America and the Great War and “The New Era”

Ryan Lafler

Chapter 23 America and the Great War

Ryan Lafler

Entering the Great War

• Triple Entente formed by Great Britain, France, and Russia; Triple Alliance formed by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (Ottomans later join and Italians switch to Allies)

• WWI was a powder keg ready to blow with assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand…European imperialism and rivalry between Germany and Britain are factors that lead up to Great War…America wants to remain “neutral” but money and resources are put on side of Allies (France and Britain)

• U.S. had 2 main factions within Congress: Pacifists and Interventionists, Wilson wins Election of 1916 wit slogan “He kept us out of War!”

• Germany was angered that U.S. was not following their neutrality policy (by supplying Allies with money and supplies while Britain blockaded German ports) so Germans resort to:

– U-Boat submarine warfare (Sinking of Lusitania and French Steamer Sussex)

– Zimmerman’s Telegram (Germany would form alliance with Mexico and allow them to reconquer all lands lost to America)

• Russian February Revolution of 1917 and all of the above factors forced America’s hand to War and pushed Wilson to request a Declaration of War, Wilson had instead hoped for a “Peace without victory” (Progressive ideals based upon new world order)

The Great War and Technology • America sends destroyers to take out German U-Boats and halt unrestricted

submarine warfare

• Americans troops DRAFTED by the Selective Service Act were commanded under a separate American Expeditionary Force- American troops able to break stalemate on Western front… also, women and African Americans able to participate in military

– Women served roles in hospitals as nurses (like Civil War)

– African American soldiers served in regiments with fellow blacks under white commander, had to face segregation and racism

– “IQ” Tests were given, not accurate as they reflected amount of education rather than intelligence (white middle class soldiers did best, blacks and low class whites did worst)

• Americans under General John G. Pershing lead the Argonne Offensive and push Germans back to their borders, breaking stalemate and forcing Germany to surrender in April 1918

• Airplanes, tanks , and chemical weapons were newly created to help break the stalemate, machine guns established defensive line and forced creation of trenches– diesel engines powered German U-Boats and Dreadnoughts were precursor Battleships

• Stalemate FORCES the advancement of technology, all in an attempt to BREAK stalemate

Economy during the Great War

• Congress appropriates $32 Billion for War, “Liberty Bonds” (loans from Americans to government) and raising of corporate tax paid for the War

• War Industries Board was a centralized agency led by Wall Street broker Bernard Baruch, Baruch had more power than any federal agency and viewed himself as a “partner” in govt. to businessmen in private sector

– Baruch could set prices for products produced by factories and chose corporations based on best deal in competing contracts to work for government

• Many leaders in government and industry wanted continuation of cooperative alliance between govt. and business after Great War

• National War Labor Board established to resolve labor disputes (prevent inefficiency of striking during War) and advocate equal pay for men and women, in return, unions were to forgo all strikes and employers could not engage in lockouts

• Ludlow Massacre occurred when workers in Western Federation Miners Union went on strike against Rockefeller’s mining operations…militia called in, and battle ensued between strikers and strikebreakers (39 died, 11 of them children)

• War created an economic BOOM in industry because of cooperation between government and industry, and because of massive production during Great War

Society during and after the Great War

• “Great Migration” was the movement of African Americans from rural South up to Northern and Eastern cities (New York, Chicago, and St. Louis) in search of more tolerant atmosphere than Jim Crow South, and new opportunities as industrial laborers

– African Americans lived in cities, and eventually butted up against white neighborhoods… resulted in Race Riots occurred in 1917 and 1919

– Some black leaders attempt to nationalize (Marcus Garvey and Black Nationalism) or unionize blacks (A. Philip Randolph)

• Women also made large gains during the Great War…many women partook in factory work, including manufacturing of munitions

– Women made long-term gains after the War including the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment (women’s suffrage) and the Cable Act (women were granted U.S. citizenship independent of their husbands)

– Congress also tried to focus on women’s issues- passed the Sheppard-Towner Maternity and Infancy Act which provided federal welfare for maternity and child care- women do NOT want it because they believe it relegates them to the household (what they do NOT want)

