)
Luna 21: carried the Lunokhod2 rover, which covered 37 km of terrain (Jan 1973-Jun 1973)
Luna 17 & 21
Lunokhod Operation (Credit:CD 'Soviets in Space‘ by
“Compact Book Publishing Co, Moscow”)
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Lunokhod 2
Lunokhod Control Station (Credit: NPO Lavochkin / The Planetary Society)
Russia (1970-1973)
Luna 17: carried the Lunokhod1 rover, the first rover on another world, which traveled 10 km on the Lunar Surface (Nov. 1970-Oct. 1971)
Luna 21: carried the Lunokhod2 rover, which covered 37 km of terrain (Jan 1973-Jun 1973)
Luna 17 & 21
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Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
The various LRV partsLRV-1 on Apollo 15, with astronaut (Credit: NASA) LRV-1 on Apollo 15 (Credit: NASA)
LRV with astronaut (Credit: NASA)
LRV Control Console (Credit: NASA) LRV wheel (Credit: NASA)
USA (1971-1972)
Lunar Roving Vehicle, a foldable 208 kg rover, designed to transport 2 astronauts, scientific equipment and lunar samples
LRV-1 on Apollo 15 (1971)LRV-2 on Apollo 16 (1972)LRV-3 on Apollo 17 (1972)
LRV APOLLO
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Russia (1971)
The Mars2 and Mars3 landersboth carried a ski-walking microrover called ProP-M, which was attached to the lander by means of a tether cable.
They both arrived during a big martian dust storm. Mars2 crashed. The Mars3 landing succeeded but after 20 s the communication was lost.
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Mars2, Mars 3 ProP-M
ProP-M microrover (Credit: VNII Transmash)
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Russia (1971)
The Mars2 and Mars3 landersboth carried a ski-walking microrover called ProP-M, which was attached to the lander by means of a tether cable.
They both arrived during a big martian dust storm. Mars2 crashed. The Mars3 landing succeeded but after 20 s the communication was lost.
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Mars2, Mars 3 ProP-M
ProP-M deployment simulation(Credit:CD 'Soviets in Space‘ by
“Compact Book Publishing Co, Moscow”)
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Viking 1 in cleanroom (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Viking Orbiters (Credit: NASA/JPL)Viking Lander with stowed furlable boom (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Viking Lander with deployed furlable boom (Credit: NASA/JPL)soil scoop (Credit: NASA/JPL)
image of trench made by the soil scoop (Credit: NASA/JPL)
USA (1975-1982)
First successful soft landings at two locations on the Martian surface.
Both landershad a furlableboom with a soil scoop to collect surface samples.
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Viking
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
ProP-F (Credit: VNII Transmash)
Russia (1988-1989)
The Phobos2 spacecraft carried a small “hopper” lander, called ProP-F, designed to land on Phobos (one of the moons of Mars).
Contact with the spacecraft was lost shortly before release of the hopper and another lander.
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Phobos2 Phobos Hopper
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ProP-F in operation (simulation) (Credit: James Garry)
Russia (1988-1989)
The Phobos2 spacecraft carried a small “hopper” lander, called ProP-F, designed to land on Phobos (one of the moons of Mars).
Contact with the spacecraft was lost shortly before release of the hopper and another lander.
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Phobos2 Phobos Hopper
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
The M94 Marsokhod (Credit: VNII Transmash)The M94 Marsokhod (Credit: VNII Transmash) Marsokhod testing in USA, 1996 (Credit: NASA )Marsokhod testing in USA, 1996 (Credit: NASA)
Russia (1990-1995)
In view of a planned ambitious mission the Russians developed a minirover for Mars surface operations, called Marsokhod. The mission was repeatedly postponed and finally cancelled.
M94-M96 Marsokhod
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Russia (1990-1995)
In view of a planned ambitious mission the Russians developed a minirover for Mars surface operations, called Marsokhod. The mission was repeatedly postponed and finally cancelled.
M94-M96 Marsokhod
Marsokhod testing in Kamchatka, Russia (Credit: VNII Transmash)
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Artist’s impression of lander and rover (Credit: NASA )Airbags testing (Credit: NASA/JPL)
USA (1996-1997)
Mars lander using airbag technology. The first successful Mars landing since Viking.
