Amphetamine: CRIME BULLETIN · Users of large amounts of amphetamine over a long period can develop...

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Amphetamine: Still Queensland’s No. 1 Drug Threat

CRIME BULLETIN SERIES

NUMBER 5

JUNE 2003

ISSN: 1442-5815

This bulletin has been prepared byofficers of the Strategic IntelligenceUnit of the Crime and MisconductCommission.

This and previous issues of the CrimeBulletin are also available onwww.cmc.qld.gov.au/PUBS.html.

Information on this series and otherCMC publications can be obtainedfrom:

Crime and Misconduct Commission140 Creek Street, BrisbaneGPO Box 3123, Brisbane Qld 4000Telephone: (07) 3360 6060Toll Free: 1800 06 1611Facsimile: (07) 3360 6333E-mail: [email protected]: www.cmc.qld.gov.au

© Crime and Misconduct Commission 2003

Apart from any fair dealing for thepurpose of private study, research,criticism or review, as permitted underthe Copyright Act 1968, no part may bereproduced by any process withoutpermission. Inquiries should be madeto the publisher, the Crime andMisconduct Commission.

Background In June 1999, the Commission assessedillicit drug markets in Queensland andconcluded that the heroin marketrepresented the highest risk at thattime.1

A further assessment in November2000 concluded that the amphetaminemarket had overtaken the heroinmarket in terms of the risk posed to theQueensland community.2

Monitoring of organised crime marketsin Queensland since then continues toindicate that the amphetamine problemis worsening, and that the demand forthis drug has not waned. As a result,amphetamine in Queensland still posesa significant threat to Queensland fromboth law enforcement and healthperspectives.

This paper provides a strategicassessment of the illicit amphetamineproblem in Queensland, based on ananalysis of a diverse range of sourcesincluding information from lawenforcement, government, industry andmembers of the community.

The main purpose of this assessment isto inform the community about trendsin the market for and supply ofamphetamine in Queensland. We:

1 describe the extent of theamphetamine problem inQueensland

2 explain some of the characteristics of Queensland’samphetamine market, includinghow the market is supplied

3 highlight some of the emergingresponses to the amphetamineproblem

4 predict future trends in the supplyand use of amphetamine anddiscuss some of the challenges tolaw enforcement and the broadercommunity

5 summarise the key findings of ourassessment.

Amphetamine remains theprimary illicit drug of concern tothe Queensland community,ahead of other illicit drugs interms of potential risk and harm.

WHAT IS AMPHETAMINE?Amphetamine is a powerful stimulantthat acts on the central nervoussystem causing a person to be moreactive and alert. The term refers to arange of amphetamine-basedsubstances including amphetamineand methylamphetamine, butexcluding amphetamine analoguessuch as MDMA (ecstasy). Throughoutthis bulletin, the term ‘amphetamine’refers to illicit amphetamine andincludes ‘methylamphetamine’.

Amphetamine can be found in powder, capsule, tablet, crystal, paste or liquid form.

Determining the extent and impactof the amphetamine problem inQueensland is a complex task. Tosimplify it, we have used thefollowing indicators: • the number of amphetamine-

related arrests• the quantity of amphetamine

seizures• the number of clandestine-

laboratory detections.

We have also consulted useful datacollected by various health andsocial welfare providers, such asstatistics from needle-exchangeprograms and hospital admissions.3

Amphetamine-relatedarrestsArrest statistics relating toamphetamine consumers (users) andproviders (sellers) are a usefulmeasure of Queensland’samphetamine problem. However, itis important to note that thesestatistics may be affected by lawenforcement priorities, officerdiscretion, drug availability andchanges in user preference.

According to the 2000–01 AustralianIllicit Drug Report (AIDR),

amphetamine is the second mostprevalent illicit drug used inQueensland, after cannabis (ABCI2001), a position confirmed by the2001–02 AIDR (ACC 2003) and the2001 National Drug StrategyHousehold Survey (AIHW 2002a).

Figure 1 shows a five-year trend inthe number of arrests (shown as bars)and the rate of arrests per 100 000 ofpopulation (shown as lines) foramphetamine-related offences. Thefigure shows marked increases in thenumber and rate of amphetamine-related arrests between 1997–98 and1999–2000. However, since then thetrend has been relatively stable withslight decreases noted in both the

number and rate of amphetamine-related arrests in Queensland sincethe apparent ‘peak’ in 1999–2000.

While Queensland statistics mayshow a levelling off of providerarrests from 2000–01 to 2001–02,Figure 2 shows that the rate ofAustralian amphetamine providerarrests has steadily increased overthe past five years.

Other key points to note from Figure 2:

• Queensland’s rate ofamphetamine-related arrests (per100 000 population) is consis-tently above the national rate.

• The five-year trend foramphetamine consumer arrests inQueensland almost mirrors thenational trend, declining since2000–01.

• The rate of amphetamineprovider arrests in Queenslandhas declined noticeably since1999–2000.

While Queensland continues to havesome of the highest amphetamine-related consumer and providerarrests (per 100 000 population) inAustralia, arrests of both consumersand providers appear to be on thedecline. One possible explanationfor this trend is that amphetamineuse and supply could be decreasingin Queensland — but theinformation presented in this bulletinwill show that this is unlikely.

Intelligence reports suggest thatsupply is increasing and thatenthusiasm for amphetamine has notwaned.

2 CRIME AND MISCONDUCT COMMISSION • CRIME BULLETIN • JUNE 2003

Figure 1. Number and rate of amphetamine provider and consumer arrestsQueensland, 1997–98 to 2001–02

Source: QPS unpub. (preliminary data should be considered an estimate only).

Notes:1 Rate^ is represented by the number of reported arrests per 100 000 resident population. 2 Drug data take up to one year to be entered on the QPS system.3 Arrests include all actions taken against an offender by police (i.e. cautions, notices to appear and attend,

summons, warrants issued, community conference and other).

Data sources

This assessment draws upon statistical information collected and published byother agencies such as the Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence (ABCI), nowpart of the Australian Crime Commission (ACC), the Australian Institute ofCriminology (AIC), the Queensland Police Service (QPS) and other lawenforcement agencies as well as Queensland Health Scientific Services (QHSS)and the Queensland Ambulance Service (QAS).4 Statistical information from thesesources has been collated and analysed to provide a more comprehensive pictureof the trends in the Queensland amphetamine market, which makes it easier tocompare it with other illicit drug markets. We also use information derived fromintelligence reports.

The aim of this assessment is to give an overview of key amphetamine marketindicators and trends.Therefore, rather than reproduce the full detail of eachstudy examined, those readers who require more information should refer to thesource publications listed at the end of this paper.

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1. EXTENT OF THE PROBLEM

What is amphetamine?

The term amphetamine refers to a range of synthetic drugs

including amphetamine and methylamphetamine. Throughout

the 1990s, the proportion of amphetamine-type substances

seized that were methylamphetamine steadily increased until

methylamphetamine clearly dominated the market (ABCI 2001).

Methylamphetamine releases high levels of the neurotransmitter

dopamine, which stimulates brain cells, enhancing mood and

body movements (NARCONON 2002).

What does it look like?

Amphetamine/methylamphetamine, or ‘speed’ as it is

commonly known, can be found in powder, capsule, tablet,

crystal, paste or liquid form (NDARC 2001).

What are its effects?

As its common name (speed) suggests, amphetamine is a strong

stimulant. Chemically, amphetamine and methylamphetamine

are closely related. Both act indirectly by stimulating the release

of peripheral and central monoamines (principally dopamine,

noradrenalin, adrenaline and serotonin), and both have

psychomotor, cardiovascular, anorexigenic and hyperthermic

properties (Seiden, Lewis, Sabol & Ricaurte 1993). Compared to

amphetamine, methylamphetamine has proportionally greater

central stimulatory effects than peripheral circulatory actions

(Chester 1993), and is a more potent form with stronger

subjective effects (NDARC 2001).

How is it used?

Amphetamine in Queensland is generally produced as a

powder that is dissolved and injected, smoked, or taken orally.

Methylamphetamine is most frequently seen as a white,

odourless, bitter-tasting crystalline powder that easily dissolvesin water or alcohol. The powder form of the drug may besnorted, swallowed, or diluted and injected. The ‘crystal’ formof the drug tends to be smoked in a glass pipe similar to crackcocaine.

How long do its effects last?Immediately after smoking, snorting, or injecting amphetamine,the user experiences an intense ‘rush’ of excitement andpleasure. The rush lasts between 15 and 30 minutes. The othereffects tend to last from 6 to 12 hours. During these hours, theuser generally feels nervous and agitated. As the high begins towear off, the user enters a stage called ‘tweaking’. Tweakersexperience delusions, compulsive behaviour, paranoia and atendency to violence. Some users may try to avoid the ‘crash’ atthe end of a high by continuing to use the drug until they runout of money or collapse. A binge-and-crash cycle like this iscalled a ‘run’ (EROWID 2002). Such a ‘run’ could last 36 to 48hours.

What harms are caused by its abuse?Users of large amounts of amphetamine over a long period candevelop an amphetamine psychosis, which is a mental disordersimilar to paranoid schizophrenia. The psychosis is manifestedby hallucinations, delusions and paranoia. Bizarre, sometimesviolent, behaviour is exhibited by those with amphetaminepsychosis (EROWID 2002). Methylamphetamine increases theheart rate, blood pressure, body temperature and rate ofbreathing and frequently results in violent behaviour in users(DEA 2002). Animal research going back more than 20 yearsshows that high doses of methylamphetamine damage neuroncell endings (NARCONON 2002).

Frequently asked questions about amphetamine (speed)


Figure 2. Rate of amphetamine provider and consumer arrests, Queensland and Australia, 1997–98 to 2001–02

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Source: QPS unpub.; ABCI 1998–2002; ACC 2003 (preliminary data should be considered an estimate only); ABS 2001, 2000.