• After Great War, women and African Americans both pushed out from their jobs as white men returning from Western Front were given their former jobs back

The Search for Unity and Wilson’s Progressive Wants for Earth

• Peace Movement led by many groups (including German Americans, Socialist Party) but was spearheaded by women who defended their Pacifist point of views with their innate “motherly half of humanity”

• Many believed War could only be one if social unity was achieved, propaganda comes into play with the Committee on Public Information (CPI) which distributed pro-war literature and posters in churches, schools, offices, shops, and homes

– Led by George Creel- advocated for “self-censorship” for journalists (promote pro-American victories in Great War and NOT defeats…or else)

– CPI personified Germans as being savages, and advocated for people to report Anti-War rhetoric to Justice Department

• Espionage Act of 1917 allowed Postmaster General to ban “seditious” materials from mails (any Anti-War or radical letters)

– Espionage Act expanded by Sabotage Act and Sedition Act which made it illegal to express opposition to War, and allowed prosecution of anyone who criticized President or government (John Adams would be proud)

• Some Americans created “vigilante” mobs to repress dissent/silence opposition to the War (by lynching or whipping)- American Protection League enlisted local Americans to spy on neighbors, Boy Spies of America used children to watch for Anti-War rhetoric

• 100 Percent Americanism was used to promote American ideals, and attack (particular German-Americans) foreigners who did NOT assimiliate to American customs

The Fourteen Points “Battle” in Europe and America

• After Great War, Wilson writes his Fourteen Points which emphasizes: – Readjustment of Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empire’s boundaries, self-determination

(people in their own country decide their own government) – Freedom of the seas, freedom of trade, reductions in armaments, and open treaties – Creation of the League of Nations to allow communication between countries and prevent

another War- remember the hope after WWI, it was “The War to end all Wars”

• British and French want economically-broken Germany to pay Reparations for damages sustained in War ($56 Billion total for civilian damages and military pensions)

• At Paris Peace Conference, many of Wilson’s proposals are shot down, but Wilson was successful at creation of 2 new states Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia…biggest success was League of Nations (countries meet regularly and resolve disputes)

• Wilson has trouble trying to pass League of Nations through Congress, Senator Henry Cabot (R) uses any method to stall vote on League of Nations after Wilson REFUSED to compromise on any part of the proposed organization (could have been due to stroke he suffered)

• Wilson embarks on speaking tour to garner public support for League of Nations, but he suffers another stroke leaving him extremely stubborn and unwilling to compromise

• Wilson tells Democrats to NOT vote on any bill that has ANY changes to it, Democrats do as he says which results in Bill being rejected in the Senate

• By 1920, public lost interest in peace process presented by League of Nations because of the long, drawn out ratification fight and other crises

National Women’s Party Member Picketing Outside the White House, 1917

• Women’s Peace Party did not support the

Great War

• Split in National American Woman

Suffrage Association (NAWSA) over those

who wanted peace and others who

advocated for War

• Many peace activists during the Great War were women (along with the Socialist Party, German and Irish Americans, and Religious Pacifists including Quakers and some Protestants)

• Women Peace Activists embraced the concept of maternal opposition towards the War arguing that the “Motherly half of humanity” had a reason to oppose the War and advocate for Peace

Map of African-American Population Shift, 1910-1920

• During the Great War, huge movement of African American population from rural South to Northern cities

• Pull: Factory jobs (earn wage-based income) and more accepting tolerant communities in North for blacks

• Push: Racism, segregation, poverty, indebtedness (due to Crop-Lien System and Tenant System)

• Northern cities (including Chicago, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington D.C.) exhibited dramatic growth in the black population and communities-black communities often featured their own church houses (which also served as storefronts)

• Black communities butted up against white neighborhoods causing increased tensions and even Race Riots in city of St. Louis in 1917