Deployed a micro-rover called “Sojourner”.
Its operation was restricted to the immediate vicinity of the lander.
Rover mass 11 kgTop speed 40 cm/minute
The rover operated 12 times longer than its design lifetime of 7 days.
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Mars Pathfinder Sojourner Rover
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USA (1996-1997)
Mars lander using airbag technology. The first successful Mars landing since Viking.
Deployed a micro-rover called “Sojourner”.
Its operation was restricted to the immediate vicinity of the lander.
Rover mass 11 kgTop speed 40 cm/minute
The rover operated 12 times longer than its design lifetime of 7 days.
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Mars Pathfinder Sojourner Rover
Airbags drop tests (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
USA (1996-1997)
Mars lander using airbag technology. The first successful Mars landing since Viking.
Deployed a micro-rover called “Sojourner”.
Its operation was restricted to the immediate vicinity of the lander.
Rover mass 11 kgTop speed 40 cm/minute
The rover operated 12 times longer than its design lifetime of 7 days.
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Mars Pathfinder Sojourner Rover
Airbags drop tests (Credit: NASA/JPL)
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USA (1996-1997)
Mars lander using airbag technology. The first successful Mars landing since Viking.
Deployed a micro-rover called “Sojourner”.
Its operation was restricted to the immediate vicinity of the lander.
Rover mass 11 kgTop speed 40 cm/minute
The rover operated 12 times longer than its design lifetime of 7 days.
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Mars Pathfinder Sojourner Rover
Sojourner tests (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Sojourner integration (Credit: NASA/JPL)Closing of the lander petals
(Credit: NASA)
Closing of the lander petals (Credit: NASA)Closing of the lander petals (Credit: NASA )
Launch (Credit: NASA )
USA (1996-1997)
Mars lander using airbag technology. The first successful Mars landing since Viking.
Deployed a micro-rover called “Sojourner”.
Its operation was restricted to the immediate vicinity of the lander.
Rover mass 11 kgTop speed 40 cm/minute
The rover operated 12 times longer than its design lifetime of 7 days.
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Mars Pathfinder Sojourner Rover
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USA (1996-1997)
Mars lander using airbag technology. The first successful Mars landing since Viking.
Deployed a micro-rover called “Sojourner”.
Its operation was restricted to the immediate vicinity of the lander.
Rover mass 11 kgTop speed 40 cm/minute
The rover operated 12 times longer than its design lifetime of 7 days.
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Mars Pathfinder Sojourner Rover
Sojourner deployment
Sojourner deployment (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Sojourner control station (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Surface image (Credit: NASA/JPL)
USA (1996-1997)
Mars lander using airbag technology. The first successful Mars landing since Viking.
Deployed a micro-rover called “Sojourner”.
Its operation was restricted to the immediate vicinity of the lander.
Rover mass 11 kgTop speed 40 cm/minute
The rover operated 12 times longer than its design lifetime of 7 days.
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Mars Pathfinder Sojourner Rover
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Illustration of parts of the lander (Credit: NASA/JPL)Surface operations artist impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)Soil scoop operation artist impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)Lander during integration (Credit: NASA/JPL)Lander testing at Lockheed Martin (Credit: NASA/JPL)
USA (1999)
A 290 kg Mars soft lander equipped with a 2 m long robotic arm, which would acquire samples of Martian soil.
The arm included a probe to measure the temperature of surface and subsurface soils.
The Robotic Arm Camera could take close-up images of the arm’s scoop and soil samples.
Contact with the lander was lost shortly before landing, it crash-landed.
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Mars Polar Lander
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
USA (1999)
A 290 kg Mars soft lander equipped with a 2 m long robotic arm, which would aquiresamples of Martian soil.
The arm included a probe to measure the temperature of surface and subsurface soils.
The Robotic Arm Camera could take close-up images of the arm’s scoop and soil samples.
Contact with the lander was lost shortly before landing, it crash-landed.
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Mars Polar Lander
Entry, descent, landing and surface operations(Credit: NASA/JPL)
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USA (1999)
A 290 kg Mars soft lander equipped with a 2 m long robotic arm, which would aquiresamples of Martian soil.
