American Politics (Ch 1)I. What is Politics?The study of who gets what, when, and how. -Political Science is the study of politics, or the study of who gets what,

when, and how through government processes in a world of scarce resources and conflicting values.

II. Questions for this course and book. Who? Participants When and How? Institutions What outcomes? Policy (e.g. economic system, civil rights,

personal liberty)III. What is government? organization extending to the whole society that can legitimately

use force to carry out its decisions. legitimacy – widespread acceptance of something as necessary,

rightful, and legally binding.

IV. Why is there government?A. Domestic tranquility • Hobbes – a world without government would be

“solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”• Locke – government originates as an implied

contract among individuals who agree to obey laws in exchange for protection of their rights.

• Christian Western Tradition (St. Paul, Augustine, Aquinas, Luther, Calvin, etc.) – gov’t is divinely appointed to promote goodness/justice and suppress the evil tendencies of fallen men

B. Common DefenseC. Promote General Welfare1. Public Good – Goods or services supplied by governments that

markets do not supply, cannot supply, or have been prevented from supplying.Public goods are nonexcludable (unable to prevent nonpayers from consuming the good) and nonrivalrous (one’s consumption affects another’s consumption).

• “Tragedy of the Commons”: When everyone owns something, no one owns it. (What if farmland could not be privately owned? Why are private bathrooms, private yards, and private golf courses cleaner than public ones?)

2. Externality – effects of transaction imposed on indirect participants.• Negative – transactions reduce welfare of nonparticpants

(pollution). Gov’t may use taxes to prevent them.• Positive – transactions increase welfare of nonparticipants

(education). Gov’t may use subsidies to encourage them.3. Income transfer – When government takes income from one party

and gives it to another (e.g. VA benefits, disabled, poor, farmers, businesses, and the wealthy.

V. What is democracy?• “Rule by the many” (Greek)/People rule themselves.A. Individual dignity• natural law (Locke) – there are rights possessed by every human

by virtue of his/her humanity (e.g. life, liberty, personal property, equal protection under the law)

• Imago Deo (Image of God) – humans have inherent dignity and value because they alone are created in the image of God

B. Participation in decision making• “The argument for democracy is not that the people will always

choose wise policies for themselves, but that people who cannot choose for themselves are not really free.” – Thomas Dye

C. Majority rule (1 person/1 vote)*Are we a pure democracy?

VI. Paradox of Democracy• Potential for conflict between individual freedom and

majority rule.Solution: Constitutional government. (e.g. limited government,

Bill of Rights…)VII. Types of democracy• Direct – all members of the society vote on and participate

in each issue.• Representative democracy – a government rooted in the

consent of the governed (we elect decision-makers)Four conditions for Democracy Claim• Representatives are selected by vote of all the people.• Elections are open to competition.• Candidates and voters can freely express themselves.• Representatives are selected periodically.

VII. Who governs?A. Elitist perspective – all societies, even democracies, are divided

into the few who govern and the many who do not. • But what if the ruling elite are doing good for the polity?“Government is always government by the few, whether in the name of

the few, the one, or the many.” – Harold Laswell and Daniel Lerner.

“…whether elites are self-seeking or public spirited, open or closed, responsive or unresponsive, it is they and not the masses who actually make the decisions.” Dye.

• Positive Elitism? George Will: Elitism is not so bad. Do we really want ignorant people ruling or even influential when it comes to public policy?

For the most part, however, theorists who ascribe to this view express pessimism (Negative Elitism) about the structure and future of society and they typically want political reforms

B. Pluralist theory – democracy can be achieved through competition among multiple organized groups and that individuals can participate in politics through groups memberships and elections.

• -Political competition among many participants will prevent the long-term

• dominance of any one individual or group. Public Policy is not always the desire of the majority, but the equilibrium result of pluralist competition.

