Brief History of law in India

Law in India has evolved from religious prescription to the current constitutional and legal system we have today, traversing through secular legal systems and the common law.

India has a recorded legal history starting from the Vedic ages and some sort of civil law system may have been in place during the Bronze Age and the Indus Valley civilization. Law as a matter of religious prescriptions and philosophical discourse has an illustrious history in India. Emanating from the Vedas, the Upanishads and other religious texts, it was a fertile field enriched by practitioners from different Hindu philosophical schools and later by Jains and Buddhists.

Secular law in India varied widely from region to region and from ruler to ruler. Court systems for civil and criminal matters were essential features of many ruling dynasties of ancient India. Excellent secular court systems existed under the Mauryas (321-185 BCE) and the Mughals (16 th – 19th

centuries) with the latter giving way to the current common law system.

Law in British-ruled India

The common law system – a system of law based on recorded judicial precedents- came to India with the British East India Company.  The company was granted charter by King George I in 1726 to establish “Mayor’s Courts” in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta (now Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata respectively). Judicial functions of the company expanded substantially after its victory in Battle of Plassey and by 1772 company’s courts expanded out from the three major cities. In the process, the company slowly replaced the existing Mughal legal system in those parts.

Following the First War of Independence in 1857, the control of company territories in India passed to the British Crown. Being part of the empire saw the next big shift in the Indian legal system. Supreme courts were established replacing the existing mayoral courts. These courts were converted to the first High Courts through letters of patents authorized by the Indian High Courts Act passed by the British parliament in 1862. Superintendence of lower courts and enrolment of law practitioners were deputed to the respective high courts.

During the Raj, the Privy Council acted as the highest court of appeal. Cases before the council were adjudicated by the law lords of the House of Lords. The state sued and was sued in the name of the British sovereign in her capacity as Empress of India.

During the shift from Mughal legal system, the advocates under that regimen, “vakils”, too followed suit, though they mostly continued their earlier role as client representatives. The doors of the newly created Supreme Courts were barred to Indian practitioners as right of audience was limited to members of English, Irish and Scottish professional bodies. Subsequent rules and statutes culminating in the Legal Practitioners Act of 1846 which opened up the profession regardless of nationality or religion.

Coding of law also began in earnest with the forming of the first Law Commission. Under the stewardship of its chairman, Thomas Babington Macaulay, the Indian Penal Code was drafted, enacted and brought into force by 1862. The Code of Criminal Procedure was also drafted by the same commission. Host of other statutes and codes like Evidence Act (1872) and Contracts Act (1872).

Law after Independence

At the dawn of independence, the parliament of independent India was the forge where a document that will guide the young nation was being crafted. It will fall on the keen legal mind of B. R. Ambedkar to formulate a constitution for the newly independent nation. The Indian Bar had a role in the Independence movement that can hardly be overstated – that the tallest leaders of the movement across the political spectrum were lawyers is ample proof. The new nation saw its first leader in Jawaharlal Nehru, and a paternal figure in M. K. Gandhi, both exemplary lawyers. Perhaps it is the consequent understanding of law and its relation to society that prompted the founding fathers to devote the energy required to form a Constitution of unprecedented magnitude in both scope and length.

The Constitution of India is the guiding light in all matters executive, legislative and judicial in the country. It is extensive and aims to be sensitive. The Constitution turned the direction of system originally introduced for perpetuation of colonial and imperial interests in India, firmly in the direction of social welfare. The Constitution explicitly and through judicial interpretation seeks to empower the weakest members of the society.

India has an organic law as consequence of common law system. Through judicial pronouncements and legislative action, this has been fine-tuned for Indian conditions. The Indian legal system ’s move towards a social justice paradigm, though undertook independently, can be seen to mirror the changes in other territories with common law system.

From an artifice of the colonial masters, the Indian legal system has evolved as an essential ingredient of the world’s largest democracy and a crucial front in the battle to secure constitutional rights for every citizen.

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Indian Legal System An Introductionby Talwant Singh on Jul 02, 2008

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A brief introduction to Legal System in India.

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Indian Legal System An Introduction Presentation Transcript

Indian Legal System An Introduction By Talwant Singh DHJS Addl. Distt. & Sessions Judge, Delhi (India) [email_address]

Indian Legal System o Indian law refers to the system of law which operates in India. o It is largely based on English common law. o Various Acts introduced by the British are still in effect in modified form

today.

o Much of contemporary Indian law shows substantial European and American influence.

History of Indian law o Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law . o India had an historically independent school of legal theory and practice. o The Arthashastra , dating from 400 BC, and the Manusmriti , from 100

AD, were influential treatises in India . o Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was

cited across Southeast Asia. Source of Law

o Primary Source: o a. The primary source of law is in the enactments passed by the Parliament

or the State Legislatures. o b. The President and the Governor have limited powers to issue

ordinances. o c. These ordinances lapse six weeks from the re-assembly of the

Parliament or the State Legislature. Source of Law Cont.

o Secondary Source: o a. S econdary source of law is the judgments of the Supreme Court, High

Courts and some of the specialised Tribunals. o b. The Constitution provides that the law declared by the Supreme Court

shall be binding on all courts within India. Constitution of India

o The Constitution declares India to be a sovereign socialist democratic republic, assuring its citizens of justice, equality, and liberty.

o It is the longest written constitution of any independent nation in the world.

o It contains 395 articles and 12 schedules, as well as numerous amendments, for a total of 1,17,369 words in the English language version.