The arm included a probe to measure the temperature of surface and subsurface soils.
The Robotic Arm Camera could take close-up images of the arm’s scoop and soil samples.
Contact with the lander was lost shortly before landing, it crash-landed.
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Mars Polar Lander
Entry, descent, landing and surface operations(Credit: NASA/JPL)
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
USA (1999)
A 290 kg Mars soft lander equipped with a 2 m long robotic arm, which would aquiresamples of Martian soil.
The arm included a probe to measure the temperature of surface and subsurface soils.
The Robotic Arm Camera could take close-up images of the arm’s scoop and soil samples.
Contact with the lander was lost shortly before landing, it crash-landed.
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Mars Polar Lander
Entry, descent, landing and surface operations(Credit: NASA/JPL)
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MER artist’s impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)MER artist’s impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)MER-B rover during testing (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Illustration of MER parts (Credit: NASA/JPL)
MER-A rover stowed on lander during testing(Credit: NASA/JPL)MER-B rover with Sojourner Flight Spare (Credit: NASA/JPL)
USA (planned 2003-2004)
Two identical, powerful Mars rovers (MER-A and MER-B) will be launched in May-July of 2003, and will arrive at Mars in January 2004 at two different sites.
Mass of each rover: 180 kgDaily travel distance: 100 m
A robotic arm will be used to position scientific instruments and a rock abrasion tool (RAT)
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Mars Exploration Rovers 2003
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
USA (planned 2003-2004)
Two identical, powerful Mars rovers (MER-A and MER-B) will be launched in the May-July 2003, and will arrive at Mars in January 2004 at two different sites.
Mass of each rover: 180 kgDaily travel distance: 100 m
A robotic arm will be used to position scientific instruments and a rock abrasion tool (RAT)
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Mars Exploration Rovers 2003
From entry to surface operations – simulation(Credit: NASA/JPL)
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USA (planned 2003-2004)
Two identical, powerful Mars rovers (MER-A and MER-B) will be launched in the May-July 2003, and will arrive at Mars in January 2004 at two different sites.
Mass of each rover: 180 kgDaily travel distance: 100 m
A robotic arm will be used to position scientific instruments and a rock abrasion tool (RAT)
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Mars Exploration Rovers 2003
From entry to surface operations – simulation(Credit: NASA/JPL)
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
From entry to surface operations – simulation(Credit: NASA/JPL)
USA (planned 2003-2004)
Two identical, powerful Mars rovers (MER-A and MER-B) will be launched in the May-July 2003, and will arrive at Mars in January 2004 at two different sites.
Mass of each rover: 180 kgDaily travel distance: 100 m
A robotic arm will be used to position scientific instruments and a rock abrasion tool (RAT)
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Mars Exploration Rovers 2003
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Rover instruments (Credit: NASA/JPL)
The robotic arm with instruments and RAT (Credit: NASA/JPL)
USA (planned 2003-2004)
Two identical, powerful Mars rovers (MER-A and MER-B) will be launched in the May-July 2003, and will arrive at Mars in January 2004 at two different sites.
Mass of each rover: 180 kgDaily travel distance: 100 m
A robotic arm will be used to position scientific instruments and a rock abrasion tool (RAT)
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Mars Exploration Rovers 2003
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Beagle2 model (Credit: Beagle 2 team)
Scheme of the PAW of Beagle 2 ’s robotic arm (Credit: Beagle 2 team)Development model of the arm on mounting plate (Credit: Beagle 2 team)
Flight model of the arm at delivery(Credit: Astrium / Beagle 2 Team)
PAW qualification model (Credit: Beagle 2 team)
Qualification model of the mole (Credit: Beagle 2 team)
Release of Beagle 2, artist’s impression (Credit: ESA/ Beagle 2 team)
Beagle 2 Mars entry (Credit: ESA)
Beagle 2 landing (Credit: Beagle 2 Team)
Beagle 2 airbags release (Credit: ESA)Beagle 2 surface operations (Credit: ESA)
Europe (planned 2003-2004)
ESA’s Mars orbiter Mars Express, to be launched in June 2003, will carry a small (65kg) exobiology lander, named ‘Beagle 2’, designed and built in the UK.