C. Interest Group Theory of Government : Some interest groups will pay the costs of being informed and lobbying because the benefits of some policies will be concentrated in their hands, but the costs of those policies will be spread out among taxpayers (who are “rationally ignorant” of politics and not willing to become informed or organize simply to recover a few cents).

Example, 1988 U.S. Tariff (import tax) on sugar. • Avg. world price = 7 cents per pound; in U.S. = 20 cents per pound.

Sugar farmers gathered, organized, and got a sugar tariff pushed through.

• 270 million Americans paid $6 more a year for sugar, but 11,000 U.S. sugar producers averaged $130,000 income.

*Why do Americans do nothing about this? Is it worth learning of it? Worth organizing over it? Most say becoming informed and organizing to stop it is too costly given the potential benefits.

Political culturePolitical Culture: widely shared views about who should govern, for

what ends, and by what means.*Does America have a political culture? How does or does it differ from

other parts of the world?• Conflict arises when large segments of the population differ over

values and beliefs (e.g. religion, abortion, slavery).I. Liberal Tradition (not liberalism in the modern sense!)• Classical Liberalism – political philosophy asserting the worth and

dignity of the individual and emphasizing the rational ability of human beings to determine their own destinies. In a word: FREEDOM

• anti-feudal• anti-state control• disgust with hereditary prerogative• anti-state established church• anti-aristocracy

Two Dimensions of Classical Liberalism1. Political freedom – restrictions on the activity of individuals

should be kept small.2. Economic freedom – (Capitalism) individual has right to own,

rent, sell, buy, trade property on the open market.II. Equality• Political equality – equal protection under the law.

Government should treat people fairly. Every person gets one vote equal to that of every other person.

*Have we always had this?• Equality of opportunity – “start race in the same spot”

- Achievement should reflect merit alone.• Equality of results – “finish the race even” (not widely shared

by the U.S. public, but are policies reflective of this belief?)

III. Income and wealth inequality A. Income - the public does not usually want government to reduce

income differences

-The highest 1/5 income earners receive nearly half of all personal income. The gap between top-bottom fifth has grown.

B. Wealth – there is much greater inequality of wealth than there is income. Upper class, white, males control most of the wealth in the country. The top 1% of families in the U.S. control 40% of all family wealth. It has surged recently

C. What is the single greatest cause of recent increases in wealth inequality?

• Answer: The baby boomer generation is growing older.D. Social Classes/Mobility – 1. Only the impoverished are willing to call themselves “poor.” A

majority in every other class prefer “middle class.” 2. A third of the richest and third of the poorest families will change

categories within a decade (slowing though). The widespread perception of free social mobility, however, reduces the chance of class conflict.

IV. Political ideology – a consistent and integrated system of ideas, values, and beliefs about how pervasive a government should be in a society.

A. Ideology trends with 3 categories-one dimensional 1. General Pop - Figure (next slide) : Moderates and Conservatives=37%;

Liberals=25%2. By age – Table next slide (18-24 most liberal)

B. Four American ideological camps (two-dimensional): • Conservatism (30%) – belief in the value of free

markets, limited government, and individual self-reliance in economic affairs, combined with a belief in the value of tradition, law and morality in social affairs.

• Liberalism (16%) – belief in the value of strong government to provide economic security and protection for civil rights, combined with a belief in personal freedom from government intervention in social conduct.

• Populists (20%) – typically conservative on social issues, but believe that government should actively provide economic security for domestic workers and businesses.

• Libertarians (22%) – want minimal government in both economic and personal affairs.

V. Race and Immigration – (See Fig 1-3 for general ethnic breakdown).

A. Blacks make up about 12% of the population and were the largest racial minority until recently when Hispanics surpassed them at 13%. Current demography projects the Hispanic population to increase its share to 16% by 2020 with blacks at 13%. Whites are 71% today and will be roughly 64% in 2020.

