AMST paper

Rebekah Espino-Drobner


AMST 190

3/17/13

Identity Formation and the Cinema

Throughout America’s history, there has come a tendency to create an “us vs.

them” mentality toward each incoming new group of people. The need for

compartmentalizing people based on their identity comes from the initial insecurities

faced by Americans who do not have a core foundational identity. While the issue of the

need for categorizing people based on their national identity reached a peak during the

Ellis Island migrations, the momentum had started years before, and continued

throughout history to modern society, evolving and changing as the social status of the

immigrant changed as well. The focus of this paper is the role that nationality plays in the

creation of identity, and how the cinema portrays the evolution of immigrant identity,

specifically European immigrants, throughout the generations as seen in The Godfather

and Gangs of New York.

In order to understand the importance of identity within spectrum of immigrants,

we first must look at the importance of identity formation in general, along with the

purpose and necessity of identities within society. Throughout the years, identity has

become the key factor in defining a person, which can be problematic when constantly

shifting societies are what dictate the shifts in identity formation; there has been research

that “links identity shifts to historical cultural configurations, arguing that certain

character types are encouraged by cultures through differential socialization practices”1.

1 Howard, Judith A. "Social Psychology of Identities." Annual Review of Scoiology. Vol. 26. N.p.: Annual Reviews, 200. 367-93. JSTOR. Web. Pg. 373.

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As society evolves and expands, so does the spectrum of subcategories that make up the

general components of the meaning of identity, and greatly affect identity formation.

Recently, there have been theorists that have started to argue that with all of the shifting

and changing in societies, especially cross-culturally, the concept of identity has been

assigned with too many different meanings, and it has now “ceased to be meaningful”2.

Although the concept of identity is socially constructed and the meaning has

arguably been stretched thin over the years, there are still psychological reasoning as to

why this construct has been a part of society for so many years, and why it is still

extremely important when understanding society and individuals. Social psychologists

have studied the human psyche, and have developed a theory related to social cognition,

which is the way in which we store and process information3. With the amount of stimuli

in our surrounding world, we as individuals feel as if we must categorize, organize, and

compartmentalize all of these different components in order to make sense of them.

Components of this method to understanding are the self and group schemas we create.

Self-schemas allow us to understand ourselves and our place within society through the

lens of how we are seen in society, based on general group schemas. Group schemas are

essentially stereotypes that we use to understand and compartmentalize different large

groups of people that are connected by an individual commonality, which we then assign

onto all members of said group. With all of the information that we have to intake and

organize, it is easier for us as humans to generalize people and ideas in this manner,

rather than critically assess on an individual basis.

2 Sokefeld, Martin. "Reconsidering Identity." Anthropos (2001): 527-44. Jstor. Web3 Howard, Judith A. "Social Psychology of Identities." pg. 368.

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The issues surrounding identity have become exceedingly problematic due to the

fact that “when societies were more stable, identity was to a great extent assigned, rather

than selected or adopted. In current times, however, the concept of identity carries the full

weight of the need for a sense of who one is, together with an often overwhelming pace

of change in the surrounding social contexts – changes in the groups and networks in

which people and their identities are embedded”4. Previously in society, such as when

“8.8 million [immigrants] admitted during the 1910’s [were] predominately from

Europe”, identities were assigned to individuals by the populous of society5. At the time,

immigration and the “threat” of national identity towards the Americans influenced the

social norm of identifying people using their nationality as the foundation of their identity

formation. This allowed for the Americans to create a hierarchy in their society based on

these said identities, as well as implement a strict “us vs. them” mentality that

unfortunately continues to exist. The affects of the power of society dictated identity can

be seen clearly in Gangs of New York, which focuses on the divide in New York between

Americans and the incoming swarm of Irish immigrants. Everyone, regardless of age,

sex, or class, will ultimately be identified as either American or Irish, and more

importantly, either American or not American. The process of identity formation

changed over that long period of time, however nationality and ethnicity still are an

extremely significant factor. Studies have shown that ethnic identities are made up of “a

sense of belonging, attitudes toward one’s own ethnic group, social participation, and

cultural practices”, which are determinant on the social climate, and fluctuate throughout

4 Howard, Judith A. "Social Psychology of Identities." pg. 3675 Zhou, Min. "Growing Up American: The Challenge Confronting Immigrant Children and Children of Immigrants." Annual Review of Sociology 23.1 (1997): 63-95. Print.