Preamble of the Constitution o We, the people of india, o Having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a sovereign socialist

secular democratic republic and to secure to all its citizens: o Justice, social, economic and political; o Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; o Equality of status and of opportunity; o And to promote among them all: o Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity

of the nation. Fundamental Rights

o Equality before the law. o Freedom from discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or

place of birth. o E quality of opportunity in matters of public employment.

o F reedom of speech and expression. o Right to assembly peacefully without arms. o P rotection against deprivation of life and personal liberty. o Freedom of conscience and the profession, practice and propagation of

religion. o To move freely through India, to reside and settle in any part of India.

Fundamental Duties o Added to the Constitution in 1977. o T o abide by the Constitution. o Respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National

Anthem. o To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture. o T o protect and improve the national environment including forests, lakes,

rivers and wild life. o To have compassion for living creations. o To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective

activity. Criminal law

o Indian Penal Code (IPC) provides a penal code for all of India including Jammu and Kashmir, where it was renamed the Ranbir Penal Code (RPC).

o The code applies to any offence committed by an Indian Citizen anywhere and on any Indian registered ship or aircraft.

o Indian Penal Code came into force in 1862 (during the British Raj) and is regularly amended, such as to include section 498-A.

Civil Procedure Code o The Civil Procedure Code (C.P.C.) regulate the functioning of Civil

courts. o It lays down the: o - Procedure of filing the civil case. - Powers of court to pass various

orders. - Court fees and stamps involved in filing of case. - Rights of the parties to case (plaintiff & defendant) - Jurisdiction & parameters of civil courts functioning. - Specific rules for proceedings of a case. - Right of Appeals, review or reference.

Family law o Indian civil law is complex, with each religion having its own specific

laws which they adhere to . o After independence Indian laws have adapted to the changing world. o The most recent being the Domestic Violence Act[2005].

Industrial and Labour Laws o The most notable laws are as follows: o Industrial Dispute Act, 1947 o Wages Act, 1948 o Employees State Insurance Act, 1948 o Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952 o Beedi and Cigar workers Act, 1974 o Equal Remuneration Act, 1976

o Contract Labour Act, 1970 o Child Labour Act, 1986 o Bonded Labour System Act, 1976

The Employee’s Provident Funds Act, 1952 o The Act shall apply to: o every establishment which is a factory o engaged in any industry mentioned in schedule I of the Act and o employing 20 or more persons or o any other establishment employing twenty or more persons or o such other establishment as the Central Government may notify.

Right To Information Act, 2003 o The Right to Information emerges out of the umbrella of Right to Freedom

of Speech and Expression and Right to Life. o Right to Information is also the centrifugal point for access to myriad

other basic human rights such as environment, health, food, livelihood etc. o The most direct transformation that the right to information effects is in

the governance system. o From the perspective of citizenship, right to information is the primary

tool in the hands of the citizen. Writs

o The Writs are issued by the Supreme Court under Article 32 and by the High Courts under Article 226 of the Constitution of India.

o Types of Writs: o Writ of prohibition o Writ of habeas corpus o Writ of certiorari o Writ of mandamus o Writ of quo warranto

Indian Judicial System o The three-tiered system of Indian judiciary comprises of Supreme Court

(New Delhi) at its helm; o High Courts standing at the head of state judicial system; o Followed by district and sessions courts in the judicial districts, into which

the states are divided. o The lower rung of the system then comprises of courts of civil (civil

judges) & criminal (judicial/metropolitan magistrates) jurisdiction. The Supreme Court

o On the 28th of January, 1950, the Supreme Court came into being. o The judges of the Supreme Court at the time of inauguration were Chief

Justice Harilal J. Kania and Justices Saiyid Fazl Ali, M. Patanjali Sastri, Mehr Chand Mahajan, Bijan Kumar Mukherjea and S. R. Das.

o The first Attorney General for India was Mr. M.C. Setalvad. The Supreme Court

o The Supreme Court of India comprises the Chief Justice and not more than 25 (30) other Judges appointed by the President of India.

o The proceedings of the Supreme Court are conducted in English only.

o The Registry of the Supreme Court is headed by the Registrar General. o The Attorney General for India is appointed by the President of India

under Article 76 of the Constitution. o Three types of Advocates: SENIOR ADVOCATES, ADVOCATES-ON-

RECORD & OTHER ADVOCATES . The High Courts

o The High Courts are generally the last court of regular appeal. o Besides, for invoking writ jurisdiction, the High Courts can be approached

for enforcement of other rights. o It has the power to supervise the subordinate courts falling within its

territorial jurisdiction. o The High Courts are Courts of Record. o The High Courts also exercises original jurisdiction under the Companies

Act. The High Courts Cont…

o The High Court hears First Appeals from the decisions of the District Courts.

o Section 100 of the Code of Civil Procedure provides for a Second Appeal from Appellate decrees.

o Under Section 115 of the Code, the High Court is conferred wish revisional jurisdiction.

o Under Article 227 of the Constitution also, the High Court in the exercise of its powers of superintendence entertains revision petitions to correct errors on the part of lower Courts and Tribunals in Judicial & