AMR Complete Notes 09

7/29/2019 AMR Complete Notes 09

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Advertising and Marketing Research

Semester-VI- TYBMM


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RESEARCH FUNDAMENTALS

MEANING OF RESEARCH

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific

and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific

investigation. The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as a

careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Redmanand Mory define research as a systematized effort to gain new knowledge. Some people consider research

as a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vitalinstinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us

probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all

knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, canbe termed as research.

OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application ofscientific procedures. The mainaim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though eachresearch study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into number of

broad grouping:

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in

view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies.

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies

with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with

something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies).

To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (such studies are known as

hypothesis-testing research studies).

Research process:1. Define Research Problem/objective

2. Determine Expected value of perfect information

3. Research technique and Determine Data Collection method

4. Determine the measurement techniques

5. Research Design/ Sampling

6. Data Processing and Analysis

7. Determine Time And cost

8. Define the ethics of research

9. Prepare the research report


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Step1: Define Research Problem/objectiveState the research questions and research objectives

a. PROBLEM DISCOVERYIt involves a search for causation among symptoms, problems, and decisions. A symptom is a condition that

indicates the existence of a problem, and we, must be careful not to confuse this with a problem. Symptoms

occupy an essential place in the problem-solving process, for the underlying problem. A problem exists

whenever one faces a question whose answer or a need whose fulfilment involves doubt and uncertainty.If there is no answer or solution, there is no problem (although the consequences might be terrible); and if

there is only a single possible answer or solution, there is no problem. A decision is a determination or

resolution of a question. In the terms of a business executive, a decision is the determination of a course ofaction to be taken. Many routines or repetitive decisions to which marketing research is applied often invoke a

complex of problems, and considerable work is entailed in the choice of the best available course of action.

Business problems are not found by surprise or accidental circumstances. The persons who find problems aresensitized to be on the alert and are prepared to find them. Always there is evidence that the searching mind

penetrates with insight. Our abilities can go beyond intuition or a sixth sense. Fortunately, there are means

available to sharpen our capacities in problem discovery. First, an understanding of the different types of

difficulties or symptoms which may call for decisions is useful. Second, provision of a marketing information

system may often signify the existence of the problem to a decision maker.

b. PROBLEM DEFINITION

The first step in any marketing research project is to define the problem. In defining the problem, the

researcher should take into account the purpose of the study, the relevant background information, what

information is needed, and how it will be used in decision making. Problem definition involves discussionwith the decision-makers, interviews with industry experts, analysis of secondary data, and, perhaps, some

qualitative research, such as focus groups. Once the problem has been precisely defined, the research can be

designed and conducted properly.

c. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The research objective is a statement, in as precise terminology as possible, of what information is needed.The research objective should be framed so that obtaining the information will ensure that the researchpurpose is satisfied.

D. HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

Development of an approach to the problem includes formulating an objective or theoretical framework,

analytical models, research questions, hypotheses, and identifying characteristics or factors that can influencethe research design. This process is guided by discussions with management and industry experts, case studies

and simulations, analysis of secondary data, qualitative research, and pragmatic considerations.

Hypothesis Definition: Tentative theory or supposition provisionally adopted to explain certain facts andguide the investigation of others.

Hypothesis is tentative and declarative statement formulated to be tested describing relationship between

concepts. A good hypothesis is set during exploratory research and tested during conclusive research.

Types of Hypothesis:


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1. Null Hypothesis (H0): The hypothesis you will continue to believe unless your data convince you

otherwise. You usually dont like the null hypothesis, and you would prefer not to believe it, but as theRolling Stones said, You cant always get what you want.

2. Alternative Hypothesis (HA or H1): The opposite of the null hypothesis, usually that which you aretrying to prove with your data. We construct the hypotheses such that logically, either H0 is true or HA is

true. Between them, they cover all possible outcomes.

Step2: Determine Expected value of perfect informationGreater the information available the better the management is poised to take a decision. However care should

be taken to note that the sourcing of the information should not cost the Management greater than the value ofthe information generated.

The Value of Information

Information can be useful, but what determines its real value to the organization? In general, the valueof information is determined by:

The ability and willingness to act on the information.

The accuracy of the information.

The level of indecisiveness that would exist without the information.

The amount of variation in the possible results.

The level of risk aversion.

The reaction of competitors to any decision improved by the information.

The cost of the information in terms of time and money.

Characteristics of Valuable Information

Relevance

Quality

Timeliness

Completeness

Basic Questions -

How much will the study cost?

Is the time frame acceptable?

Is outside help needed? Will this research design attain the stated research objectives?

When should the research be scheduled to begin?

Step3: Research Technique and Determine Data Collection method


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Basic Types of Research Approaches or Research TechniqueThere are two broad categories of research: qualitative research and quantitative research.

Difference between Qualitative &Quantitative research

The number of people you speak to determines whether the research is considered qualitative or quantitative.In a qualitative research study, such as a focus group, you are gathering information from a small number of

people (typically under 100). On the other hand, in a quantitative study, such as a telephone survey, you are

gaining input from a large number of people (normally at least 200).

Qualitative research is used when it is important to understand why someone does something, such as respond

favorably to an advertisement. Quantitative research is used when you are seeking to learn how many peoplein a population are likely to respond a certain way, such as vote.

A. Qualitative Research - uses words, rather than numbers, to explain research findings.

B. Quantitative Research - uses numbers in a form of mathematical analysis to explain research findings.

Some examples of when qualitative research is helpful include:

Testing response to advertising messages and concepts

Analyzing response to products and features

Exploring what issues should be tested during quantitative research

Quantitative research is the method to use when:

Measuring market size

Analyzing demand of a new product

Determining how many people exhibit a particular attitude or behavior

Measuring the size of particular market segments

Quantitative research is the method to use when:

Measuring market size

Analyzing demand of a new product Determining how many people exhibit a particular attitude or behavior

Measuring the size of particular market segments

Qualitative methods have at least four distinguishing characteristics:

1. Small numbers of respondents. The idea is to devote a considerable amount of time on each

interview to get to the heart of a matter.

2. Unstructured question formats. That is, the questions are not completely predetermined andthe interviewer is free to probe for all details and underlying feelings.

3. Indirect measurement of respondents' feelings and beliefs. Respondents provide descriptiveinformation about their thought and feelings. These are not easily projected to the population.

4. Direct observation. The interviewer not only records answers but observes how questions

affect interviewees. Hesitant answers, agitation, smiling, sweating, calmness, boredom etc. areall observable and all tell us something about the individuals state of mind.


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Data collection technique or research Technique:

Data play an important role in research. Facts, information or premises systematically collected and formally

presented for the purpose of drawing inferences may be called data.

Sources of Data - Primary and Secondary

There are two main sources of data - primary and secondary. Primary research is conducted from scratch. It isoriginal and collected to solve the problem in hand. Secondary research, also known as desk research, already

exists since it has been collected for other purposes.

A. Method of collecting primary data

1. Types of Surveys:

A. Face-to-face Interviews.Face-to face interviews are conducted between a market researcher and a respondent. Data is collected on a

survey. Some surveys are very rigid or 'structured' and use closed questions. Data is easily compared. Other

face-to-face interviews are more 'in depth,' and depend upon more open forms of questioning. The research

will probe and develop points of interest.