Notes:1 An ‘arrest’ includes all actions taken against an offender by police (i.e. cautions, notices to appear and attend, summons,

warrants issued). 2 A ‘consumer’ is defined as an individual charged with user-type offences (e.g. possessing or administering drugs for their

own use). A ‘provider’ is defined as a person charged with offences related to illicit drug-supplying (e.g. importation,trafficking, cultivation and manufacturing).

3 The population estimate used to calculate the 2001–02 rate was a ‘projection of the population as at June 2002’ (see ABS2002).

4 Rate is represented as a proportion of reported arrests per 100 000 resident population.5 Queensland data for the five-year period from 1997–98 to 2001–02 were produced using a ‘revised’ extraction program

and are not comparable with previous data reported in the AIDR.

Comparison of amphetamineand heroin arrests When amphetamine and heroinarrests are compared over the five-year period from 1997 (see Figure 3),the decline in the rate of heroinarrests per 100 000 populationappears to coincide with an increasein the rate of amphetamine arrests.One explanation commonly reportedfor this trend is the ‘heroin drought’experienced in Australia between2000 and 2002.5 Exponents of thisexplanation contend that as a resultof the ‘drought’ some heroin usersexperimented with amphetamine,thereby increasing the number ofamphetamine arrest targets.

The counter view, supported byofficial statistics and intelligencereports, is that the overall rate ofamphetamine arrests has continuedto be much larger than the rate ofheroin arrests since at least 1997–98.In other words, the increase inamphetamine-related arrests isunlikely to be simply a result of adepressed heroin market, but ratherthe heroin drought exacerbated analready established upwards trend inthe use of amphetamines. Forexample, there were approximatelythree times more arrests foramphetamine than there were forheroin in 1997–98 and the mostrecent data indicate that, althoughthe rate of amphetamine- and heroin-related arrests in Queensland hassteadily declined since 1999–2000,there were eight times the number ofarrests for amphetamine-relatedoffences than for heroin during2001–02.

The CMC assesses that the heroindrought was not the principal causeof the escalation of the amphetaminemarket in Queensland. The market’sexpansion is believed to be a resultof a longer-term trend and not anidentifiable wholesale switch.

Amphetamine seizures

Number of seizuresThe seizure of amphetamine haslargely replicated the arrest data witha peak occurring in 1999–2000.Since then, both the number and rate(per 100 000 population) ofamphetamine seizures have fallen.

For example, during 2001–02, policerecorded details of 1570 ampheta-mine seizures in Queensland, whichis only slightly higher than thenumber and rate reported five yearsearlier — see Figure 4 (QPS unpub.).

Quantity of seizuresAccurately determining totalamounts of amphetamine seized bypolice is difficult as often small drugseizures are not measured, and not

all seizures are chemically analysedto determine the exact type of drugor the level of purity.

Another problem with amphetamineis that statistics collected andreported by different agencies cannotbe readily compared because of theuse of inconsistent terminology. Forexample, some agencies reportseizures of amphetamine andmethylamphetamine, while otheragencies report seizures of


Figure 3. Rate of amphetamine and heroin arrests by consumer and provider,Queensland, 1997–98 to 2001–02

Source: QPS unpub.; ABCI 1998–2002; ACC 2003 (preliminary data should be considered an estimate only); ABS 2001, 2000.

Notes:

1 An ‘arrest’ includes all actions taken against an offender by police (i.e. cautions, notices to appear and attend,summons, warrants issued).

2 A ‘consumer’ is defined as an individual charged with user-type offences (e.g. possessing or administeringdrugs for their own use). A ‘provider’ is defined as a person charged with offences related to supplying illicitdrugs (e.g. importation, trafficking, cultivation and manufacturing).

3 The population estimate used to calculate the 2001–02 rate was a ‘projection of the population as at June2002’ (see ABS 2002).

4 Rate is represented as a proportion of reported arrests per 100,000 resident population.5 Queensland data for the five-year period from 1997–98 to 2001–02 were produced using a ‘revised’

extraction program and are not comparable with previous data reported in the AIDR.

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Figure 4. Number and rate of amphetamine seizures, Queensland, 1997–98 to 2001–02

Source: QPS unpub. (preliminary data should be considered an estimate only).

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amphetamine-type stimulants — aterm that itself may include seizuresof MDMA (ecstasy), which is treatedby the CMC as a distinct crimemarket. Despite this, each year theACC publishes data about thequantity of drugs seized by police inAustralia. Considered in the light ofthe above limitations, these dataprovide a useful picture of thevolume of amphetamine beingseized by police in each State.

QueenslandAs well as there being a decline inthe number of amphetamine arrestsand seizures in Queensland, thequantity of amphetamine beingseized by Queensland police hasdecreased since our assessment in2000. For example, the QPSreportedly seized 15.567 kilogramsin 2000–01 and 9.367 kilograms in2001–02. This decline came aboutdespite an increase in the actualdetection of clandestine labs inQueensland. (The increase indetection of these labs is discussed ingreater detail later in this bulletin.)This apparent contradiction isexplained to a large extent by thefact that 82 per cent of the detectedlabs were inactive at the time ofdetection (ABCI 2002; ACC 2003).

The CMC does not believe that therecorded decrease in arrests and inthe quantities of amphetamine seizedmeans that the amphetamineproblem is diminishing — becausethe data measure law enforcementactivity and success, not thedynamics and dominance of theamphetamine market in Queensland.

AustraliaThere were significant seizures bythe Australian Customs Service (ACS)and the Australian Federal Police(AFP) during this period, includingseizures that occurred inQueensland. For example, in July2001 the ACS detected 168.5kilograms of methylamphetamine,152.2 kilograms of crystallinemethylamphetamine and 90.7kilograms of mixed amphetamine-type stimulant tablets on a yacht atMooloolaba, Queensland (ACC2003). Law enforcement believesthat these drugs were destined in thefirst instance for southern markets.

As well, it was reported by the ACC(2003) that during 2001–02 a total of607.5 kilograms of amphetamine-type stimulants were seized acrossAustralia, up from 229 kilograms in2000–01. This figure includes recordamounts of methylamphetaminebeing seized by the ACS — 324.1kilograms (ACC 2003, pp. 53, 60).

Quality of seizuresMethylamphetamine in its purestform is an oil and, like many otheroils, is not water soluble, making itdifficult for the body to ingest. Toconvert the methylamphetamine oilto a substance that can be readilyabsorbed by the body, the oil is‘salted out’, turning the final productto (generally) methylamphetaminehydrochloride. This methyl-amphetamine hydrochloride in itspurest form is about 80 per centpure. The pure drug is then cut withsubstances like icing sugar andEpsom salts to reduce the purity andincrease the volume of the powderavailable for sale (QHSS 2002).

As shown in Table 1, the purity ofstreet-level amphetamine seizureshas risen steadily in recent years. Atthe same time, the purity of heroin

has plunged. When the purity data ofother drugs is analysed for the years1998–99 to 2001–02, there is adiscernable trend towards a higherpurity product in all cases exceptheroin (QHSS 2002).

Clandestine-labdetectionsOver the last 10 years, Queenslandhas experienced a sharp rise in thedetection of clandestine ampheta-mine labs. In 1994, 12 labs weredetected by police. Most of thesewere large, professionallyestablished, and able to producehigh yields, hence their detectionwould have been a significant loss toorganisers and financiers. In contrast,162 clandestine labs were detectedby police in 2002. These labs tendedto be smaller and more portable(QPS unpub.)

Figure 5 shows a five-year trend inthe number of amphetamine labsseized or detected by police inQueensland.

The move to portable amphetaminelabs in the late 1990s and early2000s has hindered the detection of


Table 1. Average purity of drug samples provided to QHSS for analysis,Queensland, 1998–99 to 2001–02

D r u g P u r i t y %1998–99 1999–2000 2000–01 2001–02

Methylamphetamine 12.1 24.8 29.7 22.1 MDMA 24.8 27.3 36.8 33.4 Heroin 65.0 49.0 37.5 36.4 Cocaine 51.0 28.4 61.5 68.4

Source: QHSS 2002.

Figure 5. Number of amphetamine laboratory detections,Queensland, 1998 to 2002

Source: QPS unpub.

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active labs. These labs provide all theequipment needed for methyl-amphetamine production in a boxthat can be placed into the boot of acar. Although small, these labs arecapable of rapidly producingreasonable quantities of methyl-amphetamine and can be set upanywhere in the State.

In recent years, detection ofclandestine amphetamine labs hasbeen concentrated in the south-eastern corner of Queensland —with almost 80 per cent of alldetected labs located between theGold Coast and Sunshine Coast.6 Thesuccess in detecting these labs hasnot, however, resulted in significantseizures of amphetamine, as many ofthe labs have been inactive at thetime of seizure (ACC 2003).

Although the trends presented hereregarding arrests and seizures appearto be static or declining, datapertaining to the number ofclandestine labs detected over thepast two years show dramaticincreases. These indicators suggestthat while Queensland lawenforcement has increased ineffectiveness, particularly indetecting laboratories, theamphetamine market has continuedto grow in size and complexity.Success toward one aspect of theamphetamine market has not so faraffected other aspects of the market.The challenge for law enforcement isto develop strategies that result inmore arrests and greater quantities ofseized drugs.

Health issuesThis section examines the physicaland psychological health issues aris-ing from the use of amphetamine.