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the years6. Because identity isn’t assigned in the same manner as it used to be, people are

able to identify themselves by ways other than their nationality. However, since

nationality and ethnicity are still prominent factors, people often feel as if they must over

identify with other aspects of their life and completely dismiss their nationality, as

depicted thoroughly in The Godfather, through Michael’s continuous struggles between

his American and Italian identity.

The subject of identity is a central issue and theme within the films Gangs of New

York and The Godfather. Gangs of New York, directed by Martin Scorsese, places

Leonardo DiCaprio as a young Irish man in 1863, set on avenging his fathers murder

committed by the American, Bill the Butcher. The opening scene depicts a bloody battle

between the Irish and the Americans, who also called themselves the Nativists, in a war

fueled by ethnic and religious identity conflicts. Put this film in contrast with Francis

Ford Coppola’s classic, The Godfather, in which he vividly depicts the hybrid of old-

country culture and assimilated American culture, and the struggles that accompany both.

Vito Corleone, played by Marlon Brando, is an Italian immigrant who came to America,

establishes a name for himself as a mob boss through the 1940s, and attempts to engage

his son Michael, played by Al Pacino, with the rest of the family. Michael initially resists

his Italian identity and family, by attempting to assimilate to the American culture, and

establish himself with an American identity. It is of vital importance to look towards the

cinema when addressing social and cultural issues, such as the one at hand. Historically,

films have been used as a form of social commentary, documenting our society in ways

in which we can compartmentalize and understand complicated themes and situations7.

6 Howard, Judith A. "Social Psychology of Identities." pg. 3747 Harker, Jonathan. ": Film: An Anthology . Daniel Talbot." Film Quarterly 13.3 (1960): n. pag. Print.

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The cinema takes these complicated issues and creates a face and a storyline that we can

connect to, as well as identify with on a personal level. While these films address issues

that seemingly happened years ago in America’s past, the popularity and infamy that they

still hold to this day prove that the subject of identity is still one that is continuously

struggled with, and is relevant in our modern society. These films have transcended the

screen and have become a part of our American culture. They have been reappropriated

many times throughout film, television, and other media outlets, which then continue to

press the importance of the subject matter addressed in these story lines. While the

characters and stories may be fictional, the troubles surrounding the themes of identity

are very real, and therefore can be used when academically and critically discussing these

conflicts.

A component of the struggle with identity that can be seen both in the cinema, as

well as in historical context, is the societal assignment of identity that was previously

discussed. When individuals were identified by one particular aspect of themselves,

especially one that did not hold much flexibility in the eyes of society, it became nearly

impossible from them to transcend their dictated placement, and as a result, these

individuals were forced to either adapt to life as a second class citizens, or be forced to

attempt to assimilate as much as they possibly could. Because of the oppressive structure

of identity formation, even assimilation could never make a person truly America in the

eyes of many. Since the beginning of its creation, America has been a country that has

been foundationally based on assimilation, primarily due to the fact that it never had a

distinct culture to call its own. The lack of a hegemonic American culture lead to the

need of separation of Americans, or the Nativists, from ‘non-Americans’, especially

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when immigrants began arriving to America in waves. When Irish immigrants started

rapidly appearing in America, the Americans felt the need to separate themselves from

the immigrants and hold on to their American identity, creating an ‘us vs. them’ mentality

through the land.

While many immigrants were automatically categorized as second-class citizens,

none felt this harsh reality more than the Irish. In the beginning, “’to be called an

‘Irishman’ had come to be nearly as great an insult as to be called a ‘nigger’.’”8 The Irish

were looked down upon, and put on the same plateau as the black slaves in America, to

such an extent that on the census, “it was by no means clear that the Irish were white” for

the Irish were kept as a separate race altogether9. This can clearly be seen in one of the

lesser prominent scenes in Gangs of New York, where a seemingly insignificant

conversation between two of the main characters actually sums up the entire social

commentary of the film itself. Jim Broadbent’s character, William “Boss” Tweed,

converses with Daniel Day-Lewis’ character, known as Bill “The Butcher” Cutting, down

by the docs, where The Butcher has gathered his Nativist men to berate and intimidate the

new shipments of Irish that are streaming in to the city. The individuals getting of the

ship seem broken and frightened, as the women shuffle along with the children and the

men head directly to the politicians who are enlisting them to fight the war of a country in

which they just arrived, in order to prove their loyalty. William, an avid politician

himself, approaches Bill and tries to reason with him by telling him that the Irish are

actually important to use in the future for voting numbers. Bill replies that voting is an

8 Roediger, David R. The Wages of Whiteness: Irish-American Workers and White Racial Formation in the Antebellum United States. New York. Print.9 Roediger, David R. The Wages of Whiteness: Irish-American Workers and White Racial Formation in the Antebellum United States.