B. Immigrants – America is historically a nation of immigrants (Statue of Liberty – welcomes all “huddled masses yearning to be free”). Today, 8% of Americans are not native born. Anti-immigration sentiments have surfaced when jobs for lower classes have become scarce and when public service (tax) burdens are seen has heavy due to public support of immigrants (legal or otherwise).

C. Illegal Immigration – America has 5000 miles of border (2000 with Mexico). The U.S. has been ineffective in keeping illegal border crossers out. Estimates of illegal immigrants range from 4-12 million. Immigration, especially illegal immigration, is currently a hot topic in light of Social Security problems and domestic security in the war against terror.

VI. Religion and Secularism – There has been a change in the relationship between religious observers and politics in America. The most religious (in terms of beliefs and behavior) and the least religious or secular are increasingly realigning along partisan lines and public opinion (known as the “Culture War”). This was not the case just 30 years ago. In terms of voting behavior and opinion, what matters is not so much what religion you are (old cleavage); but how religious or traditional you are.

MS highest at 85%; Vermont lowest at 42% (Gallup 2009; http://wnd.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=89029

United States Constitution (Ch. 2)I. Constitutional GovernmentA. Constitutionalism – a government of laws, not people,

where government power is limited and government officials are restrained in their exercise of power over individuals by a legal written document. Comes to American from Covenantalism (Bible/Reformation) and Contractarianism (“secular” Enlightenment).

B. Stress is on deciding on how to decide. C. Constitutional Tradition coming to America: Magna Charta

(1215), Protestant Confessions (16th and 17th centuries), Mayflower Compact (1620), Colonial Charters (1630-1732), Declaration of Independence (1776), Articles of Confederation (1781-1789), Our Constitution (1787).

II. Problems with the Articles of Confederation (1781-1789)• Financial Difficulties – Congress had no power to tax the

people directly. 90% of requested funds were never paid.

• Commercial obstacles – states could and did tax the goods of other states as they were shipped through their territories. This led to too much interference by the individual states and much commercial confusion and even smuggling.

• Currency problems – states printed their own money and circulated it. This lead to a great deal of monetary instability (inflation).

• Civil disorder – the government was rather powerless to suppress radical or insurgent groups (Shay’s Rebellion in Massachusetts).

IV. Founders-began meeting to discuss possible economic problems and then remedies to Articles.

A. Who?• Well-educated (Ivy League and European), 50% college

degrees (33 lawyers, 3 doctors• Well-experienced (Nearly all had served in high

government offices before)• Cosmopolitan – looked beyond their individual states;

had a continental perspective• Religious in the sense that they displayed all of the

outward characteristics of a religiosity, not all were orthodox Christians.

• 17 of 55 were slaveholders B. Congress called for this group to convene in order to draft

revisions to the Articles; they came away with new Constitution.

V. Consensus in Philadelphia (What principles did they largely agree upon?)

• Liberty and Property – They read Locke• Social Contract – government constrained by a

constitution is necessary to protect God-given rights.• Representative Government – Republicanism means

government by representatives of the people (indirect democracy).

*they wanted people to be directly involved in the selection of only House members.

• Limited government – They wanted to limit the scope of governmental power by dividing it legally (constitutionally) and constraining it.

• Nationalism – The founders of the constitution shared a belief in nationalism in that they wanted a unified nation with the power to govern the people directly, not through state power.

VI. Conflict in PhiladelphiaA. Representation – How will the number of representatives

in Congress be determined? 3 proposals1. Virginia Plan (large state) –Two house legislature with

the lower house (House of Rep) will be determined by a state’s population and the upper house will be elected by the lower house.

2. New Jersey plan (small state) – One house legislature, with equal state representation, regardless of population.

3. Connecticut Comprise – Two house legislature, with the House directly elected based on state population (each state would automatically receive one House representative) and the Senate selected by the state legislatures; two senators per state, regardless of population.