Physical One of the primary health concernssurrounding illicit drug use inAustralia relates to intravenous druguse. The transmission of diseases(such as Hepatitis C and, to a lesserextent, HIV/AIDS) is more prevalentin intravenous drug users than in anyother sector of the community. TheHepatitis C Council of Queenslandreports that 80 per cent of allHepatitis C infections were causedthrough the injecting of illicit drugs.7

In addition to the dangersof intravenous drug use,amphetamine intake inany form increases theheart rate, blood pressure,body temperature,wakefulness andbreathing rate. This cancause irreversible damageto blood vessels in thebrain, producing strokes.Other effects arerespiratory problems,irregular heartbeat andextreme anorexia withabuse of amphetaminepossibly resulting incardiovascular collapseand death (NARCONON2002).

Furthermore, methylamphetaminereleases high levels of theneurotransmitters dopamine andnoradrenaline, which stimulate braincells, enhancing mood and bodyfunction. The neurotoxic effect maydamage brain cells that containdopamine and serotonin. Over time,methylamphetamine appears toreduce dopamine, which can resultin symptoms like those of Parkinson’sdisease (NARCONON 2002). Inanimals, a single high dose ofmethylamphetamine has been shownto damage the nerve receptors in thebrain.8

Preliminary data presented by theQAS to the Australian College ofAmbulance Professionals revealedthat between 1999 and 2001 therehad been a 334 per cent rise in thenumber of call outs required foramphetamine-related incidents. In1999, the QAS was called to attend29 non-fatal amphetamineinterventions. In 2000, this figuremore than doubled to 80 and in2001 attendances had risen to 97.The QAS advised that while theseattendances were classified asoverdoses, the figures were notrepresentative of the extent of theamphetamine problem inQueensland.

Furthermore, while statistics for 2002were not available, anecdotalinformation available to the QASsuggests that the upwards trend since1999 is expected to continue.9

PsychologicalThe United States Drug EnforcementAgency (DEA) reports on its websitethat methylamphetamine isneurotoxic, meaning that it causesdamage to the brain. High doses orchronic use have been associatedwith increased nervousness,irritability and paranoia. Withdrawalfrom high doses generally producessevere depression.

Chronic abuse produces a psychosissimilar to schizophrenia and ischaracterised by paranoia, pickingat the skin, self-absorption andauditory and visual hallucinations.Violent and erratic behaviour isoften seen in chronic, high-dosemethylamphetamine abusers. (DEA2002)

The psychoactive properties ofamphetamine can affect thebehaviour of the user. Changes inmood, personality and thedevelopment of mental disorders aregeneral effects that may followabuse. The effects of amphetamineon a person’s mental state not onlyoccur during intoxication but alsoafterwards during withdrawal andcraving. In studies conducted in theearly 1970s, Griffith, Cavanagh, Heldand Oates noted that mostamphetamine users becamepsychotic within a week aftercontinuous administration ofamphetamine (Griffith et al. 1972).The main characteristics of thispsychosis are delusions ofpersecution, delusion of reference,and auditory and visual hallucination(DEA 2002).


A portable ‘box’ amphetamine lab.

A research study conducted at theUniversity of Queensland andGriffith University to assess therelationship between amphetamineuse and mental health collected datafrom a sample of 252 drug usersrecruited from an inner city needleexchange. Preliminary analysis of thedata collected so far has found thatthe average age of regularamphetamine use is 21 years. Whenquestioned in relation to mentalhealth, 81 of the respondents(32.1%) reported experiencing apsychotic episode and 50respondents (19.8%) had beenadmitted to a psychiatric hospital(Dawe, Saunders, Kevanagh & Young2002, in press). The study found asignificant relationship between thenumber of days of amphetamine usein the last 30 days and currentpsychotic symptoms. Specifically,higher use was associated withsymptoms of thought disorder,hallucinations and cognitivedisorganisation.

Figure 6 shows a five-year trend inthe number of treated patientsdiagnosed with an amphetamine-based disorder. The data reveal thatin 2002 there were over 900 patientspresenting to the Royal BrisbaneHospital’s (RBH) acute psychiatricassessment unit with amphetamine-related diagnoses — an average of2.5 patients per day. As Figure 6illustrates, the number of personsbeing treated at the RBH mentalhealth unit for amphetamine-baseddisorders has been steadilyincreasing since 1997–98.

A SPECT (Single Photon EmissionComputerized Tomography) analysis

of the human brain ‘looks directly atcerebral blood flow and indirectly atbrain activity (or metabolism)’. Byusing SPECT analysis, physicianshave been able to identify certainpatterns of brain activity that maycorrelate with psychiatric andneurological illnesses. In Figure 7,the left-hand image reflects normalbrain functioning while the right-hand image is that of a 28-year oldamphetamine user.10

These images clearly show thatconsequences of methylam-phetamine use appear as multiplesmall holes across the corticalsurface. These changes in brainactivity show ‘dead spots’ where theamphetamine abuse has altered brainstructures.

Amphetamine withdrawalIn 1999, a study was conducted intoamphetamine withdrawal by the

American Psychiatric Association(APA). The study found that thesymptoms of amphetaminewithdrawal differ from those ofopiate withdrawal and are moreclosely associated with cocainewithdrawal, although the duration ofthe symptoms tends to be far longerfor amphetamine than for cocaine(APA 2000). A separate study alsoidentified that amphetaminewithdrawal may comprise threefactors:

1 the hyperarousal factor: drugcraving, agitation and vivid orunpleasant dreams

2 the reversed vegetative factor:decreased energy, increasedappetite and craving for sleep

3 the anxiety factor: loss of interestor pleasure, anxiety and slowingof movement (Srisurapanont,Jarusuraisin & Kittirattanapaiboon2003).


Figure 7. Images of brain activity: normal activity and 28-year-old amphetamine user

Figure 6. Number of treated patients with amphetamine-based diagnoses,Queensland, 1997–98 to 2001–02

Source: Provided by Queensland Health, December 2002..

Note: Amphetamine diagnosis due to drug use/abuse, poisoning and overdoses. The diagnosis code includes other stimulants, such as caffeine. Amphetamine cannot be separated out through ICD codes alone.

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Normal brain activity image Image of brain activity of a 28-year-old amphetamine user

These factors have both physical andpsychological effects upon the healthof the amphetamine user.

Aside from the initial, often pleasant,effects experienced by users, theliterature and front-line professionalsall emphasise the harms observed,the underestimation of the extent ofthe problem and the number ofindividuals subject to these negativeconsequences. The harm inflicted byamphetamine markets is undeniable— a situation that poses very specificchallenges for health professionalsand law enforcement.

The CMC views amphetamine, likeother illicit drugs, as a ‘commodity’(i.e. a good or service), which is soldor traded by a range of individual ororganised criminal enterprises in aneffort to service a particular type ofillicit market. Like all ‘markets’, theillicit amphetamine market must beconsidered in terms of demand andsupply.

DemandTo accurately assess current andfuture trends in the amphetaminemarket, it is necessary to understandwhat factors influence demand. Thecharacteristics of ‘demand’ examinedhere are:

• the type of people attracted toamphetamine

• the number and proportion of thepopulation using amphetamine

• the age and gender of those users

• the drug’s social acceptability

• its popularity compared to otherdrugs

• the pattern of consumption (i.e.when the drug is used)

• the preferred method of adminis-tration

• any tendency to polydrug use

• the price and purity of the drugon the illicit market inQueensland.

User typesAmphetamine use is not restricted toany particular cultural, occupationalor social group. It has long been usedby people required to work orconcentrate for long periods — forexample, transport drivers andprocess workers (BCIQ 2002).Moreover, workers in industries suchas construction, farming andentertainment, as well as personsemployed in stressful occupations,have been noted as users ofamphetamine (QCC 2000; CMCintelligence holdings 2002).Additionally, amphetamine is knownto be used in recreational settings, forinstance in nightclubs (CMCintelligence holdings 1990–2003).

While no particular ethnic orIndigenous group is predominantlyidentified as particular participants inamphetamine markets, intelligencereports since 1999 have suggestedthat Aboriginals and Torres StraitIslanders are increasingly usingamphetamine, both orally withalcohol and via injection (BCC 1999;BCIQ 2002).

Number of usersAmphetamine remains the secondmost popular illicit drug (aftercannabis) and the most commonlyinjected drug in Australia. Resultsfrom the National Drug StrategyHousehold Survey indicate that 8.9per cent of the Australian population(1.4 million) over the age of 14 haveused amphetamine at some time intheir lives, which is several timeshigher than the proportion who haveever used cocaine (4.4%) or heroin(1.6%) (AIHW 2002a). The figure of8.9 per cent for lifetime use ofamphetamine has increased from 5.7per cent in 1995 (AIHW 2002a). Thissubstantial increase in reportedlifetime amphetamine use across thesurvey periods is a key concern as ittends to reflect a broadening of theamphetamine user base inQueensland.

Table 2 shows that in terms of recentuse, slightly less than 3 per cent ofQueenslanders reported usingamphetamine in the past 12 months,which is slightly less than thenational average (AIHW 2002b). Thiscompares with 1.7 per cent ofQueenslanders who reported recent

use of MDMA (ecstasy) or designerdrugs and 0.2 per cent who reportedrecent use of heroin (AIHW 2002b).

Age and gender of usersIn contrast to the Commission’searlier assessment, which concludedthat amphetamine is attractingincreasingly younger users (QCC2000), data collected during the2001 National Drug StrategyHousehold Survey found that themean age of initiation (first use ofamphetamine) in Queenslandincreased from 19.8 years in 1998 to21.5 years in 2001 (AIHW 2000 and2002c). However, when the resultsfrom the 1995 Survey are considered(initiation then 22.1 years), it wouldappear that the mean age of noviceamphetamine use in Queensland hasnot changed dramatically since1995.