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American right, and then continues to state, “I don’t see no Americans, I see trespassers.

Irish harps do a job for a nickel a nigger would do for a dime, what a man used to get a

quarter for”10. Bill’s statement not only shows the animosity for immigrants like the

Irish, but it also shows their standing in society in relation to the black slaves. He sees

the immigrants not only as a threat to his fragile American identity, but on his economy

as well, and classifies these people as second-class citizens along with the slaves,

regardless of the fact that he is standing directly next to the Irish men that are signing up

for the war to fight for his beloved country, merely because they were Irish. It was

sentiments such as this that made it impossible for people to transcend their identities and

become someone or something other than their nationality.

However, change did come in time in the form of assimilation. Since the Irish

were placed in the same social classification as Blacks were, they were also often in the

same economical classification as well, and were going after the same jobs that Black

people were, especially since their lack of skill, kept them “at the bottom of white

society”11. Originally, the two communities were civil and sociable, however, when

devastation and war struck America, the Irish immigrants were among the first to demand

“an ‘all-white warfront’, rid of Blacks altogether” as a method of “ensuring their own

survival”12. For the black slaves, “assimilation was believed to be largely unattainable

and therefore not a source of concern” to the white Irish men who believed that this was

their opportunity to become more white, which was, at the time, synonymous for being

10 Gangs of New York. Dir. Martin Scorsese. Perf. Leonardo DiCaprio, Daniel Day- Lewis, Cameron Diaz. 20th Century FOx, 2002. DVD. Time:1:1011 Roediger, David R. Working Towards Whiteness. Pg 145.12 Roediger, David R. The Wages of Whiteness: Irish-American Workers and White Racial Formation in the Antebellum United States. New York. Print.

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more American13. This was the catalyst for the Irish immigrants; they assimilated and

created their own identity as not only Americans, but also White Americans.

As it can be seen through these examples, there is a clear irony to the formation of

American identity. With each incoming group of immigrants, an American identity can

be established just by being more American than the group before. It is important,

however, to note the fact that while this was a small, although unsettling, success for the

Irish toward forming an American identity, “acculturation did not necessarily lead to

other forms of integration into the host society […] ethnic groups would remain

distinguished from on another depending largely on the degree to which groups gained

the acceptance of the dominant population”14. This essentially means that while the Irish

felt assimilated into their American identities socially, it did not necessarily guaranteed

them the equality and rights of American citizens, and their acceptance was completely

determined by the popular opinion of the current society, which fluctuated and evolved

over the years.

The irony in this is that technically, and theoretically, those that created this

oppressive and subjective system, where once immigrants as well. The white settlers that

deemed themselves Americans, the Nativists, originated from England when their

ancestors came to America, yet they believed that they were able to dictate what is a

socially acceptable American identity to the rest of society. It is type of thinking that

causes a rotational continuation of flawed identity formation, and creates the many

13 Higham, John. Approaches to American Immigration and Ethnic History: The Problem of Assimilation in the United States. (Cengage Learning, 1998)14 Zhou, Min. "Growing Up American: The Challenge Confronting Immigrant Children and Children of Immigrants." Pg. 71.

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conflictions that people face when creating their own individual identities, as well as their

group schemas surrounding other nationalities.

Despite the historical truths that make up the irony of American identity, many

Americans continued to ostracize and degrade those from other nations, and

compartmentalized them into tiny inflexible identities solely based on their nationalities.