Advantages of face-to-face interviews

They allow more 'depth'

Physical prompts such as products and pictures can be used

Body language can emphasize responses

Respondents can be 'observed' at the same time

Disadvantages of face-to-face interviews

Interviews can be expensive

It can take a long period of time to arrange and conduct. Some respondents will give biased responses when face-to-face with a researcher

B. Mall-Intercept - Interview consumers in shopping malls or other high-traffic locations (usually done in

public areas or interviewees may be taken to some nearby private area). Also used to screen people forinclusion in focus groups. (this method is relatively simple, yet effective & efficient)

C. Executive Interview - Interviews conducted with business people about products or services. (Veryexpensive and time consuming.)

D. From-Home Telephone Interview - Interviewers use their home phones to interview respondents, who

are usually consumers & industrial users of products.Advantages of telephone interviews

Can be geographically spread

Can be set up and conducted relatively cheaply

Random samples can be selected

Cheaper than face-to-face interviews

Disadvantages of telephone interviews

Respondents can simply hang up


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Interviews tend to be a lot shorter

Visual aids cannot be used

Researchers cannot behavior or body language

Central Location Telephone Interview - Interviewers make calls from a company facility to reach and

interview respondents.

This allows the supervisor to unobtrusively monitor the interviewing while it is taking place, and can also

facilitate the use of computer assisted interviewing capabilities [see next].

Computer Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI) - Central location telephone interviewing in which the

interviewer enters answers directly into the computer.This allows the interviewer to input responses directlyinto the data set which avoids the cost and processing errors associated with manual coding and entering of

data into the computer sometime after the interviews generated the raw input data on paper.

E. Direct Computer Interview - Consumers are intercepted in a mall and interviewed by a computer that

asks questions and accepts responses from the consumer's (participant's/ subject's) own hand.

F. Self-Administered Questionnaire - A questionnaire filled out by the respondent with no interviewerpresent. Used in mall-intercepts, classrooms and mail surveys.

G. Mail Surveys - Questionnaires are mailed to a sample of consumers or industrial users, along withinstructions, postage paid return envelopes, and cover letters. Respondents complete and return the

questionnaires by mail. The most serious problem with mail surveys is that the response rates are often very

low (e.g., often less than 10%).a) Ad Hoc (one shot) Mail Surveys - Questionnaires are sent to selected names and addresses with no prior

(no pretest) or posttest contact.

b) Mail Panel- Participants are precontacted and screened, then periodically sent questionnaires forcompletion to produce data for a series of studies.

H. The Internet

The Internet can be used in a number of ways to collect primary data. Visitors to sites can be asked tocomplete electronic questionnaires. However responses will increase if an incentive is offered such as a free

newsletter, or free membership. Other important data is collected when visitors sign up for membership.

Advantages of the Internet

Relatively inexpensive

Uses graphics and visual aids

Random samples can be selected

Visitors tend to be loyal to particular sites and are willing to give up time to complete the forms

Disadvantages of the Internet

Only surveys current, not potential customers.

Needs knowledge of software to set up questionnaires and methods of processing data May deter visitors from your website.

2. OBSERVATION

I. The Nature of Observation Research


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A. Observation Research

Def: Studying the current behaviour. It is the systematic process of recording the behavioural patterns (orevents) of people, objects, and occurrences without questioning or communicating with them. Observing

consumers without communicating with them.

A wide ranging set of research techniques aimed at observing consumers interacting naturally with their

surroundings including products and services in use. A key advantage of observation research is that often the

respondent or consumer is unaware that they are being observed, allowing their behavior to be observed

naturally.

Conditions for Using "Observations" in Research: (all three must be present)

1. The desired information must be inferable from observation of subjects' behavior;2. The behavior of interest must be frequent, repetitive, or predictable; and

3. The behavior of interest must be of relatively short duration.

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Observation ResearchObservation Research

Mystery Shoppers

One-Way Mirrors

Types ofObservation

Research

Types ofTypes ofObservationObservation

ResearchResearchAudits

MachinesWatching

People

MachinesMachinesWatchingWatching

PeoplePeople

PeopleWatching

People

PeoplePeopleWatchingWatching

PeoplePeople

PeopleWatching

an Activity

PeoplePeopleWatchingWatching

an Activityan Activity

Traffic Counters

Passive People Meter

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Approaches to Observation Research:

1. Natural versus Contrived Observations - Natural refers to counting naturally occurring events.

Contrived refers to setting up an experiment, where most or all of the participants are at least aware of thespecifics of the observations (such as when, where, and which products or services are involved in the

exercise) that are being conducted.

2. Disguised versus Undisguised (Open) Observations - Disguised refers to the process of monitoringpeople, objects, or occurrences that do not even know they are being watched, much less why.

Undisguised refers to OPEN OBSERVATIONS which is the process of monitoring people who know they are

being watched (whether contrived or not).


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3. Structured versus Unstructured Observations - Structured refers to a study in which the observer fills

out a questionnaire-like form, or counts the number of times an activity occurs.Unstructured refers to a study in which the observer simply makes notes on the behavior being observed.

(It is usually used when the researcher doesn't know much about the behavior or subject of interest; used in

this way, it is a preliminary study to be followed later by a structured study or observation.)

4. Human versus Machine Observer - The use of machines, such as cameras and traffic counting devices,

are less expensive, more accurate, and can be deployed faster than humans.

Thus, they are used when the situation allows and when the machines are available.

5. Direct or Indirect Observations - Most marketing observations directly observe current behaviors.However, past behavior can be indirectly observed by reviewing some record or evidence of past behaviors or

lack thereof (such as how much of a product was "unused" over some period of time).

Types of observation research

I. Human Observations

- refers to people (rather than machines) watching other people. Types include:

A. Mystery Shoppers - people that are employed by a firm to pose as consumers and shop at competitors'

stores to compare prices, displays, service performances, cleanliness, and the like.

B. One-Way Mirror Observations - The practice of watching unseen from behind a one-way mirror. Oftenused for product testing and with focus groups.

C. Shopper Patterns - refers to drawings that record the footsteps of a shopper through a store. They show

the flow of a representative sample of shoppers through a store.

[Also used to study the effect of music on shopper behavior. For instance, we know that slow music makesthem stay longer and buy more.]

D. Content Analysis - A technique used to study written material, usually advertising copy, by breaking itinto meaningful units, using carefully applied rules.

Content Analysis attempts to determine what is being communicated to a target audience by objectively and

systematically describing the communication's content.

E. Humanistic Inquiry - A method of inquiry in which the researcher is immersed in [becomes a part of] the

system or group under study, rather than using the scientific method of standing apart from the system being

studied.

F. Audits - are examinations and verifications of the sales of subject products.

There are two general categories: Retail audits measure sales to final consumers, and wholesale auditsdetermine the amount of product movement from warehouses to retailers. Retail distribution audits are similar

to store audits however these audits do not measure inventory sales: instead they are observational studies at

the retail level. Field agents enter stores unannounced and without permission. They observe and record thebrands present, price, shelf facings and other relevant data for selected product categories.


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Audits provide relatively precise information on the movement of many different types of goods. Since most

products are not sold directly to the end user, but to retailers, wholesalers and distributors, the manufacturerdoes not have information on sales at the retail level. Even though information on factory shipments are

available, warehouse stocks might be accumulating because of limited retail sales. Moreover, audits give

information on how competing products are faring in the marketplace.

II. People Watching an ActivityAudits: - are examinations and verifications of the sales of subject products. Audits involve the physical

inspection of inventories, sales receipts, shelf facings, prices, and other aspects of the marketing mix todetermine sales, market share, relative price, distribution, or other relevant information.