In terms of the gender and age ofactive users, the CMC, in collabo-ration with Queensland Health,recently completed a major survey ofamphetamine users at 17 sitesthroughout Queensland. The surveywas undertaken by peer interviewersduring October and November 2002.In total, 690 amphetamine userswere interviewed about theirpersonal experiences with the drug,including their general health, andtheir views on a range of issues,including sociocultural issues, theavailability of the drug, the selling ofamphetamine, its links with crime,injecting practices and knowledge,knowledge about blood-borne


Table 2. Recent illicit amphetamineuse — proportion of the population

aged 14 years and over, States and Territories, 2001

S t a t e / T e r r i t o r y %

Northern Territory 6.3Western Australia 5.8Australian Capital Territory 4.5South Australia 4.3New South Wales 3.4Queensland 2.9Victoria 2.4Tasmania 2.1Australia 3.4

Source: AIHW 2002b.

Note: Use was for non-medical purposes.

2. MARKET CHARACTERISTICS

viruses, and experiences ofinformation and services relating todrug use. The survey found that wellover half of the surveyedamphetamine users were male(55%).11 In addition, most wereyoung, aged between 19 and 30years (see Table 3).

The results of the 2002 survey areexpected to be published in a varietyof reports and research issue papersduring 2003.

Social acceptabilityBased on findings from the NationalDrug Strategy Household Survey, theproportion of Queenslanders over 14years who indicated that they foundthe use of amphetamine ‘acceptable’has increased since 1995. However,as Table 4 shows, recent results fromthe 2001 Survey indicate that thesocial acceptability of amphetaminehas declined since 1998.

Users may find amphetamine moresocially acceptable because its usecarries less stigma than many otherdrugs, such as heroin (QCC 2000).This perception may be due to socialuse (recreational/casual) ofamphetamine, which can ofteninvolve oral or other non-injecting

methods of consumption. As well,Kinner and Roche (2000) report aperception among some users thatamphetamine is not addictive and,therefore, relatively harmless.

Drug preferenceIn 1998, Queenslanders whoresponded to the National DrugStrategy Household Survey rankedamphetamine sixth as the drug of firstchoice, behind alcohol, tobacco,cannabis, heroin, ecstasy andcocaine. As Table 5 shows,amphetamine retained its sixth placeranking in 2001, amidst a substantialshift away from heroin and theemergence of benzodiazepines as adrug of first choice among drugusers.12

Consumption patternsThe Illicit Drug Reporting System(IDRS) primarily monitors the price,purity, availability and patterns ofuse of key illicit drugs by intravenousdrug users in Australia. According toa recent IDRS report, almost all(85%) of Queenslanders who namedamphetamine as their drug of firstchoice reported that they had used itat least once in the past six months.

The median number of days betweeneach use of amphetamine was 50days (NDARC 2001).

Table 6 shows the pattern ofamphetamine use as reported byrecent users participating in theNational Drug Strategy HouseholdSurvey. The main points are:

• Over half of all of the Queens-land amphetamine users surveyedsaid that they only used amphet-amine once or twice a year.

• None of Queensland’s femalerespondents said that they usedamphetamine daily, while only 5 per cent of the male users saidthat they used the drug every day.

• The Survey found that some ofthe ‘most frequent and regular’users of amphetamine areyounger males aged 14 to 29years, whereas infrequent use ofamphetamine seems to be farmore prevalent among olderusers.


Table 5. Preferred drug of ‘first’choice — proportion of the

population aged 14 years and over bygender, drug type and ranking,

Queensland, 1998 and 2001

1 9 9 8 2 0 0 1R a n k i n g D r u g R a n k i n g

1 Alcohol 12 Tobacco 23 Marijuana/cannabis 34 Heroin 75 MDMA 55* Cocaine 86 Amphetamine 6–** Benzodiazepines 4

Source: AIHW 2000, 2002c.

Notes:

* MDMA and cocaine received equal rankings(0.2%)

** Benzodiazepines was not identified as a drug offirst choice in 1998.

Table 4: Proportion of the population aged 14 years and over who found regulardrug use by adults acceptable, by drug type and gender,

Queensland and Australia, 1995, 1998 and 2001

D r u g 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 1% % %

Q l d A u s Q l d A u s Q l d A u s

Amphetamine 1.6 2.1 3.2 3.1 2.2 3.2Cocaine 1.2 1.7 2.3 2.4 1.3 2.2Heroin 2.3 1.9 1.8 1.8 0.7 1.2

Source: AIHW 2000, 2002c.

Note: Comparability in rates from 1998 to 2001 has been affected through modification of survey question.

Table 3. Age of amphetamine users,Queensland, 2002

A g e %

0–18 7.419–25 36.226–30 23.231–35 13.736–45 15.646 and over 3.8

Source: CMC–Queensland Health data (to be published).

Table 6. Frequency of illicit amphetamine use — recent users aged 14 years andover, by age, by gender, Queensland, 2001

F r e q u e n c y A g e g r o u p G e n d e r1 4 –1 9 2 0 –2 9 3 0 –3 9 4 0 + M a l e F e m a l e

% %

Daily 7 – 5 – 5 –One a week 7 8 – – 5 6About once a month 29 14 20 13 14 20Every few months 29 22 5 – 18 16Once or twice per year 29 53 70 50 55 51Can’t say or no answer – 4 – 38 5 6

Source: AIHW 2002c.


The preferred method ofadministrationHow a drug is taken or administeredis often considered in any analysis ofillicit drug markets because thepreferred method of administrationoften indicates consumption trendsamong users, the form and type ofdrug in demand, and trends inpolydrug use.

Studies relating to aspects of theamphetamine market in Queenslandover the past decade suggest anupwards trend in levels of injecting.For example, a study conducted in1992 reported that 75 per cent ofrecreational drug users (streetintercept) had used amphetamine atleast once. Of this number (581),only one-third had injected the drug,with the remainder takingamphetamine orally or intranasally(Spooner, Flaherty & Homel 1992).

In 2000, the Commission reportedthat injection was the most commonmethod of consuming amphetamineand that amphetamine was the drugmost commonly injected inQueensland (QCC 2000, p. 11). TheCMC’s recent survey of 690 currentamphetamine users showed that overthree-quarters (76.2%) of users hadused amphetamine intravenously.13

Alternatively, statistical datacollected by the QueenslandIntravenous AIDS Association(QuIVAA) since March 2002 (albeitfrom a small and non-representativesample) has found that about 38 percent of users attending the counter ofthe needle-exchange clinic inBrisbane reported that needlesobtained through their visit were tobe used to inject amphetamine (seeTable 7). In comparison, 45 per centof users stated the needles obtainedwould be used to inject heroin.

When examining the extent ofamphetamine use by the method ofadministration, it is important to notethat these data relate specifically tothe number of presentations at aBrisbane needle-exchange counterand therefore do not adequatelyassess the oral or intranasal adminis-tration of amphetamine. It is far moredifficult to complete a survey ofrecreational amphetamine users(who are more likely to use a meansof administration other than

injecting) than it is to survey injectingusers. This is largely due to non-intravenous users being the leastlikely to present to a health service orcome to the attention of lawenforcement. Therefore, it is far moredifficult to establish reliably theextent of non-injecting amphetamineuse.

Surveys of amphetamine usersinherently present a variety ofmethodological challenges; however,an amalgamation of the results ofeach study does allow a ‘collage-type’ picture of amphetamine useand markets to emerge.

The CMC assesses that the level ofintravenous administration ofamphetamine is increasing, but thatthe level of administration by othermethods is also significant; furtherresearch is required to estimate thelevel of non-intravenous use morereliably.

Polydrug useMany agencies consulted spoke of anoticeable increase in polydrug usein Queensland. In particular,amphetamine users were identifiedas a prominent polydrug user group.

Their polydrug use may constituteconcurrent amphetamine use withalcohol, cannabis, heroin, ecstasy,ketamine, anti-depressants andtranquillisers (ABCI 2002; NDARC2002). As well, benzodiazepines,traditionally used for treatingpsychiatric complaints, severeanxiety and sleeplessness, is beingreported as being commonly used incombination with amphetamine(ABCI 2002 and ACC 2003).

Price The price of methylamphetamineincreased in Queensland from 2000to 2001. For example, data collectedfrom intravenous drug users inQueensland as part of the IDRSsuggest that the price per gram ofmethylamphetamine has increased180 per cent — from $80 per gramin 2000 to $224 in 2001. In contrast,survey respondents reported that theprice of amphetamine declined from$262 per gram in 2000 to $157 in2001 (see Table 8).

In Queensland, most amphetamine issold in ‘points’ (equal to 0.06–0.1grams).14 In 2003, QuIVAA estimatedthat the cost of a point of methylam-phetamine was about $50.15


Table 8: Price of amphetamine powders by type and perception of availability,Queensland, 2000 and 2001

A m p h e t a m i n e M e t h y l a m p h e t a m i n eQ l d 2 0 0 0 Q l d 2 0 0 1 Q l d 2 0 0 0 Q l d 2 0 0 1

n = 1 0 1 n = 1 1 2 n = 1 0 1 n = 1 1 2

Price ($) per gram$262 $157 $80 $224

Availability (% commenting)

Very easy 39 32 39 39

Easy 23 18 23 23

Difficult 5 5 5 9

Very difficult 0 0 1 1

Don’t know 33 45 33 29

Source: NDARC 2001.

Table 7. Self-reported use of needle/syringe by drug type and age of user,Brisbane, 2002

D r u g t y p e A g e g r o u p T o t a l< 1 9 1 9 –2 5 2 6 –3 5 3 6 –4 5 > 4 5

Amphetamine 155 793 1573 860 139 3520Heroin 174 881 1722 1283 127 4187Ecstasy/MDMA – 4 17 5 – 26

Source: Provided by QuIVAA 2002.

Table 8 shows that 60 per cent ofrespondents reported that it waseither easy or very easy to obtainamphetamine in Queensland.Relatively few of the users surveyedas part of the IDRS said that it wasdifficult to ‘score’ amphetamine andvirtually none of the respondentsreported that it was ‘very’ difficult toobtain the drug.