B. Slavery• Argued less about its existence and more about its

impact on state representation• Large slave states wanted population (and therefore

representation) to include the slave population. Small slave states wanted population to be based NOT on the slave population.

• The Connecticut Plan included the “3/5’s compromise. It stated that three-fifths of the slave population of each state would count for total population (and representation).

C. Voter Qualifications – The founders left these to the states. Every state basically allowed only land owning white males to vote.

VII. Resolving Economic Issues• Levying Taxes – Congress could forcefully collect its

own taxes. Most of the taxes it did levy took the form of tariffs (taxes placed on imported goods).

• Regulate commerce – “regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states.” This helped to resolve the interstate commerce chaos surrounding the Articles.

• Protecting money – the new national government controls the money supply (print and coin money). They hoped that this uniform monetary system would prevent inflation.

VIII. Protecting National Security• War and Military Forces – Congress was given power to

“declare War” and to raise and support and regulate an army or navy. Congress was given power to prevent or put down insurrections.

• Commander-in-Chief – The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He is authorized to carry out the war, while congress is authorized to declare it.

• Foreign Affairs – States are prevented from entering or negotiating treaties, alliances or confederations with foreign governments. The President can make treaties, but not without the consent of the Senate.

IX. Structure of Government• National Supremacy – Supremacy Clause of

Article VI – states that the Constitution is the supreme law of the land, taking priority over all other laws within the United States.

• Federalism – power is divided (shared) between national and state governments. Each have independent legal authority and are sovereign (can not be dissolved by the other).

• Republicanism – republican government means that powers are delegated to a small number of presumably gifted or qualified individuals.

• Democracy? – While government rests upon the “consent of the governed,” decision making is to be done by the people’s representatives, not the people themselves. No referenda is ever provided or called for by the constitution

X. Separation of Powers/Checks and Balances – Look in your book for checks/balances chart (Fig2.2) and study them. Madison wrote “ambition must be made to counteract ambition” Articles I, II, III (legislative, executive, and judicial)

XI. Ratification – the act of state legislatures to approve or reject decisions made by other bodies. The new constitution was sent to each state government for ratification. The entire country engaged in a national debate over the new constitution and whether or not their individual state should adopt it. Two groups emerged:

A. The Federalists (supported ratification: John Adams, Hamilton). Wrote series of editorials in newspapers nationwide. Later collected into a book calledThe Federalist Papers

B. The Anti-Federalists (Jefferson pictured to the below and Patrick Henry)

• Concerned about an “aristocratic tyranny” (Senate)• Concerned about the future of state sovereignty and independence• Concerned about the protection of unnamed individual rights.Summary: They basically were concerned that the people and the states

would be trampled by the larger more powerful central government.C. Bill of Rights (compromise)

• Although the Federalists insisted that Congress could not tread on powers not specifically granted it by the Constitution (enumerated powers), they eventually agreed to add 10 amendments, or formal changes, to the Constitution and sent those to the states for ratification (1791).

XII. Constitutional Change A. Direct ways of changing the Constitution: Amendments are

changes or additions to the Constitution.-There are two methods for proposing an amendment:1. passage in the House and Senate with a two-thirds vote.2. passage in a national convention called for by Congress in

response to petitions by 2/3s of the state legislatures. -There are two methods of ratification:1. vote in the legislatures of 3/4s of the states2. vote in conventions called for that purpose in 3/4s of the states

B. Indirection ways: Judicial Interpretations• When or if the judiciary changes the way it interprets

the constitution can change the application and effect of its contents.

C. Presidential and Congressional Action• When or if the president or congress changes the way

they interpret their responsibilities under the constitution can change the application and effect of its contents.

D. Custom and Practice• When or if the customs, culture, times, context, and so

forth change, the application of the constitution may change as well.

Chapter 3 (Federalism)• 10th Amendment!!!!! (Look it up)I. Federalism – sovereign power is shared by both regional

and national governments. No one government can dissolve the other. The Constitution is a unique document in its contribution of federalism to political theory.