While it seems unjust and repressive, there were some immigrants who remained tied to

their nationalities, and because migrating uprooted them from their original homes and

cultures, they were therefore forced to find new ways to hold onto their culture once

entered in a new land. For the European immigrants, once in America each individual

handled the transition differently; “only those who were capable of adjusting from

peasant ways to the needs of new conditions and new challenges were able to absorb the

successive shocks of migration”, and those who weren’t able to get a grasp on their new

reality, suffered from “loneliness, separation from the community of the village, and

despair at the insignificance of their own human abilities”15. For those who did want to

assimilate, and instead chose to stand by their national identity with pride, adaptation

became the only way to be able to cope with the uprooting for many migrants. An

important factor of the adapting was creating a society that was familiar and made the

new country feel more like home by maintaining their ties to their home countries. Many

learned to achieve this in subtle ways, such as continuing to speak their native language

and combining their language with English, importing books from their homeland, and

continuing their own traditions 16.

15 Handlin, Oscar. Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History:Approaches to American Immigration and Ethnic History. Ed. Jon Gjerde. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Print.16 Franklin, Benjamin. Language Loyalties: A Source Book on the Official English Controversy:The German Language in Pennsylvania. Ed. James Crawford. Chicago: University

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This pride and adaption are two themes that are seen strongly in both of the films

this paper is discussing. In Gangs of New York, Five Points, the name of the sector the

main characters live, was a niche for the Irish immigrants, and each different area of New

York was segregated based on the identity of the people that live there. Like many other

immigrants that have come to America over the years, they divided the cities into varying

burros in order to surround themselves with people they identified with. This was also

seen in The Godfather. Through the lens of an organized crime family, the movie depicts

the more embedded issues of assimilation, in relationship to the strong need for

traditional values and customs. Throughout the movie, the importance of loyalty, family,

and traditional Italian manners are displayed as a centerpiece for he rest of the story. It

clearly shows the importance of remaining connected to heritage and culture, no matter

how far from home they are, and the pride they continue to feel when identifying by their

nationality.

While some immigrants held fast to their assigned identities, many struggled with

the concept, and instead decided that they would rather assimilate and identify as an

American. As demonstrated previously, America is a nation that was founded on the

ideals of assimilation, due to the fact that there originally was no distinct American

culture. The process of conformity and assimilation is one that began with the very first

immigrants, and still continues to this day. However, the motivations behind assimilation

have evolved from an idea forced upon by an external oppressor, to a voluntary concept

that has been internalized over the course of many generations. As stated by assimilation

theorists:

of Chicago, 1992. Print.

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Distinctive ethnic traits such as old cultural ways, native

languages, or ethnic enclaves are sources of disadvantages

that negatively affect assimilation […] although complete

acculturation to the dominant American culture may not

ensure all immigrants full social participation in the host

society, immigrants must free themselves from their old

cultures in order to begin rising up from marginal positions

[…] [It was] anticipated, nevertheless, that ethnic

minorities would eventually lose all their distinctive

characteristics and cease to exist as ethnic groups as they

pass through the stages of assimilation.17

While it is clear that the latter argument of total ethnic annihilation did not

happen, nor will happen any time in the immediate future, the attitude behind the

negative affects toward assimilation generated the foundation of the mentality on creating

an American identity. To many of these immigrants, being able to achieve an American

identity meant that they had to completely dismiss their original national identity, and

rather than going to one extreme end of the spectrum with submerging themselves in their

own culture to adapt, they went in the other direction and denounced all parts of their

original heritage. This type of assimilation was most often seen by second generation of

immigrants, or the children of immigrants. In The Godfather, arguably the most

interesting and complex storyline in the movie is that of Vito’s son, Michael Corleone,

who distances himself from his family at a younger age. Wanting to put as much space

between himself and his family’s lifestyle, Michael does everything in his power to

assimilate, and identify as an American, rather than an Italian. He joins the army,

became an American soldier, and chooses to be involved with an American woman,

17 Zhou, Min. "Growing Up American: The Challenge Confronting Immigrant Children and Children of Immigrants." Pg. 71.

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rather than an Italian woman, or even Italian American woman. We are first introduced to

Michael at the beginning of the film during a wedding celebration for his sister at his

father’s estate. It is made clear that Vito values Michael because he refuses to take the

family picture before he arrives, which enforces his heavy familial values. However

when Michael shows up, he is late, dressed in uniform, and with his white American

girlfriend. While he loves his family, he clearly stands out from the boisterous group of

Italian men and women that fill the celebration. In a particular scene, Michael and Kay

Adams, his girlfriend, are listening to Johnny Fontane, a famous singer who is

performing at the wedding. Kay asks Michael how the family knows Johnny, and this

conversation follows:

Michael: Well, when Johnny was first starting out, he was

signed to a personal services contract with this big-band

leader. And as his career got better and better, he wanted to

get out of it. But the bandleader wouldn’t let him. Now,

Johnny is my father’s godson. SO my father went to see

this bandleader and offered him $10,000 to let Johnny go,

but the bandleader said no. SO the next day, my father went

back, only this time with Luca Brasi. Within an hour, he

had a signed release for a certified check of $1,000.