III. Machine Observation Types:

A. Traffic Counters - Machines used to measure vehicular flow over a particular stretch of roadway.

B. Physiological Measurement - refers to measuring the level of involuntary change in a person's activation

based upon the stimuli of interest.

Activation - refers a person's feeling of arousal, inner tension, or alertness.

Activation is stimulated via a subcortical unit, called the reticular activation system (RAS), which is located inthe human brainstem.

3. EXPERIMENTATION

Experiment -- refers to a research project constructed such that the researcher (experimenter) changes oneelement (an explanatory or independent variable) to observe the effect of that change on another element (the

dependent variable).

An experiment measures the change in the dependent variable created by a specific, controlled change inanother variable(s) which is called the independent variable(s).

This is done by controlling or holding constant the other independent variables while manipulating the

independent variable(s) of interest, and measuring the change created in the dependent variable.

Thus, the researcher is an active participant in the research process instead of a passive collector of data aswith the survey or observation methods of research.

Experimental Settings - are three types:

1. Laboratory Experiments - Tests done in a sterile environment in which the researcher can control almostall possible causal factors. However, while the laboratory allows the researcher to control the variables

involved, the lab may not accurately represent the real marketplace. Thus, the research results my not hold up

when transferred to (generalized to) the actual marketplace.

Thus, lab results are said to have good internal validity, but often lack external validity.


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This suggests that lab results are more likely to be statistically correct than results from field experiments, but

less likely to be generalizable to the population of interest which is always located outside of the laboratory.

2. Field Experiments - Tests conducted outside the laboratory in an actual market environment. A test market

is a good example. This solves the problem of realism of the test environment, but factors other than the

independent variable(s) of interest may influence the observed changes in the dependent variable of interest

because the researcher cannot control all other independent variables that may affect the dependent variable.

For instance, the researcher cannot control nor even precisely measure the effects of competitive actions, theweather, the economy, societal trends, the political climate, nor other elements of the uncontrollable

environment.

Thus, field experiments often lack internal validity, while having better external validity.

This suggests that the results have a better chance of being statistically wrong, but they are more likely

generalizable to other similar market situations, if they are statistically correct.

3. Continuous research:

Certain types of data are gathered on a regular basis as opposed to the ad hoc survey. Moreover, researcherswill use standardized methods in order that the data collected at one point in time is comparable with that

collected at other times.

In this way, a picture of market trends can be built up. This type of longitudinal research is often funded on a

syndicated basis. Syndicated research usually involves an independent research company collecting data and

supplying it simultaneously to a number of clients.

Diary panelsDiary panels involve samples of households that have agreed to provide specific information regularly over anextended period of time. For this reason they are often referred to as continuous panels. Respondents are

asked to keep a specially designed dairy.

a. Media panels are primarily used for establishing advertising rates for radio, television and printed media.Purchase panel data can be used to forecast sales levels or market shares of new products, for identifying

trends and establishing demographic profiles of specific user groups, for evaluating test markets, for testing

different advertising campaigns and for estimating brand switching and repeat purchase rates.Although the discussion has focused on consumer panels it should be noted that panels can, and have been,

successfully established using farmers.

b.Consumer Purchase Panels or Omnibus PanelsOf these types of panels, the consumer purchase panel is the most often used and has the widest range of

applications. Such panels have been established by many different organizations, including the government,various universities, newspapers, manufacturers, and marketing research firms.

The typical consumer purchase panel furnishes information at regular intervals on continuing purchases of the

products covered. The type of product, brand, weight or quantity of unit, number of units, kind of package orcontainer, price per unit, whether a special promotion was in effect, store name, and date and day of week are

reported for each product bought.

Advantages of consumer Panels

Can Provide Information On:


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Aggregate Sales Activity

Brand Shares

Shifts in Buyer Characteristics

Shifts in Retail Outlets

Limitations of Consumer Panels

Possibility of Selection Bias

Mortality Effect

Testing Effects

4. Focus group discussions (F.G.Ds):The standard focus group interview involves 8 and 12 individuals and lasts about 2 hours. Normally each

group is designed to reflect the characteristics of a particular market segment. The respondents are selected

according to the relevant sampling plan and meet at a central location that generally has facility for tapingand/ or filming the interviews. In Europe, focus tend to consist of 6 to 8 respondents, vary in length from 1.5

to 4 hours and are often conducted in the home of the recruiter. Otherwise the interviewers are similar.

The discussion itself is led by a moderator. The moderator attempts to progress through three stages duringthe interviewer: (1) establish rapport with the group, structure the rules of group interaction, and set

objectives; (2) provoke intense discussion in the relevant areas; and (3) summarize the groups responses todetermine the extent of agreement. The general either the moderator or a second person prepares a summaryof each session after analyzing the sessions transcript.

Focus Group Interviews can be applied to:

1. Basic- need studies for product idea creation,

2. New product idea or concept exploration,

3. Product positioning studies,

4. Advertising and communications research,5. Background studies on consumers frames or reference,

6. Establishment of consumer vocabulary as a preliminary step in questionnaire development and,

7. Determination of attitudes and behavior.

Advantages1. Each individual is able to expand and refine their opinions in the interaction with the other members.

This process provides more detailed and accurate information than could be derived from each

separately.

2. A group interview situation is generally more exciting and offers more stimulation to the participantsthan the standard depth interviews.

3. The security of being in a crowd encourages some members to speak out when they otherwise would

not.

4. As the questions raised by the moderator are addressed to the entire group rather than an individual the

answer contains a degree of spontaneity that is not produced by other techniques.5. Focus groups can be used successfully with children over five. They are also very useful with adults in

developing countries where literacy rates are low and survey research is difficult. 886. A final major advantage of focus groups is that executives often observe the interview (from behind

mirrors) or watch films of the interview.


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Disadvantages1. Since focus group interviews last 1.5 to 3 hours and take place at a central location, securing

cooperation from a random sample is difficult.

2. Those who attend group interviews and actively participate in them are likely to be different in many

respects from those who do not.3. There are chances that participants may go along with the popular opinion instead of expressing their

own which may be contrary to the popular opinions.

4. The presence of a one-way mirror and /or an observer(s) has been found to distort participants

responses.5. The moderator can introduce serious biases in the interview by shifting topics too rapidly verbally or

nonverbally encouraging certain answers, failing to cover specific areas, and so forth.6. Focus groups are expensive on a per respondent basis.

5. Depth interviews Depth interviewsare frequently used by marketing researchers when direct questioning is impractical, morecostly, or less accurate. These techniques generally referred to as Qualitative research.

Depth Interviews - (unstructured one-on-one interviews intended to discover deep seated motivations) --One-on-one interviews that probe and elicit detailed answers to questions, often using clinical nondirective

techniques to uncover hidden motivations. Thus, psychologists and people with Doctorates in Marketing(which is a combination of applied psychology and applied economics) are often called upon to conduct

Depth Interviews, as well as Nominal Grouping Sessions.

Individual depth interviews typically require 30-45minutes. The interviewer does not have a specific set of

pre-specified questions that must be asked according to the order imposed by a questionnaire. Instead, there isfreedom to create questions, to probe those responses that appear relevant, and generally to try to develop the

best set of data in any way practical. However the interviewer must follow one rule; one must not consciously

try to affect the content of the answers given by the respondents. The respondent. The respondent must feel

free to reply to the various questions, probes, and other, subtler, ways of encouraging responses in the mannerdeemed most appropriate.