Purity As highlighted in Table 1 (page 5),chemical analyses of seized street-level amphetamine reveal that thepurity of amphetamine has risensubstantially in recent years. Forexample, in 1998–99 methyl-amphetamine samples analysed byQHSS were found to be about 12 percent pure. However, by 2001–02,the purity of the average methyl-amphetamine sample had almostdoubled to around 22 per cent.

There are at least three contributingfactors to the increase in the purity ofamphetamine on the Queenslandmarket: 1 Producers of amphetamine have

responded to the market demandfor a higher-quality product. Thisresponse is possible through thepresence of experienced ‘cooks’who are able through increasingprofessionalism and expertise toproduce a better quality product.

2 Improved law enforcementpractices have resulted in therecovery of more pure forms ofamphetamine — which aresubsequently tested.

3 There may be a glut or over-supply of amphetamine on themarket, resulting in producersand suppliers not needing todrastically ‘cut’ the drug toincrease quantities and satisfydemand.

The actual reason for increasinglevels of purity in Queenslandsamples of amphetamine ormethylamphetamine is likely to be acombination of these factors.However, as Queensland puritylevels have been reported to begenerally higher than otherAustralian States and Territories, ananalysis of the factors at playelsewhere may be able to providegreater clarity as to the reasons forthe situation here.

SupplyThis section examines aspects of thesupply side of the amphetaminemarket. The discussion focuses onsome of the key sources of illicitamphetamine including methods ofmanufacture, networks involved insupply and distribution, and thelinks between amphetamine andother crime markets.

Source of amphetamineAs Table 9 shows, friends oracquaintances are overwhelminglythe main sources of supply toamphetamine users. In terms of first-time supply, 84.4 per cent of personsaged 14 and over received the drugfrom friends or acquaintances.Recent supply (within the last 12months) of amphetamine was fromfriends or acquaintances (78.5%),street dealers (10.4%), relatives(6.1%), spouse or partner (2.7%) andother (2.2%) (AIHW 2002a).

Law enforcement intelligencesources continue to indicate thatdistribution points for amphetamineinclude nightclubs, cabarets anddance parties, and general streetdistribution. The large number ofusers results in amphetamine beingreadily available through expansivenetworks.

ManufactureThe supply of amphetamine inQueensland can be likened in manyrespects to a ‘cottage industry’ —that is, markets are generallycategorised by many relatively smalland diverse suppliers collectivelyproducing a significant quantity ofproduct.

Most amphetamine available inQueensland is manufactured in

portable ‘box labs’ (see page 6),using pseudoephedrine as aprecursor. Laboratories detected inQueensland in recent years havemainly used the hypophosphorousmethod of amphetaminemanufacture. However, other morecomplex methods are known to havebeen used here, particularly beforethe mid-1990s.

The manufacture of amphetaminerequires the use of two main classesof chemicals: precursors/reagentsand solvents. Pseudoephedrine-containing products are the primaryprecursor required to producemethylamphetamine.

Pseudoephedrine is a chemicalcompound used (legitimately)extensively in pharmaceuticalproducts designed to treat cold andflu symptoms. The manufacture ofmethylamphetamine using the mostcommonly encountered methodsrequires the extraction of thepseudoephedrine from the pharma-ceutical product and the subsequentsynthesis of the pseudoephedrine tomethylamphetamine.16

A reagent is primarily used tofacilitate this chemical reaction.Some of the reagents used arehypophosphorous acid, hydrochloricacid, hydriodic acid, iodine and redphosphorous. The diversion of someof these chemicals for illicit drugmanufacture is subject to a numberof controls ranging from internationalconventions to an individualcompany’s procedures.

The Commission’s research of open-source media indicates thatsubstantial amounts of informationare available to the general publicregarding the production ofamphetamine, the synthesis of

Table 9. Source of first and recent illicit amphetamine — recent users aged 14years and over, by gender, Queensland, 2001

S o u r c e F i r s t u s e R e c e n t u s e% %

Friend/acquaintance 84.4 78.5Relative 4.2 6.1Spouse or partner 2.7 2.7Dealer 4.2 10.4Other 4.5 2.2

Source: AIHW 2002c.



precursors, necessary equipment andacquisition methods. Several Internetnews-groups specifically focusingupon the manufacture ofamphetamine have been established.These groups act similarly to abulletin board, where users may postinformation for the use of thosesubscribed to the group. Informationcontained on these news-groupsinclude recipe locations, how toacquire precursors and answeringspecific questions about the synthesisfor various amphetamine.

ImportationIn November 2000, the Commissionnoted that ‘the possibility of large-scale importation of amphetaminewith high purity levels is a worst casescenario for law enforcementagencies in Australia’ (QCC 2000, p. 13). Since then, importations ofboth amphetamine and precursorchemicals have been detected bylaw enforcement agencies inAustralia, suggesting the market isevolving in this direction.

Although there does not appear to beany shortage of amphetamine from‘domestic’ sources, criminalnetworks from several South-EastAsian countries are known to beexporting more potent forms ofamphetamine (predominantly ‘ice’and ‘ya ba’) and precursor chemicalsto Australia. In the main, theseinclude several countries with well-established heroin distributionnetworks, such as China, Thailand,Vietnam, Philippines, Laos andMyanmar (i.e. Burma).

During 2000–01, the ACS detected atotal of 86.5 kilograms of illicitamphetamine at Australian borders(ABCI 2002). Although the totalnumber of detections ofamphetamine by the ACS actuallyfell during that period (from 60 in2000 to 49 in 2001), the weight ofthe average seizure rose from 358grams to 1.7 kilograms (ABCI 2002).During 2001–02, 428.3 kilograms ofamphetamine were detected at theirpoint of arrival into Australia.However, it should be noted that411.4 kilograms, or 96 per cent ofthe total weight seized by the ACSand police in 2001–02, was theresult of a single confiscation inSouth-East Queensland (ACC 2003).

The number of detections increasedsignificantly during the period from49 to 203, with the average weightincreasing to 2.1 kilograms — againlargely due to the one significantseizure (ACC 2003).

The most commonly detectedmethod of importing amphetamineinto Australia was via ‘post’ (80% in2001–02). Only about 8 per cent ofall amphetamine importationsdetected by the ACS were via ‘aircargo’ (ACC 2003). Of 203detections made by the ACS at theborder, less than 10 per centoccurred in Queensland. But, asnoted above, the detections inQueensland accounted for more than96 per cent of the total weight of allof the amphetamine detected by theACS in 2001–02 (ACC 2003).

In 2001–02, the ACS reporteddetecting 1628 attemptedimportations of chemicals used in themanufacture of amphetamine-typestimulants (i.e. precursors, such aspseudoephedrine or ephedrine). TheUnited States was the mainembarkation point for most of thesedetections (71%), followed byCanada, the United Kingdom andChina (ACC 2003). However, someof these chemicals were not intendedfor the manufacture of illicitamphetamine, but rather wereintended for use in health and fitnessand weight loss products or as coldand flu preparations. The mostcommon method of importingprecursor chemicals into Australiawas also via mail (ACC 2003).

The trend towards increasedimportation of amphetamine, particularly crystal methylam-phetamine, and precursors is aconcern for a number of reasons. A continuation of the trend couldherald a steady supply of higher-purity amphetamine to marketswhere demand is high. It is likely,given the source and transhipmentcountries for the importedamphetamine, that the ACS will seedual shipments of heroin andamphetamine at the borders, andlocal law enforcement will see a fargreater role being played on thesupply side of the market by South-East Asian organised crime networks.

Links between crime marketsBecause amphetamine users tend toconsume a variety of illicit drugs,they are often represented in otherillicit drug markets, such as theheroin, benzodiazepines and ecstasymarkets (QCC 2001). Amphetamineproducers also commonly havecriminal histories involving thecultivation and/or distribution ofcannabis.17

Interestingly, over 16 per cent ofecstasy tablets analysed inQueensland in 2000–01 containedadditives, including amphetamineand methylamphetamine, withamphetamine tablets often beingdisguised and sold as ecstasy inQueensland. This practice isbelieved to occur in order to takeadvantage of the growing market fordesigner drugs (QCC 2001).

Based on recent intelligence reports,the Commission believes that theneed for large quantities ofpseudoephedrine and like precursorshas caused some amphetaminenetworks to attempt illicitimportations of precursor chemicalsin bulk or to steal precursors fromchemical companies andpharmacies. However, individualsand networks making coordinatedpurchases of pseudoephedrine-basedproducts on behalf of amphetamine‘cooks’ now risk being prosecutedunder Queensland legislation, whichmakes it an offence to be inpossession of a precursor with theintention of manufacturing orproducing a prohibited drug.

Criminal networks that feature in theamphetamine market are also ofteninvolved in a range of other (non-drug) crime markets. Recent lawenforcement operations againstamphetamine networks have seenoffenders also charged with the theftand re-identification of motorvehicles, and with firearms andproperty crime offences.18 It isbelieved some amphetamineproducers accept payment byswapping amphetamine orprecursors for stolen goods.19

Intelligence reports indicate that linksexist between amphetaminenetworks and some owners oflicensed premises suspected orknown to be selling amphetamine(particularly in regional centres). In


some cases, the relationship betweenmembers of the amphetaminenetwork and licensees also extendsto illegal prostitution and othercriminal activities.20

In all illicit drug markets there is aninevitable close relationship betweenamphetamine networks and moneylaundering. As part of the previousamphetamine market assessment in2000, the Commission estimated theamphetamine market to be wortharound $400 million per annum. In2003, using the same formula, theCommission estimates the ampheta-mine market in Queensland is nowworth about $450 million perannum.21

Networks and organisationsIn 2000, the Commission’sassessment of networks and organi-sations involved in amphetaminemarkets indicated that personsimplicated in the manufacture anddistribution of amphetamine were ofdiverse ethnic and criminalbackgrounds (QCC 2000). In 2003,this assessment remains valid. In fact,the diversity of networks haswidened substantially and now isbelieved to encompass criminalnetworks not previously linked to theamphetamine market.22

Most Australian jurisdictions, otherthan Victoria and Queensland, reportthat outlaw motorcycle gangs(OMCGs) continue to play adominant role in methylam-phetamine manufacture and distri-bution (ABCI 2002 and ACC 2003).The position in Queensland is lessclear cut. OMCGs, as distinct andcohesive units, do not appear to beinvolved in drug manufacture ordistribution here, but ratherindividual OMCG members are partof networks that are involved in suchactivity.