Kay Adams: How did he do that?

Michael: My father made him an offer he couldn’t refuse

[…] Luca Brasi held a gun to his head, and my father

assured him that either his brains or his signature would be

on the contract.

(Kay is silent and stares at Michael)

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Michael: That’s a true story […] That’s my family Kay,

that’s not me.18

It is clear that Michaels struggle is not just one of heritage, but of morality as

well, however these two issues are largely intertwined throughout the film. As discussed

earlier, society often dictates the way in which different identities, specifically ethnic

ones, are perceived by the general populous by the usage of group schemas. A common

stereotype that derived from this time period during the 1940’s was the correlation of

Italian immigrants and illegal activities. As demonstrated by the previous quote,

Michael’s attempt to assimilate into an American identity is done so by separating

himself not only culturally, but from the other components that make up his family as

well. Because mobster and Italian identity were synonyms at the time, he denounces the

acts of his family and instead takes on a law-abiding job and other American attributes in

order to solidify his identity as American. This way of thinking does change throughout

the movie, however it is interesting to view the initial foundation of what Michael

believed an American identity was conceived of.

These films focus on issues in society that are not just historic, but relevant in our

current society as well. The affects of societies impact on identity formation within the

immigrant community can still be seen to this day in the urban infrastructure and

communities around America. Much like the New York that Five Points inhabited in

Gangs of New York, urban centers such as New York and San Francisco that were major

ports of immigration continue to show the affects of the divided cities of the past19. The

18 The Godfather. Dir. Francis Ford Coppola. Prod. Francis Ford Coppola. By Francis Ford Coppola and Mario Puzo. Perf. Al Pacino, Robert Duvall, Diane Keaton, and Niro Robert De. Paramount Pictures, 1974. DVD.19 Jimenez, Tomas R. Assessing Immigrant Assimilation: New Empirical and Theoretical Challenges. Annual Review of Scoiology. By Mary C. Waters. Vol. 31. N.p.: Annual Reviews, 2005. 105-25. JSTOR. Web.

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separation mentality and compartmentalization of different national identities in society,

and the massive movements of adaptation, lead to segregation of many urban areas,

which still exist today. The creation of places such as China Town, Japan Town, and

Little Italy not only creates an ethnic and national divide within the urban ecosystem, but

it also continues to perpetuate the “othering” of people based on their identities. While it

is essential that people are able to live in communities with those whom have similar

traditions and values, it also keeps the urban areas of immigration, along with the

mentality of many Americans, stagnant and un-evolved, which in turn continues the cycle

of an ironic and subjective formation of American identities.

Even more important to the issue of modern day impact of historical identity

formation struggles, is the impact on the next generation: the children of the immigrants.

Children of immigrants have often times been overlooked during the study of identity

formation, however it has been found that these individuals often suffer from more

societal conflict in this area than their parents. Even in the 1940’s, children like Michael

felt torn between their family and cultural origins, with the want to assimilate and

identify as America, and that struggle continues to this day.

The focus on children and assimilation comes from the fact that “differing from

their immigrant parents, immigrant children and children of immigrants lack meaningful

connections to their ‘old’ world. They are thus unlikely to consider a foreign country as a

place to return to or as a point of reference. They instead are prone to evaluate themselves

or to be evaluated by others by the standards of their new country”20. Like Michael,

children of immigrants often don’t have the same connection to the homeland that their


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parents do. For example, “in the United States, immigrant children often become

Americanized so quickly that their parents cannot keep up with them. There is a fear in

the older generation that their children will leave them, become like other American

youth, and forget about their roots”21. These children assimilate quickly because they

often do not have a strong connection with the homeland like their elder families do,

however their families often times don’t understand this fact, and this gap of

understanding creates even more identity conflict and familial pressure, often times

driving the kids away, such as Michael was in the start of The Godfather.