Subject of interest is discussed in detail.

There is no fixed pattern for eliciting information from the respondents.

Generally conducted by highly trained interviewers. They must be thorough in probing the

respondents.

The interviewee is asked about the subject of his choice, coffee, for example, and an attempt is madeto explore the respondents attitudes in depth by probing extensively into any other areas which may

come up.

Interviewers have a general series of topics that they will introduce perhaps such topics as coffee, or

sleep, and will introduce them from time to time if the respondent does not bring them up.

Tone of the interview is permissive and the respondent is allowed to talk as much as he likes.

The interviewer must not influence the answers of the respondent.

The interpretation of the answers is very subjective and knowledge of human behavior is required to

analyze the information received.

Individual depth interviews uses three questioning techniques namely:


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1. Laddering: The ladderingmethod of interviewing is technique to understanding peoples core values

and beliefs. The technique is powerful, because it provides a simple and systematic way ofestablishing an individuals core set of constructs on how they view the world

Laderring Technique is use to describe the linkages between customers values and their overall purchasing

behavior: theMeans End Chain theory. This theory provides both a framework for capturing qualitativeladdering research data in the consumer space and a model for assessing consumer values and behaviors.

According to the Means End Chain theory, there is a hierarchy of consumer perceptions and product

knowledge that ranges from attributes (A) to consumption consequences (C) to personal values (V), asfollows:

AttributesAt the top level of this hierarchy, attributes are most recognizable by individuals.

Individuals recognize the attributes of a product or system easily. For example, I like this car, because

it is a convertible.

ConsequencesIn turn, the attributes have consequences for the individual. For example, the

convertible makes its driver feel young and free. Each attribute may have one or more consequences

for any given individual.

Core valuesfinally, each consequence are linked to a core value of the persons life. For example,the sense of youth makes that driver feel attractive.

Purpose is to uncover the network of meanings associated with the product, brand, or concept.

2. Hidden-issue questioningfocuses on individual respondents feelings about sensitive issues. Analysison focus on common underlying themes across respondents. These themes can then be used to guide

advertising development.

3. Symbolic questioningrequires respondents to describe the opposites of the product/ activity of interest

or a specific attribute of the product/ activity.

Individual depth interviews have been found to generate more and higher quality ideas on a per respondent

basis than either focus or minigroups. They are particularly appropriate when:

1. Detailed probing of an individuals behavior, attitude or needs is required;

2. The subject matter under discussion is likely to be of a highly confidential nature (e. g. personalinvestment)

3. The subject matter is of an emotionally charged or embarrassing nature;

4. Certain strong, socially acceptable norms exist (e.g. baby feeding) and the need to conform in a group

discussion may influence responses;5. Where highly detailed understanding of complicated behavior or decision- making pattern (e.g.

planning the family holiday) are required; or

The interviews are with professional people or with people on the subject of their jobs 9 e.g. finance directors)


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B. Method of collecting secondary data

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Sources of Secondary DataSources of Secondary Data

Government Agencies

Trade and Industry Associations

Marketing Research Firms

Commercial Publications

News Media

Internal Corporate Information

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Secondary data were collected for some purpose other than helping to solve the current problem. Where asprimary data are collected expressly to help solve, the problem at hand.

Secondary data is data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other than those ofour particular research study. For example, if a government department has conducted a survey of, say, family

food expenditures, then a food manufacturer might use this data in the organisation's evaluations of the total

potential market for a new product.

No marketing research study should be undertaken without a prior search of secondary sources (also termed

desk research). There are several grounds for making such a bold statement.

Secondary data may be available which is entirely appropriate and wholly adequate to draw conclusions and

answer the question or solve the problem. Sometimes primary data collection simply is not necessary. It is farcheaper to collect secondary data than to obtain primary data. For the same level of research budget a

thorough examination of secondary sources can yield a great deal more information than can be had through a

primary data collection exercise.

The time involved in searching secondary sources is much less than that needed to complete primary data

collection. Secondary sources of information can yield more accurate data than that obtained through primary

research. This is not always true but where a government or international agency has undertaken a large scalesurvey, or even a census, this is likely to yield far more accurate results than custom designed and executed

surveys when these are based on relatively small sample sizes.


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It should not be forgotten that secondary data can play a substantial role in the exploratory phase of the

research when the task at hand is to define the research problem and to generate hypotheses. The assemblyand analysis of secondary data almost invariably improves the researcher's understanding of the marketing

problem, the various lines of inquiry that could or should be followed and the alternative courses of action

which might be pursued.

Secondary sources help define the population. Secondary data can be extremely useful both in defining the

population and in structuring the sample to be taken. For instance, government statistics on a country's

agriculture will help decide how to stratify a sample and, once sample estimates have been calculated, thesecan be used to project those estimates to the population.

Sources of information

Secondary sources of information may be divided into two categories: internal sources and external sources.

Internal sources of secondary information

Sales data: All organizations collect information in the course of their everyday operations. Orders arereceived and delivered, costs are recorded, sales personnel submit visit reports, invoices are sent out, and

returned goods are recorded and so on. Much of this information is of potential use in marketing research buta surprising amount of it is actually used. Organizations frequently overlook this valuable resource by not

beginning their search of secondary sources with an internal audit of sales invoices, orders, inquiries aboutproducts not stocked, returns from customers and sales force customer calling sheets. For example, consider

how much information can be obtained from sales orders and invoices:

Sales by territory

Sales by customer type

Prices and discounts

Average size of order by customer, customer type, geographical area

Average sales by sales person and

Sales by pack size and pack type, etc.

This type of data is useful for identifying an organizations most profitable product and customers. It can also

serve to track trends within the enterprise's existing customer group.

Financial data: An organization has a great deal of data within its files on the cost of producing, storing,

transporting and marketing each of its products and product lines. Such data has many uses in marketingresearch including allowing measurement of the efficiency of marketing operations. It can also be used to

estimate the costs attached to new products under consideration, of particular utilisation (in production,

storage and transportation) at which an organizations unit costs begin to fall.

Transport data: Companies that keep good records relating to their transport operations are well placed to

establish which are the most profitable routes, and loads, as well as the most cost effective routing patterns.

Good data on transport operations enables the enterprise to perform trade-off analysis and thereby establishwhether it makes economic sense to own or hire vehicles, or the point at which a balance of the two gives the

best financial outcome.

Storage data: The rate of stockturn, stock handling costs, assessing the efficiency of certain marketing

operations and the efficiency of the marketing system as a whole. More sophisticated accounting systems


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assign costs to the cubic space occupied by individual products and the time period over which the product

occupies the space. These systems can be further refined so that the profitability per unit, and rate of sale, areadded. In this way, the direct product profitability can be calculated.

External sources of secondary information

The marketing researcher who seriously seeks after useful secondary data is more often surprised by its

abundance than by its scarcity. Too often, the researcher has secretly (sometimes subconsciously) concluded

from the outset that his/her topic of study is so unique or specialised that a research of secondary sources is

futile. Consequently, only a specified search is made with no real expectation of sources. Cursory researchesbecome a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Large numbers of organizations provide marketing information, including national and local governmentagencies, quasi-government agencies, trade associations, universities, research institutes, financial institutions,

specialist suppliers of secondary marketing data and professional marketing research enterprises. Dillon et al

further advice that searches of printed sources of secondary data begin with referral texts such as directories,indexes, handbooks and guides. These sorts of publications rarely provide the data in which the researcher is

interested but serve in helping him/her locate potentially useful data sources.