The Commission is unaware of anycase in Queensland in which theentire membership of an OMCG hasbeen implicated in drug-relatedcrime. Conversely, there are manycases of OMCG members colludingwith criminals who are not membersof an OMCG.23 The CMC is aware ofcases in which members of the samechapter of an OMCG were involvedin different criminal networksproducing amphetamine for the same

market. In fact, the members weretechnically (and apparently amiably)competing against each other tosupply the market.24

Intelligence reports suggest anothersignificant factor is that QueenslandOMCGs do not appear to exhibit thedomination, expertise and sophisti-cation that their interstatecounterparts do, particularly inrelation to the amphetamine market.However, in some smaller regionalQueensland centres OMCGs doexert considerable market control.

The amphetamine productioncapability of the more sophisticatedOMCGs in southern States has notbeen approached by any OMCG inQueensland. Reasons for this are notfully known and warrant closerscrutiny. It is possible that thesituation is a function of thegeographic spread of OMCGs alongQueensland’s eastern seaboard andin the major regional centres and theconsequent reduction in directcompetition and confrontationbetween OMCGs in Queensland.

Equally, OMCGs outsideQueensland may have evolved toanother level in an effort to combatthe more effective powers that areavailable to law enforcementagencies in other jurisdictions. It isalso possible that the nature of theQueensland amphetamine market,with its diversity, high demand anddomination by simple manufacturingprocesses, has influenced the shapeof local OMCG activity. Regardlessof the reasons, there are equallymany local criminal networksinvolved in the manufacture anddistribution of amphetamine, atvarying levels of sophistication, asthose involving OMCG members.25

The local networks are significantboth in number and their level ofinfluence in several key regionalmarkets. The major amphetaminemarkets in South-East Queensland,particularly Brisbane and the GoldCoast, attract myriad suppliers,creating a situation where no groupis dominant. Most street-level dealershave more than one supplier toguard against temporary shortages ofproduct, and appear to move freelybetween suppliers (withoutretribution) as quality of productvaries.26 Networks frequently extend

interstate, with precursors andamphetamine being transportedbetween jurisdictions. Networks arealso responsible for coordinatedpurchases of pseudoephedrine-basedproducts from chemists throughoutthe State, while in several recentcases chemists have been detectedconsciously participating in criminalnetworks.27

The CMC is aware of two recentexamples of Queensland criminalsconspiring with interstate andoverseas criminals in an attempt toimport precursors into Queenslandfrom Europe and North Americarespectively — in both cases OMCGmembers were involved in thenetworks but did not play a centralrole in the attempted importations.28

A number of South-East Asianorganised crime groups, previouslycontent with heroin distribution, arenow involved in the supply ofamphetamine in South-East Queens-land. Workers in several keyindustries are also being noted byQueensland law enforcementagencies as regular amphetaminesuppliers and users.29

As noted previously, there appears tobe little conflict, and in many caseseven cooperation, between therespective amphetamine supplynetworks, suggesting the market issufficiently large and profitable tosustain a large number ofindependent suppliers. There is alsoconsiderable variability ofmembership within and between thenetworks. In North Queensland,criminal identities appear to moveregularly between cities and townsand may be involved in networks invarious places.

Intelligence reports also suggest thatamong a growing number ofindividuals who are able tomanufacture amphetamine, there arean increasing number of recidivistamphetamine ‘cooks’. A number ofindividuals in Queensland have beenapprehended for amphetamineproduction up to ten times — only toreturn to ‘cooking’ upon release fromprison or while on bail. Recidivistcooks continue to pose problems forlaw enforcement. In a dynamicmarket, the arrest of one cook ordistributor does little to disruptmarket supply.


Related crimeThe AIC’s Drug Use Monitoring inAustralia (DUMA) Program wasintroduced in 1999 in part to providea database that would permitanalysis of links between drugs andcrime. In 2001, the DUMA SouthportWatchhouse Project indicated that,of the sampled males who testedpositive for amphetamine, 45.5 percent were detained for trafficoffences, 34.1 per cent for propertyoffences, 31.4 per cent for breaches,26.7 per cent for violent offences,23.5 per cent for drug offences, and14.3 per cent for drink-driving.During 2002, the sampled maleswho tested positive for amphetaminewere detained for drug offences(61.5%), property offences (33.0%),breaches (28.3%), violent offences(21.8%), traffic and disorder offences(17.7% respectively) and drink-driving (13.3%). For both male andfemale offenders, there was anincreasing trend from 1999 to 2002of detained persons testing positivefor ampheta-mine (AIC 2002 and2003).

The DUMA Program was extendedto the Brisbane City Watchhouse forthe first time in 2002. At thewatchhouse, 26.2 per cent ofdetained males and 38.8 per cent ofdetained females tested positive foramphetamine — in both cases ahigher percentage than for any otherillicit drug except cannabis. Thesampled males who tested positivefor amphetamine were detained fordrug offences (39.1%), propertyoffences (30.1%), breaches (29.3%),disorder offences (21.7%), trafficoffences (20.5%), violent offences(19.9%) and drink-driving (11.8%).Data from both Queensland sites addweight to anecdotal reports linkingamphetamine use to a range ofcriminal offending.

In 2002, the former ABCI reportedthat law enforcement officerscontinued to express concern atencountering violent personssuffering the effects of amphetamineuse — particularly higher-purityforms of methylamphetamine (ACC2003). Similarly, health agencieshave recognised that amphetamine

abuse affects the behaviour of theuser and can induce amphetaminepsychosis, which is characterised byparanoid delusions, hallucinationsand aggressive or violent behaviour.30

While health data reflect significantincreases in hospital admissions foramphetamine psychosis, theseadmissions most likely understate theactual number of people experi-encing harmful consequences ofamphetamine use.31

As well as conventional types ofoffending more commonlyassociated with drug markets,potential offences arising from theenvironment hazards created byamphetamine ‘cooks’ who dump theby-products of amphetamineproduction are of concern to lawenforcement and health agencies.The amphetamine manufacturingprocess generates large quantities ofhighly toxic, flammable andpotentially explosive material. Whenthese substances are buried ordumped illegally, a serious environ-mental threat is posed. The dangersassociated with these types ofpractices warrant further attention(ACC 2003).

As amphetamine abuse becomesmore prevalent across Australia, lawenforcement, government, andhealth agencies, along with thechemical and pharmaceuticalindustries, are working together inan effort to minimise the harmsassociated with amphetamine abuse.This section highlights some of thekey responses to the amphetamineproblem by government, industryand law enforcement.

Government responses National action planThe Australian National DrugStrategy (NDS) aims ‘to minimise theharmful effects of drug use inAustralian society’.32 In 1997, the‘National Drug Strategic Framework’was developed by the NDS. Thisframework, which presents acoordinated action plan aimed atreducing the harm caused

by drugs, led to the establishment ofthe ‘National Action Plan on IllicitDrugs’. The plan provides nationallyagreed directions for confrontingillicit-drug problems and outlinesseven key areas for preventing theuptake of illicit drug use andassociated harms. These areas are:

1 demand reduction (prevent ordelay the uptake of illicit druguse)

2 supply reduction (reduce street-level dealing, production, supplyand distribution)

3 treatment (provide support tofamilies of drug users, integratedrug-treatment programs —pharmacotherapy, mental health,detoxification, inpatient,outpatient, relapse prevention)

4 harm reduction (decrease drug-related overdoses, spread ofinfectious diseases, drug-relatedcrime)

5 workforce development (increasecapacity to identify drugproblems, training for health,welfare, law enforcement andcorrections and buildpartnerships across sectors)

6 research (promote and engage inintegrated and collaborative illicitdrug research)

7 monitoring illicit drug trends(collect data relating to drugtrends: price, purity, perception,prevalence, treatment, overdosesand harms).

Rescheduling of precursorsIn September 2001, amphetamineand methylamphetamine wereupgraded in the Drugs MisuseRegulation 1987 from ‘ScheduleTwo’ to ‘Schedule One’ drugs. Thisraised the maximum penalty forserious (trafficking) amphetamineoffences from 20 to 25 years’ impris-onment in Queensland. Amendmentsto the Regulation also movedprecursor chemicals into ScheduleSix, making them controlledsubstances.

Both the Drugs Misuse Act 1986 andthe Drugs Misuse Regulation 1987are constantly being reviewed andamended to reflect national andinternational trends in manufacturingmethods and the changing drugmarkets.


3. EMERGING RESPONSES


Amphetamine profiling —signature programIn 1997, the Federal Governmentprovided funding for the ‘NationalHeroin Signature Program’ (NHSP) aspart of its National Illicit DrugStrategy. The NHSP involves a majorresearch effort into chemicalprofiling of heroin to help stem thetrafficking of illicit drugs. Profilinginvolves the chemical and physicalprofiling of all significant seizures ofheroin so that sources can be traced,allowing comparisons to be madebetween seizures.