The lander has a small robotic arm, which carries a “PAW”, including scientific instruments, a mole which can collect subsurface soil samples, and a tool to collect rock samples.
Mars Express and Beagle 2 will arrive at Mars on 26 December 2003.
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Mars Express Beagle 2 Lander
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Approach to the asteroid – artist ’s impression (Credit: ISAS)
model of Muses-C with return capsule (Credit: ISAS)
Muses-C before touchdown (Credit: ISAS)
Muses-C at touchdown with sampler horn (Credit: ISAS)
Sampler horn (Credit: ISAS)Minerva hopping robot (Credit: ISAS)
Japan (planned 2003 - 2007)
The Muses-C mission will visit the 400 m diameter asteroid 1989ML and test the technology to return samples to earth of an asteroid ’s surface.
Launch is planned for May 2003. After a 22 months flight Muses-C will meet the asteroid, make observations, collect samples and return them to Earth by 2007.
Muses-C will release a hopping “robot” named Minerva to make close inspections.
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MUSES-C
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Minerva release (Credit: James Garry)
Japan (planned 2003 - 2007)
The Muses-C mission will visit the 400 m diameter asteroid 1989ML and test the technology to return samples to earth of an asteroid ’s surface.
Launch is planned for May 2003. After a 22 months flight Muses-C will meet the asteroid, make observations, collect samples and return them to Earth by 2007.
Muses-C will release a hopping “robot” named Minerva to make close inspections.
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MUSES-C
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Japan (planned 2003 - 2007)
The Muses-C mission will visit the 400 m diameter asteroid 1989ML and test the technology to return samples to earth of an asteroid ’s surface.
Launch is planned for May 2003. After a 22 months flight Muses-C will meet the asteroid, make observations, collect samples and return them to Earth by 2007.
Muses-C will release a hopping “robot” named Minerva to make close inspections.
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MUSES-C
Minerva hopping (Credit: James Garry)
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Rosetta releases its lander – artist’s impression (Credit: ESA)
Lander on the comet’s surface – artist’s impression (Credit: ESA)
the Sample Drill and Distribution payload (Credit: Tecnospazio)
Europe (planned 2003-2011)
ESA’s Rosetta Mission will study the nucleus of comet Wirtanen.
It will be launched in January 2003. After a journey of 8 years it will deploy a lander on the the comet’s surface.
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ROSETTA
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CONCEPTS FOR MEDIUM TERM FUTURE
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USA (planned 2009-2010)
NASA has planned to land an even bigger rover on the Martian surface with the 2009 Smartlander
Sojourner, MER03 and 2009 Rover – Artist impression (credit: NASA)
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MARS MINIROVER
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the ExoMars rover (credit: ESA)
Europe (planned 2009-2010)
As part of the Aurora Programme, ESA’s ExoMarsmission, to be launched in 2009, will carry an exobiology rover of about 200 kg, incl. 40 kg of instruments.
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ExoMars
Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Europe (planned 2009-2010)
As part of the Aurora Programme, ESA’s ExoMarsmission, to be launched in 2009, will carry an exobiology rover of about 200 kg, incl. 40 kg of instruments.
ExoMars
the ExoMars rover (credit: ESA)
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the ExoMars rover (credit: ESA) the ExoMars rover (credit: ESA)
Europe (planned 2009-2010)
As part of the Aurora Programme, ESA’s ExoMarsmission, to be launched in 2009, will carry an exobiology rover of about 200 kg, incl. 40 kg of instruments.
ExoMars
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Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Europe (planned 2009-2010)
As part of the Aurora Programme, ESA’s ExoMarsmission, to be launched in 2009, will carry an exobiology rover of about 200 kg, incl. 40 kg of instruments.
ExoMars
the ExoMars rover (credit: ESA)
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USA (???2005- 2010 ???)
The company Lunacorp has planned to send a rover to the Moon which can be teleoperatedby the public from Earth.
Icebreaker Rover Lunacorp
Icebreaker Rover (credit: Lunacorp)
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Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Tumbleweed artist’s impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Tumbleweed cross-section (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Concept
A large ball which travels over the Martian surface due to wind force.