The main sources of external secondary sources are (1) government (federal, state and local) (2) trade

associations (3) commercial services (4) national and international institutions.Government statistics These may include all or some of the following:

Population censuses

Social surveys, family expenditure surveys

Import/export statistics Production statistics

Agricultural statistics.

Trade associations Trade associations differ widely in the extent of their data collection and

information dissemination activities. However, it is worth checking with

them to determine what they do publish. At the very least one wouldnormally expect that they would produce a trade directory and, perhaps, a

yearbook.Commercial services Published market research reports and other publications are available from

a wide range of organisations which charge for their information.

Typically, marketing people are interested in media statistics and consumer

information which has been obtained from large scale consumer or farmerpanels. The commercial organization funds the collection of the data,

which is wide ranging in its content, and hopes to make its money from

selling this data to interested parties.

National and international

institutions

Bank economic reviews, university research reports, journals and articles

are all useful sources to contact. International agencies such as WorldBank, IMF, IFAD, UNDP, ITC, FAO and ILO produce a plethora of

secondary data which can prove extremely useful to the marketingresearcher.

.

Step four: Select the Measurement Technique:There are four basic measurement techniques used in marketing research:


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A) Questionnaires Design

B) Attitude scales,

C) Projective techniques

A) Questionnaires

Questionnaire constructionQuestionnaires are frequently used in quantitative marketing research. They are a valuable method of

collecting a wide range of information from a large number of respondents. Good questionnaire construction

is critical to the success of a survey.Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of questions, incorrect scaling, or bad questionnaire format can

make the survey valueless. A useful method for checking a questionnaire for problems is to pretest it. This

usually involves giving it to a small sample of respondents, then interviewing the respondents to get theirimpressions and to confirm that the questions accurately captured their opinions.

33

Questionnaire DesignQuestionnaire Design33

Open-EndedQuestion

Open-EndedQuestion

Closed-EndedQuestion

Closed-EndedQuestion

Scaled-ResponseQuestion

Scaled-ResponseQuestion

An interview question thatencourages an answer phrased in

respondents own words.

An interview question thatencourages an answer phrased in

respondents own words.

An interview question that asksthe respondent to make a selection

from a limited list of responses.

An interview question that asksthe respondent to make a selection

from a limited list of responses.

A closed- ended questiondesigned to measure the intensity

of a respondents answer.

A closed- ended questiondesigned to measure the intensity

of a respondents answer.

STRUCTURED Vs UNSTRUCTURED DATA COLLECTION

The data collection through questionnaires can be done through four ways as follows;1. Structured disguised

2. Structured - nondisguised

3. Non-structured - disguised4. Non structured - nondisguised

Note : non disguised data collection is also called as direct method & disguised is also called as indirect

method .


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Structured data collection

A structured data collection is a formal list of questions framed so as to get the facts. The interviewer asks the

questions strictly in accordance with pre- arranged order. For e.g. this method can be used when the

information is based on the expenditures of the consumer on different types of clothing like. Cotton woolen orsynthetic, etc. This structured questionnaire can be of two types, disguised and nondisguised, based on

whether the object or the purpose of the survey is revealed to the respondent.

The main advantage of this method is that, the information can be collected in a systematic and orderlymanner. However when it comes to personal questions, this method seems to be less effective.

Structured disguised: - in this case the researcher does not disclose the object of the interview, because he

feels that by revealing that the very purpose of the interview will get defeated.

Structured - nondisguised: - in this case the everything is pre- arranged and the researcher reveals the

objective of the survey to the respondent. This is the most widely followed approach in market research. Thisis because it is generally felt that the respondent should be taken into confidence, so that he can realize the

relevance and give desired information.

Non-structured data collectionIt is a kind of data collection method where the data to be collected is not pre- arranged or not listed in a

proper structured format. Therefore the entire responsibility is left on the researcher to ask the respondent, inthe way he feels fit. The researcher only has certain main points on which he develops the questions to be

asked. Such a method is devoid of rigidity and the researcher has sufficient amount of freedom to collect the

data in the order he wants. Normally this kind of method is used in exploratory researchThis kind of data collection is most suitable when it comes to personal or motivational factors.

Again here there are two main types of non-structured methods of data collection.

(1) Non structured disguised: - again here the objective of interview is not described to the respondent

(2) Non structured - non-disguised: - like in case of structured nondisguised, the respondent is taken intoconfidence by revealing the purpose of the survey.

CONCLUSION: The researcher should use the already viable data only when he finds them reliable, suitableand adequate. But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from

authentic sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to spend time

and energy in field surveys for collecting information. At times there may be wealth of usable information inthe already available data which must be used by an intelligent researcher but with due precaution.

Guidelines for Devising a Good Questionnaire

1. The wording must be kept simple : no technical or specialized words. Use short sentences. Writing

style should be conversational, yet concise and accurate.

2. The meaning should be clear. Avoid ambiguous words and equivocal sentence structures. Avoid

double negatives. Even single negatives should be reworded as positives.


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3. Avoid biasing the responses. A biased question or questionnaire encourages respondents to answer

one way rather than another. Avoid loaded questions.

4. Ask one question at a time. Avoid complex questions. If more than one question is hidden in a survey

question, the researcher will not know which one the respondent is answering.

5. Avoid personal or intimate questions. Most people will not answer them.

6. Consider the respondents frame of reference. What is their background, and how will this effect their

interpretation of the questions? Do respondents have enough information or expertise to answer the question?

7. Ask yourself if each question is really necessary. Unneeded questions are an expense to the researcher

and an unwelcome imposition on the respondents. To answer this question, you must consider theobjective(s) of the research.

8. Ask yourself what type of data analysis techniques are available for various kinds of questions. Will

the question provide you with the statistical analysis that you want?9. What type of content will responses to the question yield? Will the question responses provide facts,

beliefs, feelings, descriptions of past behavior, or standards of action?

10. What type of scale, index, or typology should be used?

11. How should the questions be presented on the page (or computer screen)? How much white space?

How many colours? Do you use pictures, charts, or other graphics? It should be colourful enough to gain and

maintain respondent interest, but not so graphic as to distract from the of the questions.

12. Should questions be open-ended or should respondents answers be limited to a fixed set of

responses?13. What order should the questions be in? Is there a natural grouping to the questions? Will previous

questions bias later questions?14. Should the questions be numbered? Generally this is a good idea.

15. Are possible responses mutually exclusive? The respondent should not find themselves in more than

one category, for example in both the married category and the not living with spouse category.Categories should not overlap.

16. Is the list of possible question responses inclusive? The respondent should not find themselves with

no category that fits their situation.

17. Is the questionnaire going to be administered by research staff, or will it be self-administered by the

respondents. Self administered questionnaires must give clear, detailed instructions.

Principles of Developing Questions

1. Be clear and precise.

2. Response choices should not overlap.3. Use natural and familiar language.

4. Do not use words or phrases that show bias.

5. Avoid double-barreled questions.6. State explicit alternatives.

7. Questions should meet criteria of validity and reliability.


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34

Questionnaire DesignQuestionnaire Design

Qualitiesof

GoodQuestionnaires

QualitiesQualitiesofof

GoodGoodQuestionnairesQuestionnaires

Clear and ConciseClear and Concise

No Ambiguous LanguageNo Ambiguous Language

UnbiasedUnbiased

Reasonable TerminologyReasonable Terminology

33

Types of Questions1. Contingency questions - A question that is answered only if the respondent gives a particular

response to a previous question. This avoids asking questions of people that do not apply to

them (for example, asking men if they have ever been pregnant).2. Matrix questions - Identical response categories are assigned to multiple questions. The

questions are placed one under the other, forming a matrix with response categories along thetop and a list of questions down the side. This is an efficient use of page space and

respondents time.