Chicago Defender, August 2nd, 1919

• Published during the deadly and destructive Chicago Race Riots of 1919

• Chicago Race Riots began when young black teen floated into a “white only” zone of a beach and was stoned to unconsciousness and left to drown and die (broke the unofficial “rule” of segregation in Chicago)

• African Americans responded to incident by marching in white neighborhoods, whites responded with extreme violence- both sides erupt in violence and place Chicago in a “Race War”

• Chicago NOT the only city to be devastated by Race Riots- the Red Summer of 1919 intensified when blacks returning from WWI and those who came to North during the “Great Migration”

• Other cities that had riots included: Baltimore, Washington D.C., and New York City

Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, The Case Against the Reds (First Red Scare), 1920

• Published after Russian Revolution and during the Russian Civil War (where the Bolsheviks-“Reds”- were battling the counterrevolutionaries-“Whites”)

• February Revolution of 1917 saw the Tsardom of Russian disestablished, and a Provisional Republic took its place

• October Revolution saw the downfall of the Republic, with Russia renamed the Soviet Union bearing the standard of Communism under Vladimir Lenin

• Extremism scared many Americans (any type of radicalism that challenged Progressive ideals was associated with “anarchy”) which forced government to halt the spread of Communism

• Soviet Union established the Communist International (Comintern) to further the spread of Communism throughout the world

• Communist Party and Socialist Party in U.S.A. would be persecuted by government- members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) would also be subjected to violence by Middle-Class Americans

Primary Source: “Behind, and underneath, my own determination to drive from our midst the agents

of Bolshevism. I have discovered the hysterical methods of these revolutionary humans. I have been

asked to what extent deportation will check radicalism in this country. Why not ask what will

become of the United States Government if these alien radicals carry out the principles of the

Communist Party? In place of the United States Government we would have the horror and terrorism of Bolshevik tyranny

such as is destroying Russia now. The whole purpose of communism appears to be the mass formation of

the criminals of the world to overthrow the decencies of private life, to usurp property, to disrupt the present order of life regardless of health, sex or

religious rights. These are the revolutionary tenets of the Communist

Internationale. These include the IWW's, the most radical socialists, the misguided anarchists, the

agitators who oppose the limitations of unionism, the moral perverts and the hysterical neurasthenic

women who abound in communism.”

Chapter 24 The “New Era”

Ryan Lafler

The “New Era” Economy and Technology

• 1920s was a time for huge economic growth, inflation was no longer a threat, and income per person rose by 33%- industries in America not impeded by Great War allowing U.S. to become temporarily supreme in industrial output

• Automobile Industry- Spearheaded by Henry Ford and his Ford Motor Company which stimulated growth in oil industry and road construction industry

• Conventional Radio: Broadcast over longer ranges, families in the consumer-oriented society go out to buy them in large amounts

• Commercial Aviation: Developed in 1920s as mail carriers, pressurized cabins and radial engine allowed for increase in commercial travel

• Trains: Faster with electric-diesel engine

• Telephones: Spread throughout America at rapid pace

• Early Computers: Calculate basic math problems, have memory in them

• Large business firms like General Motors (GM) came up with the efficient divisional organization system (easier to manage companies subsidiaries)

• Some smaller businesses able to resist consolidation by forming trade associations

• Industrialists remembered that rapid-expansion cause of Recession, try to find other ways to circumvent economic downturn

The “New Era” Labor • Corporations attempt to silence and decrease laborer’s dependence on unions by

initiating “Welfare Capitalism”- pioneered by Henry Ford where he shortened work hours and raise wages for workers – Way to prevent the rise of independent unions, “company unions” were set up by company

to give workers a way to voice themselves – Workers did experience wage increases, but they were minimal compared to the amount of

production America experienced (workers still relied on other family members to bring in more money)

– “New Era” was a bad time for organized labor unions (like the AFL)

• Women transitioned after Great War to “Pink Collar” jobs (telephone operators, secretaries) and were never enfranchised by AFL because they were NOT industrial jobs

• AFL also did NOT enfranchise African Americans- did not want women or minorities in the same union and white industrial laborers