Tumbleweed
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Concept
Rovers with inflatable wheels have good locomotion abilities, on a variety of terrain conditions, and are light and compact
Rovers with inflatable wheels
rovers with inflatable wheels (Credit: NASA/JPL)
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Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Concept
Vertical cliff walls e.g. on Mars are scientifically interesting locations which can be reached using cliffbots.
Cliffbots
cliffbots (Credit: NASA/JPL)
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Concept
Small hopping robots can surmount big rocks.
Hopping Robots
Hopping robot (Credit: NASA/JPL)
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Automation and Robotics Section (TOS-MMA)
Montgolfiere on Mars – artist impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Solar Montgolfiere operation (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Aerobot on Titan – artist’s impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Concept
Balloon type robots for e.g. Mars and Venus Exploration, or for Titan, Saturn’s largest moon which is believed to have a methane-ethane atmosphere and oceans.
Aerobots
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Mars cryobot – artist ’s impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)Mars cryobot – artist ’s impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Concept
Cryobots are probes which penetrate though ice layers by melting the ice locally.
They may be usable on parts of the Martian surface or on Europa, a moon of Jupiter which is believed to have an ice layer many kilometres thick covering a water ‘ocean’.
Cryobots
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hydrobot on Europa, released by cryobot – artist impression (Credit: NASA/JPL)
Concept
Hydrobots are probes which can operate in liquid oceans, e.g. on Europa, underneath its ice crust.
Hydrobots
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ROBOTICS FORLUNAR AND PLANETARY
BASES
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Pressurized rover with robotic arms (Credit:NASA)
Pressurized rover with robotic arm (Credit: NASA)Roving vehicles (Credit: NASA) Robotic support equipment
(Credit: NASA/ J. Frassanito & Associates) Robotic support equipment
(Credit: NASA / J. Frassanito & Associates)
Crane to unload arriving modules (Credit: NASA/ P. Rawlings)
Loader and hauler offloading (Credit: NASA)lunar production plant (Credit: NASA/ P. Rawlings)Lunar mining (Credit: NASA/ P. Rawlings)
When permanent are be established on the Earth ’s moon robotic technologies will be needed, both during the robotic and manned phases.
Lunar Bases
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Rover deployment from lander Roving vehicles
(Credit: NASA/ P. Rawlings)
Robotic support equipment (Credit: NASA / J. Frassanito & Associates)
Martian production plant (Credit: NASA/ P. Rawlings)
Martian mining (Credit: NASA)
When permanent bases are established on Mars robotic technologies will be needed, both during the robotic and manned phases.
Mars Bases
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Web Resources
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Past Space Missions: http://www.astronautix .com,http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/http://www.nasa.gov/gallery/photo/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/chronology.htmlhttp://www.solarviews .com
Russian Lunar Missions and Lunokhods: http://www.private.peterlink .ru/rcl/http://www.astronautix .comhttp://vsm.host.ru/
Russian Marsokhod developments: http://www.private.peterlink .ru/rcl/
NASA/JPL Mars Exploration Rovers(MER03): http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mer/http:// astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/MER-AthenaMI/http://www.nirgal.net/rover_2003.html
NASA/JPL Pathfinder Mission: http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/index1.html,http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/mesur.html
NASA/JPL Viking Missions: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/viking.html
ESA/UK Mars Express and Beagle-2 Lander: http:// sci.esa.int/home/marsexpress /index.cfmhttp://beagle2.open.ac.uk/index.htm
ISAS MUSES-C Mission:http://www.muses-c.isas.ac.jp/INDEX.html
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Commercial Lunar Missions:http://www.lunacorp.com
Planetary and Lunar Bases: http://www.buriedonthemoon.com/lunox.htm,http://www.challenger.org/gallery/mars/marsgallery1.html,http://www.marssociety.org/interactive/mars_charts.asp
Space Exploration Robotic Technology:http://robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/robotics.html, http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mep/tech/rovers.html,http://prl.jpl.nasa.gov/, http://robots.mit.edu/projects/index.html,http://www.mdrobotics.ca/spaceex.html
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Conditions for Use of Photographs, Images and Videos
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The CD “Soviets in Space” is edited by "Compact Book Publishing Co, Moscow, part of theUltimax Group Inc, and published in 1994-1997“
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