3. Scaled questions - Responses are graded on a continuum (example : rate the appearance of the

product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred appearance). Examples oftypes of scales include the Likert scale, semantic differential scale, and rank-order scale

4. Closed ended questions - Respondents answers are limited to a fixed set of responses. Mostscales are closed ended. Other types of closed ended questions include:

* Dichotomous questions - The respondent answers with a yes or a no.

* Multiple choice - The respondent has several option from which to choose.5. Open ended questions - No options or predefined categories are suggested. The respondent

supplies their own answer without being constrained by a fixed set of possible responses.

Examples of types of open ended questions include:

6. Completely unstructured - For example, What is your opinion of questionnaires?

Question Sequence

1. Questions should flow logically from one to the next.

2. The researcher must ensure that the answer to a question is not influenced by previous questions.

3. Questions should flow from the more general to the more specific.4. Questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive.

5. Questions should flow from factual and behavioural questions to attitudinal and opinion questions.

6. Questions should flow from unaided to aided questions


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7. According to the three stage theory (also called the sandwich theory), initial questions should be

screening and rapport questions. Then in the second stage you ask all the product specific questions. Inthe last stage you ask demographic questions.

B Measurement Scales

Definition of attitude: Attitude has been defined by Gene F. Summers as a predisposition to respond to anidea or an object.

In marketing, this refers to the consumers predisposition about the product or service. If it is favorable, thenthe consumer is likely to purchase the product or service.

Attitudes about products or services are composed of three elements:

Beliefs such as the products strength or the economy of the product or service

Emotional feelings such as likes or dislikes

Readiness to respond to the product or service, i.e. to buy it.

These three elements combine together to form an image of the product or service in the mind of theconsumer. When the car manufacturer, the movie producer or the insurance company refers to the companys

image, they are referring to some general averages of many individuals attitudes towards the company.

Attitude measurement is commonly referred to as scaling.

Measurement Scales

Scaling is the measurement of a variable in such a way that it can be expressed on a continuum. Rating yourpreference for a product from 1 to 10 is an example of a scale.

Attributes can be measured on nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales:

Nominal DataA set of data is said to be nominal if the values / observations belonging to it can be assigned a code in the

form of a number where the numbers are simply labels. You can count but not order or measure nominal data.For example, in a data set males could be coded as 0, females as 1; marital status of an individual could be

coded as Y if married, N if single.

Ordinal Scales They are the simplest attitude measuring scales use din marketing research.

They serve to rank respondents according to some characteristics such as favorabiliy to a certainbrand, or to rank items such as brands in order of consumer preference.

They do not measure the degree of favorability of the different rankings. All the scale tells is that the

individual or item has more, less, or the same amount of the characteristic being measured as some

other time.

They are the most widely used type of scales in marketing research.

A set of data is said to be ordinal if the values / observations belonging to it can be ranked (put in order) or

have a rating scale attached. You can count and order, but not measure, ordinal data. The categories for an

ordinal set of data have a natural order, for example, suppose a group of people were asked to taste varieties

of biscuit and classify each biscuit on a rating scale of 1 to 5, representing strongly dislike, dislike, neutral,like, strongly like. A rating of 5 indicates more enjoyment than a rating of 4, for example, so such data are

ordinal. However, the distinction between neighboring points on the scale is not necessarily always the same.


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For instance, the difference in enjoyment expressed by giving a rating of 2 rather than 1 might be much less

than the difference in enjoyment expressed by giving a rating of 4 rather than 3.

Interval Scales They separate individuals or items by rank order but measure the distance between rank positions in

equal units.

Such a scale permits the researcher to say that the position 4 is above position 3 on the scale, and also

the distance from position 5 to 4 is same as from 4 to 3.

Such a scale however does not permit conclusions that position 6 is twice as strong as position 3

because no zero position has been established.

An interval scale is a scale of measurement where the distance between any two adjacent units of

measurement (or 'intervals') is the same but the zero point is arbitrary. Scores on an interval scale can be

added and subtracted but cannot be meaningfully multiplied or divided. For example, the time intervalbetween the starts of years 1981 and 1982 is the same as that between 1983 and 1984, namely 365 days. The

zero point, year 1 AD, is arbitrary; time did not begin then. Other examples of interval scales include the

heights of tides, and the measurement of longitude.

Ratio Scales If one measures the distance between two points as four feet and between two other points as two feet,it is possible say that one distance is twice that of the other because each distance is measured from anabsolute zero. A scale that permits such measurements is called ratio scale.

While ratio scales are common in physical science, the measurement of attitudes is still so crude that

they are of little significance in marketing research.

Types of scale used for Measuring Attitudes:

1. Ranking - Rank order preference

2. Rating - Estimates magnitude of a characteristic

Rating asks the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object

possesses. The respondents position on a scale(s) is where he or she would rate an object.


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3. Sorting - Arrange or classify concepts

Sorting might present the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and require that the respondent

arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts.

4. Choice - Selection of preferred alternative

Choice between two or more alternatives is another type of attitude measurement - it is assumed that the

chosen object is preferred over the other.

Attitude Measurement

Many of the questions in a marketing research survey are designed to measure attitudes. Attitudes are a

person's general evaluation of something. Customer attitude is an important factor for the following reasons:1. Attitude helps to explain how ready one is to do something.2. Attitudes do not change much over time.

3. Attitudes produce consistency in behavior.

4. Attitudes can be related to preferences.

Attitudes can be measured using the following Techniques:

1. Simple Attitude Scaling

In its most basic form, attitude scaling requires that an individual agree with a statement or respond to a single

question. This type of self-rating scale merely classifies respondents into one of two categories;

Simplified Scaling Example

THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION

_______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE


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2. Category Scales

A category scale is a more sensitive measure than a scale having only two response categories - it provides

more information. Questions working are an extremely important factor in the usefulness of these scales.

Example of Category Scale

How important were the following in your decision to visit

Ooty (check one for each item)

VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO

IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT

CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________

COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________

FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________

EDUCATIONAL/

HISTORICAL ASPECTS _________ ___________ ___________

FAMILIARITY WITH

AREA ___________ ___________ ___________

3. Method of Summated Ratings:

The Likert Scale

An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking

how strongly they agree or disagree with statements. Response alternatives: strongly agree, agree,uncertain, disagree, and strongly disagree.

Example:

Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

It is more fun to watch a tough, competitive 20/20 cricket match than to watch a test match.

___Strongly Agree

___Agree___Not Sure

___Disagree

___Strongly Disagree

To analyze a Likert Scale, each response category is assigned a numerical value. These examples could be

assigned values such as Strongly Agree=1, through Strongly Disagree=5 or the scoring could be reversed., ora 2 through +2 system could be used. They can be analyzed on an item-by-item basis, or they can be

summed to form a single score for each individual.

Advantages1. It is relatively easy to construct and administer.


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2. Instructions that accompany the scale are easily understood; hence it can be used for mail surveys and

interviews with children.

Disadvantages1. It takes a longer time to complete as compared to Semantic Differential Scales, etc.2. Care needs to be taken when using Likert Scales in cross cultural research, as there may be cultural

variations in willingness to express disagreement.