As part of the National Illicit DrugStrategy, the Federal Governmentrecently committed $4.7 million overthe next four years to establishing anamphetamine signature program torun parallel to the heroin program.The aim of the program is to counterthe rapid escalation in the demandfor and supply of amphetamine.

Industry responsesIndustry code of practiceTwo scientific and chemical industrypeak bodies — Science IndustryAustralia and the Plastics andChemicals Industries Association —have identified the threat posed bychemical-drug diversion and theillicit use of scientific equipment,and have recently established anindustry code of practice. The codeof practice is not compulsory, butacceptance of it has reportedly beenalmost universal throughout therespective industries.

Pharmacy controls at point ofsaleThe diversion of pseudoephedrinefrom legitimate pharmaceuticalproducts is an issue of major concernthroughout Australia. The PharmacyBoard and the Pharmacy Guild ofAustralia have been cooperating withlaw enforcement and health agenciesat state and federal levels tominimise the diversion ofpseudoephedrine-based products.Discussions have also been held withindustry representatives toreformulate the products to hinderthe conversion of pseudoephedrine.

The retail and manufacturingpharmaceutical industries have

already adopted such controls as thesale of large packs on prescriptiononly, tighter regulations surroundingsales, alerts, getting police to addresspharmaceutical meetings, reportingsuspicious sales, and an updatedcurriculum for student pharmacists.

Law enforcementresponsesIn 2001, the QueenslandAmphetamine Strategy Committeewas established to aid the QPSChemical Diversion Desk. ThisCommittee is a representative groupmade up of industry, pharmacy, lawenforcement, health and communityrepresentatives. The Committeediscusses current and emergingtrends in relation to amphetamine,and formulates strategies to combatthem.

The QPS Chemical Diversion Deskaims to enhance the early detectionof movements of precursorchemicals. It plays an integral liaisonrole between the law enforcementcommunity, industry and pharmacygroups and Queensland Health, hasestablished education programs, anddisseminates documents topharmacists relating to the sale ofpseudoephedrine products.

Since the recognition ofamphetamine as a problem, everyAustralian jurisdiction hasestablished specialist police squadstasked with the identification anddismantling of illicit labs. Suchsquads have led to training coursesspecifically designed to addressamphetamine-related issues.Recently, the QPS has developed atraining package to help policemanage drug-affected individuals.This program is expected tonoticeably enhance police responsein this area.

There is little cause for optimism inassessing the amphetamine marketin Queensland.

The rate of amphetamine-relatedprovider and consumer arrests inQueensland is likely to remain wellabove the national rate.

While successful in the detection ofclandestine laboratories, thechallenge for law enforcement is todevelop and implement strategiesthat increase the number of arrestsand the amount of drug seizures.

The market continues to be demand-driven with amphetamine productionremaining steady, perhapsincreasing, and reports ofamphetamine abuse remaining atalarming levels. The purity of street-level amphetamine appears to beincreasing — a trend that is likely tocontinue in the short term.

Amphetamine production remains arelatively simple chemical processand recipes are readily obtainablethrough open-source media (such asthe Internet). Although a number ofsteps have been taken to hinder thechemical and precursor diversion ofsubstances to illicit amphetaminemanufacture, in the main theseefforts have not had a substantialeffect on disrupting the market.

Moreover, since the inception ofsome precursor controls, there havebeen noticeable increases in theimportation of amphetamine and itsprecursors. As domestic controlscontinually reshape the market, it isreasonable to assume that this trendwill persist. In particular, new andmore efficient suppliers may emerge,becoming a critical factor on thesupply side of the Queenslandmarket. The Queenslandamphetamine market has a history of

While the focus of this bulletin is on the risk posed by theillicit amphetamine market, the CMC is assessing other illicitdrug markets in Queensland. Further publications areexpected to be available in late 2003/early 2004.

4. OUTLOOK


evolving to more efficient levels inresponse to law enforcement orpharmaceutical initiatives — thispresents a continuous challenge forlaw enforcement and otherstakeholder agencies.

Previously, major health concernswith illicit drug use focused onopiates — specifically, injectingharms, overdoses, and diseasetransmission. With the emergingprevalence of intravenousamphetamine use, these concernsare replicated. Together with mentalhealth issues and consequences of

amphetamine abuse (hostility,aggression, paranoia), they addanother dimension to the problem ofillicit drug use in Queensland.

Furthermore, the escalatingprevalence of amphetamine use andabuse may place an increasingburden upon emergency services,law enforcement and physical andmental health facilities throughoutthe State. The current demand onthese services can reasonably beexpected to rise and may have animpact on future resource allocationwithin the relevant agencies.

In November 2000, the Commissionassessed that amphetamine hadovertaken heroin in terms of the riskit posed to the Queenslandcommunity. That assessment wasbased upon the reduction in heroinavailability and the increase inreliance on the health system as aconsequence of amphetamine abuse.In 2003, this assessment holds true— amphetamine remains the pre-eminent threat, in a more diverseillicit drug market, and is unlikely tochange in the short to medium term.

Findings• The amphetamine market poses the highest risk to the

Queensland community. The CMC evaluates the amphetaminemarket as the highest risk drug market because of amphetamine’sready availability and the extensive harm to the communitycaused by amphetamine abuse.

• MDMA (ecstasy) is assessed as a high-risk drug market because ofits increasing prevalence and the harm caused by MDMA abuse.

• Heroin, though not as prevalent as MDMA, is assessed as a high-risk drug market because of the extensive harm to the communitycaused by heroin abuse.

RatingsVERY HIGH Amphetamine

HIGH MDMA (Ecstasy)Heroin

MEDIUM Cocaine

Benzodiazepines

LOW Cannabis

RISK ANALYSIS

1 QCC 1999, Project Krystal: A StrategicAssessment of Organised Crime inQueensland. (The QCC merged with theCJC on 1 January 2002 to form theCMC.)

2 QCC 2000, ‘The Amphetamine Marketin Queensland’, Crime Bulletin, No. 2.

3 This indicator data should not beviewed in isolation but rather in thecontext of all information presented inthis report.

4 The CMC has no direct quality controlover statistics sourced from otheragencies and limitations applying tothese data continue to be applicable inthis publication.

5 In late 2000, a significant shortage inthe availability of heroin was noted inall States. This ‘heroin drought’ hasbeen widely reported as promptingsome users to seek other types of drugs(Chilvers, Korabelnikoff & Ramsay2002).

6 Ibid.7 Personal consultation with Hepatitis C

Council.

8 www.nida.nih.gov9 Personal consultation with QAS,

December 2002.10 www.brainplace.com (accessed 6.6.03)11 Percentage of male amphetamine users

is not representative of the totalamphetamine user population. It islikely that the methods employed in thisstudy resulted in a slight bias towardsfemale users.

12 Benzodiazepines affect the centralnervous system by slowing down thebody physically and psychologically.Common forms include Valium andSerepax (ACC 2003).

13 Percentage of injecting amphetamineusers is not representative of the totalpopulation. The methods employed inthis study involved peer interviewersrecruiting respondents from theirimmediate social networks and viasnowballing techniques.

14 Pure ‘base’ form of amphetamine.15 Personal consultation with QulVAA.16 Personal consultation with Queensland

Health.

17 CMC database holdings.18 CMC, QPS and ACC database holdings.19 ibid.20 CMC and QPS database holdings.21 The value of the amphetamine market is

estimated by taking an arbitraryconsumption of 2 grams of methylam-phetamine per month at $224 per gram,multiplied by 84 455 (recent)Queensland users.

22 CMC, QPS and ACC database holdings.23 ibid.24 CMC intelligence and operational

holdings, 2001–03.25 CMC, QPS and ACC database holdings.26 Commission database holdings

1999–2003.27 ACC 2003; CMC database holdings.28 CMC intelligence and operational

holdings 2001–03.29 CMC and QPS database holdings.30 www.adf.org.au31 Personal consultation with Queensland

Health.32 www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au

Endnotes


5. ASSESSMENT & SUMMARY

ASSESSMENTThe CMC assesses that amphetamineremains the primary illicit drug ofconcern to the Queensland community,ahead of other drugs, such as heroin, interms of potential risk and harm.

SUMMARY

Extent of the problem

Arrests• Although showing signs of levelling

off, Queensland continues to havesome of the highest amphetamine-related arrest rates (per 100 000population) in Australia.

Seizures• The number of amphetamine seizures

is declining in Queensland, as is theactual quantity of drugs being seizedby Queensland police.

• The purity of street-level amphetamineis rising.

• While fluctuations may be expected inseizures and purity levels, the recenttrends require monitoring.

Laboratories detected• There has been a 40 per cent increase

in clandestine laboratory seizuresfrom 2001 — and a 70 per centincrease from 2000.

Health• Amphetamine causes:

— adverse physical effects on thebody

— neurotoxic effects on the brain

— transmission of disease throughintravenous use

— high prevalence of psychoticepisodes among regular users.

• The number of amphetamine presen-tations to psychiatric wards isincreasing.

• 2.5 users present daily to RBH withamphetamine-related problems.

Market characteristics

Demand• Amphetamine remains the second

most popular illicit drug (aftercannabis) and the most commonlyinjected drug in Australia.

• Over half of all amphetamine users inQueensland are male and agedbetween 19 and 30 years.

• Amphetamine is no longer confined toparticular user groups.

Social acceptability

• The social acceptability ofamphetamine has declined slightly inrecent years, but there is still aperception among some users thatamphetamine is not addictive and,therefore, relatively harmless.

Drug preference

• Queenslanders ranked amphetaminesixth as their drug of first choicebehind alcohol, tobacco, cannabis,benzodiazepines and ecstacy.

Consumption patterns

• Some of the ‘most frequent andregular’ users of amphetamine areyounger males aged 14 to 29 years —casual use of amphetamine seems tobe more common among older users.