1. Confederation – people state governmentsnational government

2. Unitary – peoplenational governmentstate governments

3. Federation – peopleboth to state and national government.

*Will the European Union adopt this form (common Bill of Rights, currency, military, government)

II. Why Federalism?• Protect Liberty by dispersing power – creates “opposite and rival”

centers of power• Increase Participation – more access points for people to

participate or contact government• Improve Efficiency – one government can not control it all• Ensuring policy responsiveness – people can react to their state

policies by moving (i.e., vote with your feet)• Encouraging Policy Innovation – states become “laboratories of

democracy” as they experiment with policies/programs observed throughout the country

• Managing Conflict – conflicts are less intense since frustrated groups know that policy battles can be settled in many different settings (50 states plus the national government)

Drawbacks• slow to move desired policy because there are more veto points

Provides legal basis for state noncompliance – South in the 60s in response to Civil Rights legislation and court rulings

• Double taxation – state and federal taxes on income

III. Design of FederalismA. Delegated/Enumerated/Explicit Powers (the ones written out). National

government shall have power to:• Engage in war and foreign affairs• Regulate interstate commerce (trade between states)• Regulate the Money supply • tax and spend B. Necessary and Proper Clause (Implied powers) – powers not specifically

reserved but inferred from those that are (e.g., the IRS is implied in the power to tax and spend)

C. National Supremacy Clause – Const = “supreme law of the land”D. Concurrent powers – powers shared by both state and federal

government (e.g., tax and spend)E. Powers denied states – coin money, enter into treaties, interfere with the

obligation of contracts, levy taxes on imports or exports, or engage in war.

F. Powers denied to both state and national government – abridge individual rights

G. Reserved Powers – Powers not granted to the national government or specifically denied to the states by the constitution are reserved for the states (10th amendment)

IV. The Grant as a Source of Federal PowerA. Background: In the early 20th century, Congress was finally

given the power to tax income. Started very low, but was raised dramatically as a result of two world wars and the Great Depression. When things sort of settled down, the national government decided in the 70s and 80s to send some of the money back to the states in the form of grants. These grants took on three forms:

• Categorical Grant: A grant for a specific, narrow project (no spending discretion; typical)

• Block Grant: A grant for a general government function (limited or some spending discretion)

• General Revenue Sharing: A grant with generally no strings attached.

B. Which form of grant maximizes Congressional power and reduces state power? Answer: categorical

Chapters 6 – ParticipationI. Public Opinion – aggregate of attitudes and opinions of

individuals on a significant issue.A. Survey research. Is public opinion a reliable guide for

lawmaking? Problems:1. Public knowledge of politics (next slide)2. “Halo Effect” – people will lie in accordance with socially

acceptable answers.3. Inconsistencies – e.g. lower taxes and more spending4. Instability – different responses at different times5. Salience – people concentrate on a handful of issues

considered important in their own lives.

II. Political Socialization – process by which individuals obtain their beliefs about political values, beliefs and opinions.

A. Sources of socialization:• Family – children usually take on their parents party

identification. *If parents are different, which one?• School – – Civic norms: salute the flag, civics, “good citizenship” values– How to think – schools may teach students that truth

evaluations based on faith or revelation, for instance, are unnecessary or inappropriate to knowing or understanding the world correctly (science gives us Truth; religion or faith is about values/opinions). Result? Students are socialized into a way of thinking that relativizes and relegates faith to the private/personal sphere; secular authorities permitted in public sphere.

• Worldviews – one’s basic beliefs about ultimate reality, truth and knowledge, ethics, and origins/destiny shapes their political attitudes.

• Generational effects – historical events may shape political opinion. (great depression).