• Japanese and Filipinos were targets of Anglo-Americans, Japanese immigration was halted in National Origins Act of 1924 and Anti-Filipino Riots saw whites target Filipinos after they were threatening jobs of whites

• Mexican immigrants kept at bottom of work force (not severely targeted, needed labor in the developing West)

• Employers launch the “Open Shop” Campaign which was all about Union busting and preventing workers from membership in unions (also known as the “American Plan”)

• Farmers mechanize their industry, but too much product and NOT enough demand leaves farmers economically hurt- many become Tenants on other people’s fields…farmers want “Parity” in McNary-Haugen Bill

The New Culture in Consumer Society

• Advertising and marketing becomes central to consumer society of the “Roaring Twenties”, many advertisements promote cigarettes, wrist-watches, cosmetics, and fashions – Publicists wanted to identify products with a particular lifestyle – Mass-circulation of magazines allowed for people to be informed in short-reads

on issues (Reader’s Digest and Time)

• Automobile is central to the impact of American society: – Allowed rural farmers to escape isolation and quickly visit cities – Allowed city dwellers to escape bustle of cities and take vacations – Middle Class families able to live in Suburbs and drive to city downtowns – Teens and young-adults able to escape parents which allowed them to create

their own distinct culture • Movies and Hollywood grow in the 1920s: first movie with sound was The Jazz Singer

which caused massive increase in Americans who watched films – Hollywood Motion Picture Association of America created to internally regulate

movies rather than have Government regulate the newly emerging cinema industry (led by Will Hayes, former Postmaster General)

• Most important communications vehicle was RADIO with the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) formed to regulate the industry

The New Culture

• Protestant Religion features split between Modernists (believe religion should be adapted to fit laws of science) against the Fundamentalist Protestants (believe the Bible should be interpreted literally and evolution should be banned)

– Scopes-Monkey Trial featured biology teacher who taught theory of evolution in Tennessee (where Fundamentalists made it illegal), teacher was arrested but case was dismissed by higher courts- victory for Modernist Protestants

• Most educated women descended from other educated women, professional opportunities were limited to them

• Ideas of motherhood were changing, “Behaviorists” believed that mother should seek experts’ help on motherhoods (i.e. doctors, nurses, educators)

• “Compassionate Marriages” emerge as women devote more time to cosmetics, fashion, and pleasing husbands with more intimate relations (led to rise of American birth control movement led by Margaret Sanger)

• “Flapper” Image revolved around women defying social norms and liberating themselves from tradition (women want change from Victorian Era style of “respectability”)

• More young people went to High School than ever before, and studies including economics, engineering, and management became more important

– Importance of education led to rise of many side hobbies and activities, resulting in new distinctive lifestyles for young adults

The New Culture (cont.)

• Many men believed that the virtue/myth of the “self-made man” was in decline, since it seemed that you had to have a proper education to be successful (experts were dominating the professions)

– Men looked to inspiring figure such as Thomas Edison, Theodore Roosevelt, and Charles Lindbergh since they did NOT receive a formal education, they were genuinely “self made”

• Those returning from WWI were disenchanted with the New Era and way society was headed, chose to isolate themselves away from the consumer and materialistic society they lived in (“Lost Generation”)

– Writers like Ernest Hemingway expressed discontent at consumer society, F. Scott Fitzgerald ridiculed the American obsession of material success

• Harlem Renaissance occurred as a result of the “Great Migration” and prominently featured African-American culture to whites (such as jazz, literature, and the arts)

– It was an attempt to prove to whites that black culture in America was equally beautiful to theirs

A Conflict of Cultures

• Many Middle-Class Protestant Americans turned away from Prohibition and were declared as “Wets” by Fundamentalist Protestants

– Prohibition had led to the rise in organized crime in major cities (i.e. Chicago and Al Capone) and prevented legitimate businesses from making money

– Enforcement of Eighteenth Amendment was not well-maintained by local authorities, who usually turned a blind eye (causing the rise in organized crime)