4. Semantic Differential It is a special type of graphic scale, which is increasingly being used, in marketing research.

It establishes a connection between the brand and company image studies and also permits thedevelopment of descriptive profiles that facilitates comparison of competitive items.

The unique characteristics of semantic differential is the use of bipolar scales to rate any product,

company or concept of interest.

Respondents are given a group of these scales and asked to check on each one point that indicates

their opinion of the subject in question.

Each scales consist of two opposing adjectives such as good/bad, clean/dirty, most popular/ leastpopular, etc. which are separated by a continuum divided into seven segments.

Respondents are asked to check the segment that represents the degree of the characteristics involvedthat most closely coincided with their opinion of the product or item being rated.

It is best when used for image descriptive purposes and is not recommended for overall attitude

measurement.

The advantage of using semantic differential is its simplicity, while producing results comparable

with those of the more complex scaling methods

The method is easy and fast to administer, but it is also sensitive to small differences in attitude,

highly versatile, reliable and generally valid.

For e.g.:

1. Perception of national brands and private brands:

High quality 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Low quality

Lower price 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 High price

Higher value 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Low value

Attractive 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 UnattractivePackaging Packaging


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5. Numerical Scales

Numerical scales have numbers as response options, rather than semantic space or verbal descriptions, to

identify categories (response positions).

6. Stapel Scales

Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when

it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as wellas the results, are very similar to those for a semantic differential. However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier

to conduct and administer.

A Stapel Scale

for Measuring a Stores Image

DepartmentStore Name

+3

+2+1

Wide Selection-1

-2-3

Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately. The more accurately you thinkthe work describes the store, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a minus number for words

you think do not describe the store accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the store, the

large the minus number you should choose, therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that youthink are very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate.

Stapel ScaleThe Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories

numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale

is usually presented vertically.

SEARS

+5 +5

+4 +4

+3 +3

+2 +2X

+1 +1

HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE

-1 -1-2 -2

-3 -3

-4X -4

-5 -5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the

same way as semantic differential data.


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7. Thurstone Scale

It is one of theMulti Item Scales developed by L.L. Thurstones method ofEqual Appearing Intervals on theconcept that, even though people could not assign quantitative measures to their own attitudes, they could tell

the difference between the attitude represented by two different statements and could identify items that were

approximately halfway between the two. The procedure is as follows1. Collect a large number of statements (perhaps as may as several hundred) related to the attitude in

question

2. Have a number of judges (perhaps 20 or more) sort the statements independently into 11 piles that

vary from the most favorable statement to neutral statements to most unfavorable statements.3. Study the frequency distribution of ratings for each statement and eliminate those statements that the

different judges have given widely scattered ratings that are in a number of different piles

4. Determine the scale value of each of the remaining statements that is, the number of the pile in pilein which the median of the distribution falls

5. Select one of the two statements from each of the 11 piles for the final scale. Those statements with

the narrowest range of rating are preferred as the most reliable.

Advantages

It is important to note that there are 11 attitude positions because in a scale with odd number of parameters, itis easier to identify a neutral position.

Disadvantages

1. Thurstone scales are not widely used for Marketing Research because the are time consuming duringpreparation

2. The ratings may be influenced by the Judges personal attitude

3. Different individuals can obtain exactly the same score from agreeing with quite different items.4. It does not obtain information about the intensity of agreement with the ratings

Comparison of Thurstone and Likert ScaleIt is obvious that these two scales have a lot in common. They have been widely used in the past. Due to the

ordinal nature of the Likert scales, many individuals feel they it may be more reliable that the Thurstone

Scale.

8. The Constant Sum ScaleThe constant sum scale requires the respondent to divide a constant sum, generally 10 or 100, among two or

more objects or attributes on order to reflect the respondents relative preference for each object, the

importance of the attribute, or the degree to which an object contains each attribute.

The constant sum scale can be used in two cases:

1. For two objects at a time (paired comparison) or

2. More than two objects at a time (quadric comparison)

A constant sum measure of the importance of the same attributes could be obtained from the followingprocedure:

Divide 100 points among the characteristics listed so that the division will reflect how important each

characteristic is to your selection of a new automobile.

Price ____


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Economy ____

Dependability ____Safety ____

Comfort ____

Style ____ Total 100

All three of the following groups average responses to the constant sum scale would be consistent with the

rank order results just described:

Group A Group B Group CPrice 35 20 65Economy 30 18 9Dependability 20 17 8Safety 10 16 7Comfort 3 15 6Style 2 14 5

100 100 100

With rank order scale the researcher has no way of knowing if price is of importance (GROUP C); part of a

general, strong concern for overall cost (GROUP A); or not much important than the other attributes (GROUPB).

Constant Sum Scale provides such evidence.

Figure 9.8 Constant Sum ScalingFi

re

.

Constant

m

calin

Instructions

Below are eight attributes of bathing soaps. Please allocate 100 points among

the attributes so that your allocation reflects the relative importance you attach to

each attr ibute. The more points an attribute receives, the more important the

attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If anattribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it shou ld receive tw ice as

many points.

Form

AVERAGE RESPONSES OF THREE SEGMENTSAttribute Segment I Segment II Segment III

1. Mildness 8 2 4

2. Lather 2 4 17

3. Shrinkage 3 9 7

4. Price 53 17 9

5. Fragrance 9 0 196. Packaging 7 5 9

7. Moisturizing 5 3 20

8. Cleaning Power 13 60 15Sum 100 100 100


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9. Graphic Rating Scales

A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic continuum.

Graphic Rating Scale

Stressing Pictorial Visual

Communications

3 2 1

Very Very

Good Poor

10. Monadic Rating ScaleA Monadic Rating Scale asks about a single concept

Now that youve had your automobile for about 1 year, please tell us how satisfied you are with its engine

power and pickup.

Completely Very Fairly Well Somewhat Very

Satisfied Satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied

12.A Comparative Rating ScaleA Comparative Rating Scale asks respondents to rate a concept by comparing it with a benchmark

Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares with the amount of authority

that would be ideal for this position.

TOO MUCH ABOUT RIGHT TOO LITTLE

13.An Unbalanced ScaleAn Unbalanced Scale has more responses distributed at one end of the scale

How satisfied are you with the bookstore in the Student Union?

Neither Satisfied Quite Very

Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied


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Surfing the Internet is

____ Extremely Good

____ Very Good

____ Good

____ Bad

____ Very Bad

____ Extremely Bad

Surfing the Internet is

____ Extremely Good

____ Very Good

____ Good

____ Somewhat Good

____ Bad

____ Very Bad

Balanced Scale Unbalanced Scale

Figure 10.4 Balanced and Unbalanced ScalesFir e1.

alanceanUnbalance

cales

Validity and ReliabilityA research has validity when the same result can be achieved independent of what research method is used.

The researcher has an objective to achieve a high level of validity to assure that the information gathered and

measured actually is what was intended to be measured. This is also known as internal validity. The ability togeneralize the results and to be able to apply the results on a whole population is called external validity.

Reliability is a requirement for validity. If the reliability is low, one cannot know that one measures what one

intended to measure. High levels of reliability provide a fair and trustworthy portrait of reality.

This is achieved when the same answers and results are obtained from several independent sources.

Furthermore, how the research is conducted and the level of accuracy and precision while treating theinformation influences the level of reliability. Would the same result be achieved if the research was

conducted again with the same problem? One way to achieve objectivity and reliability is by using structured

questionnaires with given and pre determined answer alternatives.