• Media influence – tells us what to think aboutIII. Ideology and Opinion• Can we predict political opinion based upon self-described

ideologies?For the most part, YES. IV. Demographics and Opinion A. Gender• Women appear to be more passive on issues involving use of

force (i.e. war, death penalty, gun control). Women do not have significantly different opinions on non-force issues like abortion and domestic gender roles.

• Gender Gap: Women = more likely to be Democratic (as of 80s). (Next Slide)

B. Religion: Protestants and Catholics more likely to identify as moderates or conservatives than liberals; Jews more likely to identify as liberals. But Protestant Evangelicals are the most supportive voting block for Republicans.

IV. Individual Participation in PoliticsA. Securing the right to vote (suffrage)1. Elimination of Property Qualifications (1800-1840) 2. Fifteenth Amendment (1870) – black male suffrage3. Continued denial of voting rights (1870-1964)

a. “white primary” – Democratic party primary elections in many southern counties in the early part of the twentieth century that excluded black people from voting.b. Literacy tests – all were required to pass (which few people could) difficult tests involving complex legal documents.

4. Civil Rights Act/VRA (1964-65) – abolished unequal registration requirements

5. 24th amendment – abolished poll taxes (a price to get registered6. 19th amendment – women suffrage (1920)7. 26th amendment (1971) – eighteen year old suffrage or voting rights8. National Voter Registration act (1993) – “Moter voter” – can register

when you get your drivers license.

VI. Turnout (TO=#voting/#eligible)A. Turnout since 1960 (next slide)

B. Why is it low?1. Rational Voter (Anthony Downs) – is it really rational to vote?• your vote does not matter practically. It is never decisive over an

election’s outcome.• the costs of voting (registration, weather, driving, lines…) are to

many much greater than the benefits (the probability that your vote will be decisive + any good feelings you get from it).Vote=Costs – Benefits + (intrinsic rewards)

2. Registration Burdens• registration typically occurs during times of low political interest.• 85% of registered voters turnout, while 50% of eligible voters

vote.• Registration is supposed to prevent voter fraud

C. What causes it to increase or decrease?• Intense political competition• Political Alienation – when people feel that they

are incapable of affecting the political process they are less likely to vote (this has happened since Watergate, 70s)

• Intensity – extremists or ideologues are more likely to vote (this is why candidates are typically more extreme sounding during primaries and more centrist sounding during general elections)

• Education: Most important; Income; Age (all are positively related; next slide)

D. Explaining the Recent Decrease in Turnout in the U.S.• Despite the relaxation of voter registration requirements,

voter turnout has still not improved significantly. Why?• Trust in Government and Efficacy Beliefs are down• Expansion of the electorate (18 year olds are less likely to

vote)• Decline of Party Strength and Organization• Voter Mobility UpE. Comparative Voting: The U.S. is near the bottom of voter

turnout compared to other Western Democracies • Many include only registered voters• Many require voting

VII. Is Low Voter Turnout Bad?• George Will (Elitism) – Nonvoters are more likely to be

of lower socioeconomic class (less informed/educated). Do we want the “ignorant” voting? Many of the founding fathers sympathized with this argument (fear of BOTH “tyranny of the king AND tyranny of the majority or masses).

• What if nonvoting is a political statement being expressed in a democracy?1. Expressing indifference between candidates or general satisfaction with status quo.2. Groups my abstain in order to send an electoral message to a party (“Stop taking us for granted”)

Ch 9: Campaigns and Elections I. Elections and DemocracyA. Mandate – perception of popular support for a candidate’s

political platform after he/she wins. B. Retrospective Judgment – voting based upon the past

performance of and satisfaction with a candidate. C. Prospective Judgment – voting based upon candidate

pledges about the future. D. Protection of Rights – “…without the vote, we can be

certain that government would have very little incentive to respond to popular needs.” As LBJ said,

II. Who Runs for Office?A. Requirements and skills needed for office-seekers

President Senate House

Natural Born 14 year resident of U.S. At least 35 years old 22nd amend. Can’t serve but 2 terms (or one if having served 2 years of a another president’s term

9 year citizen At least 30 years old resident of state from which elected

7 year citizen At least 25 years old Resident of state from which elected

B. Political Entrepreneurship – the ability to sell oneself as a candidate, to raise money from contributors, to organize people to work on their behalf, and to communicate and publicize themselves through the media (political success like business success).