In addition to the familial pressure that this second generation feels, society as a

whole has a great influence in the conflict faced by these individuals. As it has been seen

time and time again through this analysis of identity formation, it is clear that society

plays a large role in dictating our identities, especially ones based on nationality and

ethnicity. As was seen with the Irish immigrants, attempts to assimilate often failed, and

it was ultimately the American society that determined whether or not the Irish had

successfully been deemed American, and this trend continues to this day. Due to this,

this second generation is caught in a binding conflict of identity; they are identified by

their origin nationality by the dominant populous of society, however they themselves

don’t have any connection with their home countries. This conflict leads to a lot of

confusion and questioning within this group of people, as to who they really are. This

question creates conflict within the individuals, and as a result, leads to “a growing

‘oppositional culture’ among young Americans, especially among those who have felt

oppressed and excluded from the American mainstream […] immigrant children have


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confronted a reality in their host society where their ascribed physical features may

become a handicap”22. These second generation individuals are feeling the affects of

society dictated identity formation first hand, and it is apparent that while our culture has

evolved in a lot of ways, it has stayed the same in many ways as well. In this instance,

the only thing that has evolved is the way that the individuals react toward the society;

instead of adapting and accepting their assigned identities, the lack of connection to their

homeland makes them confused and aggressive against the dominant views of society.

It is evident that the issues surrounding identity formation are far from historic;

they are happening here and now within our society, with new incoming immigrants from

many different countries more and more each year. These people continue to fight the

dominant society creating inflexible identities for them, just as they used to when it was

only the Irish coming in mass numbers. As it can be seen throughout this analysis, the

importance and relevance of the two movies chosen as references to this social issue is

also still apparent in modern society. These movies have transcended the cinema as a

part of our popular culture, and continue to express stories and underlying themes that

people still identify with to this day. They depict the very real shift of immigrant identity

from adaption to assimilation, and can be used as tools in not only understanding our

history as an immigrant nation, full of insecurity in our own identities, but also

understanding our current society, and how we got to where we are today. The only way

that we will be able to change the oppression and conflict that often accompanies

immigrant identity formation is to understand our past, and learn how to change it and

break the seemingly never ending cycle.

22 Zhou, Min. "Growing Up American: The Challenge Confronting Immigrant Children and Children of Immigrants." Pg. 69&76.

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BibliographyFranklin, Benjamin. Language Loyalties: A Source Book on the Official English

Controversy:The German Language in Pennsylvania. Ed. James Crawford. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1992. Print.

17


Gangs of New York. Dir. Martin Scorsese. Perf. Leonardo DiCaprio, Daniel Day- Lewis, Cameron Diaz. 20th Century Fox, 2002. DVD. Time:1:10

The Godfather. Dir. Francis Ford Coppola. Prod. Francis Ford Coppola. By Francis Ford Coppola and Mario Puzo. Perf. Al Pacino, Robert Duvall, Diane Keaton, and Niro Robert De. Paramount Pictures, 1974. DVD.

Harker, Jonathan. ": Film: An Anthology . Daniel Talbot." Film Quarterly 13.3 (1960): n. pag. Print.

Higham, John. Approaches to American Immigration and Ethnic History: The Problem of Assimilation in the United States. (Cengage Learning, 1998)

Howard, Judith A. "Social Psychology of Identities." Annual Review of Scoiology. Vol. 26. N.p.: Annual Reviews, 200. 367-93. JSTOR. Web. Pg. 373.

Jimenez, Tomas R. Assessing Immigrant Assimilation: New Empirical and Theoretical Challenges. Annual Review of Scoiology. By Mary C. Waters. Vol. 31. N.p.: Annual Reviews, 2005. 105-25. JSTOR. Web.

Roediger, David R. The Wages of Whiteness: Irish-American Workers and White Racial Formation in the Antebellum United States. New York. Print.

Roediger, David R. Working Towards Whiteness. New York: Basic, 2005. Print. Pg 145.

Sokefeld, Martin. "Reconsidering Identity." Anthropos (2001): 527-44. Jstor. Web

Zhou, Min. "Growing Up American: The Challenge Confronting Immigrant Children and Children of Immigrants." Annual Review of Sociology 23.1 (1997): 63-95. Print.

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