• Nativist sentiment rapidly escalated after Great War (especially with immigrants leaving war-torn Europe)- Nativists attempt to slow immigration by employing the Quota Act (limiting immigration to 3% of each nationality) and in 1924, halted immigration from all of East Asia with the National Origins Act

• Ku Klux Klan was revived during 1920s and spread to North as well as South-primary targets were Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and also blacks…Klan opens up many chapters in many states and “Klaverns” establish many women and children auxiliaries to demonstrate commitment to the family

– Klan went into decline in the 1930s after scandals including rape brought it down once more

Corn Production and Prices, from 1870-1900

• American farmers were subjected to hard financial times during the time of late-industrialization into the Great Depression

• Mechanization of farming equipment in early 20th century allowed for farmers to harvest crops faster and more efficiently resulting in overproduction and a surplus of crops that remained a financial burden to farmers

• From 1900-1930, farmers lost much of their own land and were forced to either abandon the profession, or work on someone’s land in tenancy

• During 1920s, farmers wanted “Parity” which would allow farmers to not lose money based upon fluctuations in the national or world markets…later introduced as McNary-Haugen Bill (but was vetoed by President Coolidge on a couple occasions)

Emergency Quota Act Political Cartoon, 1921

• America during the 1920s was changing into the modern-country we know of toady…with any change, many impulses spring up

• America was fearful of immigrants because of the fear that they took Anglo-Americans jobs away from them…Chinese Exclusion Act was an example of white fear over foreigners

• Emergency Quota Act was another attempt to limit immigration from regions including Southern and Eastern Europe, East Asia, and Latin America

– America would not except immigrants from any country that reached the nationality point of 3%

– Law became more severe as time went on…

• National Origins Act of 1924 was a law passed by Congress to halt ALL immigration from East Asia (Japanese saw this as a strike against them by Anglo-Americans because they were primary source of Asian immigration after Chinese barred from immigrating to America)

Life Magazine: The Flapper, 1922

• Symbolizes the “Flapper Movement” which was an act of liberation undertaken by young women during the “Roaring Twenties”

• Women began purchasing cosmetics, wearing specific hairstyles, and following fashion trends

• Flapper Movement originated with lower class working women who lived a lifestyle where they traveled to dance halls and clubs at night often alone

• Upper Class and Middle Class women imitated the lifestyle started by lower class women and expanded upon it

• Magazine cover shows women defying traditional social norms in favor of more scandalous, liberating, and promiscuous behavior

“I Too, Sing America”, Langston Hughes

• After the “Great Migration”-where African Americans migrated from Southern rural areas to Northern cities (i.e. Chicago, St. Louis, and New York) they established their own neighborhoods and communities

• In Harlem, New York, the Harlem Renaissance was a way for white people to view the culture and accomplishments of the black community

• Harlem Renaissance consisted of Jazz music, theater, and literature

• Langston Hughes was a prominent African American poet who captured the essence of the Movement in the line, “I am a Negro- and beautiful.”

• Alaine Locke published an anthology of collected black writings called The New Negro (1925)

Primary Source: I, too, sing America. I am the darker brother. They send me to eat in the kitchen When company comes, But I laugh, And eat well, And grow strong. Tomorrow, I’ll be at the table When company comes. Nobody’ll dare Say to me, “Eat in the kitchen,” Then. Besides, They’ll see how beautiful I am And be ashamed— I, too, am America.

Ford Advertisement, 1926

• Henry Ford was an entrepreneur who engineered the assembly line and brought to the American public the first, affordable car for Middle-Class America

• Ford Motor Company follows philosophy of “Welfare Capitalism”- the company shortened workers’ hours and allowed for a raise in pay during the Post-War Years of WWI

• Automobile industry (spurred by Henry Ford) allowed for expansion of oil industry and road construction industry

• Many Americans began to take vacations (which used to be reserved for the wealthy) and travelled to destinations by the automobile

• Suburbs were being built outside of major cities and industrial centers…automobile allows for easy transportation from suburbs and rural areas into downtown cities

America and the Great War and “The New Era”

Ryan Lafler