C. Communication skills – candidates must make many speeches and appearances, numerous appeals to special groups and contributors. How you say it, not what you say.

X. Incumbency advantage• Since 1950, 90% of incumbent House members win

reelection; 70% of incumbent Senators win reelection.• Even when Congress is collectively unpopular, people still

reelect their own members.

A. Aids to IA:1. Name recognition – people often prefer the “devil they knew” to the one

they do not.2. Campaign Contributions – groups who want to influence policy already

give to incumbent candidates. Groups do not want to offend officeholders by helping challengers.

3. Resources (advantages) of office• Franking privileges – free use of the U.S. mail• Tax funded travel allowances (make local appearances and

speeches)• Large staffs (tax payer funded) working every day over many years to

ensure reelection.• Casework (service to constituents) wins voters on at a time.XI. Raising Campaign moneyA. Spending on the rise, everywhere: 1990-$446m Congressional races;

Over $1b today. For president, $331 1992 and $713 today).B. Type of Contributions (regulated by Federal Election commission):

Individuals ($2000 max; most common form of contribution); Political Action Committees (Congress only); Public money; Candidate self-financing

* Soft money once allowed to be given to parties instead of candidates, now banned. Often, money is now given to interest groups instead who buy Issue Ads (IRS code 527s) uncoordinated by candidates (e.g., Swift Vets for Truth and Moveon.org).

XII. Presidential Campaign:A. Primaries – state election where voters choose their party’s nominees.• Open – any voter can vote in the party’s primary. • Closed – only registered party voters can vote in the party’s primary.B. Caucuses – A series of meetings in a state where party members meet (3 hrs

roughly) to do party business and “stand up” for a candidate of their choice.

Raiding occurs when voters of one party try to harm the other by voting in its primary in a strategic way.

C. Presidential Primaries Strategies• New Hampshire Primary – provides less than 1% of needed delegates, but

remains important because the media covers it so heavily and one’s performance speaks to one’s electability. Doing well early can result in more funding.

• Front-End Strategy – Spending most of the money or attention allocated to primaries on early primary states.

• Big-State Strategy – Spend time and money on the big-states mainly. Already strong candidates with well-funded campaigns are usually the ones who choose this strategy. By the time that most of these states are holding primaries, weaker candidates usually drop out.

D. Delegates – Candidates are technically seeking the support of each state’s party delegates to the national convention. Democrats have two kinds of delegates: Pledged (rank and file state party members: they “pledge” to cast their votes at the convention according to how the state’s primary/caucus went in the Spring, either winner takes all or proportional) and Superdelegates (delegates not chosen at state level; they are typically a national party leader or politician; have far greater freedom to vote how they want at the convention).

C. Electoral College: (next slide, drawn to scale) 538 presidential electors apportioned among the states according to their congressional representation (plus 3 for D.C.) whose votes officially elect the president and VP.

• The biggest prizes are CA (55), NY (31), Texas (32) and Florida (27)• It takes 270 or more electoral votes to win general election. If no

candidate gets 270 (majority), then the election is decided in the House of Representatives where each state delegation gets one vote.

XIII. Voter Decides A. Explaining voter decisions• Party ID – key determinant of vote choice• Group ID – (income class, race, religion, etc.). Gaps in race,

gender, and church attendance and evangelical Protestant, education.

• Candidate Image (Kennedy, Dole, Clinton, Reagan…)• Economy – if there is an incumbent president, retrospective; if

not prospective evaluation.• Issue Voting (least significant explanation for a voter’s decision)