Types of Validity: Construct validity addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the scale is, in fact,

measuring. Construct validity includes convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity.

Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale correlates positively with other measures of thesame construct.

Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure does not correlate with other constructs fromwhich it is supposed to differ.

Nomological validity is the extent to which the scale correlates in theoretically predicted ways with

measures of different but related constructs.


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C. Projective TechniquesProjective Techniques are based on the theory that the description of vague objects requires interpretation and

this interpretation can only be based on the individuals own background, attitudes, and values. The more

vague or ambiguous the object to be described the move one must reveal of oneself in order to complete thedescription.

The following general categories of projective techniques are described: association, completion, construction

and expression.

1. Association Techniques

Association techniques require the subject to respond to the presentation of a stimulus with the first things that

come to mind.

a. Word association: The word association technique requires the respondent to give the first word orthought that comes to mind after researcher presents a word or phrase. In free association only the first

word or thought is required.

One of the oldest and simplest projection techniques.

Respondents are presented with a number of different words, one at a time. After each word, they areasked to give the first word that comes to mind.

The assumption here is that through free words, the respondents will indicate their inner feelings about

the subject.

Responses are timed so that those responses that respondents reason out are identified and taken into

account in the analysis. The time limit is usually 5 seconds.

The usual way of constructing such a test is to choose many stimulating and neutral words. The

words are read out to the respondent one at a time, and the interviewer essentially records the firstword association by the respondent.

Respondents should not be asked to write their responses because then the interviewer will not know if

the responses were spontaneous or whether the respondent took time to think out the responses.

An example of such a test is: who would eat a lot of oatmeal? The first response is athletes. Thismeans that the respondent feels that the product is more suited for sportspersons. More words on the

same topic will reveal more about the respondents attitude about the product.

While analyzing the results of word-association tests, responses are arranged along such lines asfavorable - unfavorable and pleasant unpleasant.

b. Successive word association: In successive word association, the respondent is asked to give a seriesof words or thoughts that occur after hearing a given word. The respondent is generally read a number

of relatively neutral terms to establish the technique. Then the words of interest to the researcher are

presented, each separated by several neutral terms. The order of presentation of the key words is

randomized to prevent any position or order bias from affecting the results. The most common

approach to analyzing the resulting data is to analyze the frequency with a particular word or categoryor word is given in response to the word of interest to the researcher.

Word association techniques are used in testing potential brand names and occasionally for measuring

attitudes about particular products, product attributes, brands, packages or advertisements.


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2. Completion Techniques

This technique requires the respondent to complete an incomplete stimulus. Two types of completion are ofinterest to marketing researchers-sentence completion andstory completion.

a. Sentence completion, as the name implies, involves requiring the respondent to complete a sentence. Inmost sentence completion tests the respondents are asked to complete the sentence with a phrase. Generally

they are told to use the first thought that comes to their mind or anything that makes sense. Because the

individual is not required directly to associate himself or herself with the answer conscious or subconsciousdefenses are more likely to be relaxed and allow a more revealing answer.

The respondent is given a number of incomplete sentences and asked to complete them.

The rule here too, is that respondent must fill in the first thought that comes to mind.

Responses are timed.

Here the interviewer gets more information than the word association technique.

However, it is difficult to disguise the motive of the study from the respondent, who is usually able todiagnose the investigators purpose of study.

For example, a man who reads Sportstar is ------------------------------------------.

The sentences can be worded in either first or third person. No evidence suggests that one of these

approaches could be better than the other.

b. Story completionis an expanded version of sentence completion. As the name suggests part of a story istold and the respondent is asked to complete it.

Respondents are given a half-completed story. This is enough to draw their attention to a particularissue, but the ending is left vague, so that responses can be varied.

This technique is very versatile and has numerous applications to marketing problems.

The findings about products/ services give companies inputs to determine advertising and promotionalthemes and product characteristics.

3. Construction Techniques

This technique requires the respondent to produce or construct something generally a story, dialogue, or

description. They are similar to completion techniques except that less initial structure is provided.

a. Third- person techniquesallow the respondent to project attitudes onto some vague third person. This third

person is generally an average woman, your neighbors, the guys where you work, most doctors or thelike. Thus instead of asking the respondent why he or she did something or what he or she thinks about

something the researcher asks what friends, neighbors or the average person thinks about the issue.

b. Picture response,another useful construction technique, involves using pictures to elicit stories. Thesepictures are usually relatively vague, so that the respondent must use his or her imagination to describe what is

occurring.

These are similar to story completion method, except that here pictures are used as the stimuli. The

two main methods used here arei. Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT)

ii. Cartoon method


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i. TAT

Clinical psychologists have long used this method.

Here the respondent is shown many ambiguous pictures and he is asked to spin stories about them.

The interviewer may ask questions to help the respondent to think. For example what is happening

here? makes the answer focused towards an action. Or which one is the aggressor? makes therespondent think about the picture as one of aggression. The reason that respondents must be asked

such prompting questions is that the pictures are very abstract and general and as such are open to very

broad and irreverent interpretations. So some amount of focus is needed to channel the respondentsthinking.

Each subject in the pictures is a medium through which the respondent projects his feelings, ideas,

emotions and attitudes. The respondent attributes these feelings to the characters because he sees in thepicture something related to himself.

Responses differ widely and analysis depends upon the ambiguity of the picture, the extent to which

the respondent is able to guess the conclusions and the vagueness of the support questions asked by the

interviewer.

ii. Cartoon Tests

They are a version or modification of the TAT, but they are simpler to administer and analyze. CartoonCharacters are shown in a specific situation pertinent to a problem. One or more balloons indicating theconversation of the characters is left open. The respondent has to then fill these balloons and then analyzed.

Instead of having the bubble show replies or comments, it can be drawn to indicate the unspoken thoughts of

one or more of the characters. This device allows the respondent to avoid any restraints that might be feltagainst having even a carton characterspeakas opposed to thinkcertain thoughts.

c. Fantasy scenario requires the respondent to make up a fantasy about the product or brand.

d. Personificationasks the respondent to create a personally for the products or brands. With the pictures andwords technique, the subjects are given a number of words and pictures and are asked to choose those they

associate with a brand or product and to explain their choice.

This allows the researcher to discover the more emotional responses to brands and imagery.The product or brand becomes a person (or vice versa)

Helps bring brands to life

Feeling, thought, character etc (like brand values)

Or respondents can project themselves into the roles of user and non-users

Making up eulogies or obituaries can help

4. Expressive Techniquesa. Role-playing is the only expressive technique utilized to any extent by marketing researchers. In role

playingthe consumer is asked to assume the role or behavior of an object or another person, such as a salesrepresentative for a particular department store. The role-playing customer can then be asked to try to sell a

given product to a number of different consumers who raise varying objections. The means by which the

role player attempts to overcome these objections can reveal a great deal about his or her attitudes. Anotherversion of the technique involves studying the role-players attitudes on what type of people should shop at

the store in question.


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b.Third-person technique:The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked to relate the beliefs

and attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person

may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a typical person

Advantages of Projective Techniques1. They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose

of the study.

2. Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms.

3. Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.

4. Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

5. Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent.

6. Require highly trained interviewers.7. Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses.

8. There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.9. They tend to be expensive.10. May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.

11. Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques

12. Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be accurately obtainedby direct methods.

13. Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and

understanding.14. Given their complexity, projective techniques sho

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