Administration

• Injection is the most commonlyreported method of takingamphetamine.

• Difficulties continue to exist inassessing non-intravenous usage.

Polydrug use

• Amphetamine users have beenidentified as prominent polydrug usersand regularly take the drug concur-rently with alcohol, cannabis, heroin,ecstacy, ketamine, anti-depressantsand tranquillisers.

Price

• The price of methylamphetamine hasincreased significantly in Queenslandover the last couple of years, but theprice of amphetamine has declined.

Purity

• The purity of street-level amphetaminehas almost doubled between 1998and 2002 and is generally higher thanelsewhere in Australia.

Supply

Source of amphetamine

• Friends or acquaintances areoverwhelmingly the main sources of supply to amphetamine users inQueensland — distribution pointsinclude nightclubs, cabarets anddance parties, and general street distribution.

Manufacture

• The supply of amphetamine inQueensland is in many respects a‘cottage industry’ — that is, many

relatively small and diverse supplierscollectively produce a significantquantity of product.

• Methylamphetamine is the mostcommon form of the drugmanufactured in Queensland.

• Most methylamphetamine available inQueensland is manufactured inportable ‘box labs’.

Importation

• Criminal networks from several South-East Asian countries are known to beexporting amphetamine and precursorchemicals to Australia.

• Detections in Queensland accountedfor 96 per cent of the total weight ofall of the amphetamine detected bythe ACS in 2001–02.

Links between crime markets

• Amphetamine users tend to consumea variety of illicit drugs and are oftenrepresented in other illicit drugmarkets, such as the heroin, benzodi-azepines and ecstacy markets.

• Some illicit amphetamine networksare attempting to import chemicals inbulk or to steal from chemicalcompanies and pharmacies.

Networks and organisations

• People involved in the manufactureand distribution of amphetamine areof diverse ethnic and criminalbackgrounds.

• Most Australian jurisdictions reportthat OMCGs continue to play adominant role in methylamphetaminemanufacture and distribution —however, in Queensland the situationis different. There are many otherlocal criminal networks, besidesOMCG members, involved in themanufacture and distribution ofamphetamine, at varying levels ofsophistication.

Related crime

• Amphetamine abuse has significanteffects on the behaviour of the userand can induce amphetaminepsychosis, often characterised byparanoid delusions, hallucinationsand aggressive or violent behaviour.

• Amphetamine users are more likely tocommit a crime as a result of theerratic and unpredictable effects of thedrug — younger amphetamine usersare increasingly involved in crimes ofviolence and break and enters.

ReferencesABCI 2002, Australian Illicit Drug

Report 2000–01, Canberra.

—— 2001, Australian Illicit DrugReport 1999–2000, Canberra.





ABS 2002, Population Projections,Australia, Catalogue no. 3222.0,Canberra.

—— 2001, Population by Age and Sex:Australian States and Territories,Catalogue no. 3201.0, Canberra.







ACC 2003, Australian Illicit DrugReport 2001–02, Canberra.

AIC 2002, Drug Use Monitoring inAustralia Project 2001 AnnualReport, Canberra.

—— 2003, Drug Use Monitoring inAustralia Project 2002 AnnualReport, Canberra.

AIHW 2002a, 2001 National DrugStrategy Household Survey:detailed findings, AIHW cat. No.PHE 41 (Drug Statistics Series No.11), Canberra.

—— 2002b, 2001 National DrugStrategy Household Survey: Stateand Territory Findings, AIHW cat.No. PHE 37 (Drug Statistics SeriesNo. 10), Canberra.

—— 2002c, 2001 National DrugStrategy Household Survey:Queensland results, Canberra.

—— 2000, 1998 National DrugStrategy Household Survey:Queensland results. AIHW cat. No.PHE 23 (Drug Statistics Series No.4), Canberra.

APA 2000, Diagnostic and StatisticalManual for Mental Disorders, 4-textrevision, Washington DC.

BCC 1999, The Lord Mayor’s IllicitDrug Taskforce Report 1999,Brisbane.

BCIQ 2002, An Overview of EmergingTrends in Major Crime inQueensland, August.

Chilvers, M., Korabelnikoff, V. &Ramsay, M. 2002, ‘Recent trends inrecorded crime and police activityin Cabramatta’, Crime and JusticeBulletin, No. 70, May, NSW Bureauof Crime Statistics and Research.

Chester, G.B. 1993, ‘Pharmacology ofthe sympathomimetic psychostim-ulants’ in D. Burrows, B. Flaherty &M. MacAvoy (eds.), IllicitPsychostimulant Use in Australia(pp. 9–30), Australian GovernmentPublishing Service, Canberra,

Dawe S., Saunders, J., Kevanagh, D.,Young, R. (in press.), TheRelationship betweenAmphetamine Use and MentalHealth Problems.

DCS 2003, Statistical Urinalysis Surveyof Illicit Drug Use in QueenslandPrisons and Community CorrectionsCentres, Brisbane.

DEA 2002, ‘MethylamphetamineFactsheet’, May 2002, located at<www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/pressrel/methfact02.html>,accessed December 2002.

EROWID 2002, ‘MethaphetamineEffects’, <http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/meth/meth_effects.shtml>, accessed December 2002.

Griffith, J., Cavanagh, J., Held, N. &Oates, J.A. 1972, ‘D-amphetamine:Evaluation of psychotomimetricproperties in man’, Arch GenPsychiatry.

Kinner, S. & Roche, A. 2000,Queensland Drug Trends 1999 —Findings from the Illicit DrugReporting System, NDARCTechnical Report no. 87, Universityof New South Wales.

NARCONON 2002, ‘Long-term drugaddiction and drug rehabilitationtreatment’, <http://www.narconon.org/about_narconon.htm> accessedDecember 2002.

NDARC 2002, Australian Drug Trends2001: Findings from the Illicit DrugReporting System, NDARCMonograph No. 48, Brisbane,Queensland Alcohol and DrugResearch Education Centre, TheUniversity of Queensland.

—— 2001, Queensland Drug Trends2001: Findings from the Illicit DrugReporting System, NDARCTechnical Report No. 132,Brisbane; Queensland Alcohol andDrug Research Education Centre,The University of Queensland.

QCC 2001, ‘The “Ecstasy” Market inQueensland’, Crime Bulletin, No. 3,Brisbane.

—— 2000, ‘The Amphetamine Marketin Queensland’, Crime Bulletin,No. 2, Brisbane.

—— 1999, Project Krystal: A StrategicAssessment of Organised Crime inQueensland, Brisbane

QHSS 2002, Drug purity data suppliedbetween 1998 and 2002,Queensland Health, Brisbane.

QPS unpub., Statistical Services (2002).

Seiden, Lewis, S., Sabol, K.E. &Ricaurte, G.A., 1993,‘Amphetamine: Effects oncatecholamine systems andbehavior’ in Annual Review ofPharmacology and Toxicology, 32:639–677.

Spooner C., Flaherty B. & Homel P.1992, Results of a street interceptsurvey of young illicit drug users inSydney, NSW Department ofHealth.

Srisurapanont M., Jarusuraisin N. &Kittirattanapaiboon P. 2003,‘Treatment for amphetaminewithdrawal (Cochrane Review)’ inThe Cochrane Library, Issue 2,Oxford: Update Software.


ABOUT THE CRIME BULLETIN

ABBREVIATIONS


ABCIAustralian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence

ABSAustralian Bureau of Statistics

ACCAustralian Crime Commission

ACSAustralian Customs Service

ADFAustralian Drug Foundation

AFPAustralian Federal Police

AICAustralian Institute of Criminology

AIDRAustralian Illicit Drug Report

AIHWAustralian Institute of Health and Welfare

APAAmerican Psychiatric Association

BCCBrisbane City Council

BCIQBureau of Criminal Intelligence,Queensland

CMCCrime and Misconduct Commission

DCSDepartment of Corrective Services

DEADrug Enforcement Agency (United States)

DUMADrug Use Monitoring in Australia

EROWIDErowid.org is an online library ofinformation about psychoactive plants andchemicals and related topics.

ICDInternational Classification of Diseases

IDRSIllicit Drug Reporting System

MDMAmethylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy)

NARCONONNARCOtics-NONe — A non-profit drugprevention and education program

NDARCNational Drug and Alcohol ResearchCentre

NDSNational Drug Strategy

NHSPNational Heroin Signature Program

NIDANational Institute on Drug Abuse

QASQueensland Ambulance Service

QCCQueensland Crime Commission (now theCMC)

QHSSQueensland Health Scientific Services

OMCGOutlaw Motor Cycle Gang

QPSQueensland Police Service

QuIVAAQueensland Intravenous AIDS Association

RBHRoyal Brisbane Hospital

The CMC publishes Crime Bulletins to heighten community awareness of organised crimeissues and trends of concern to the Queensland community.

Previous issues in the Crime Bulletin series are:

• Crime Bulletin No. 1, June 1999, ‘Organised Crime in Queensland’, which describes thenature, extent and impact of organised crime activity in Queensland, and generallyexplains the law enforcement strategies developed to tackle the problem.

• Crime Bulletin No 2, November 2000, ‘The Amphetamine Market in Queensland’, whichassesses the level of risk posed to the Queensland community by the illicit amphetaminemarket.

• Crime Bulletin No. 3, August 2001, ‘The “Ecstasy” Market in Queensland’, whichassesses the level of risk posed to the Queensland community by the market for MDMAor Ecstacy.

• Crime Bulletin No. 4. April 2002, ‘The Illicit Market for ADHD Prescription Drugs inQueensland’, which discussed the problem of illicit diversion and abuse of ADHDprescription drugs in Queensland.

These bulletins and other CMC publications can be viewed on the CMC’s website:<www.cmc.qld.gov.au/PUBS.html>

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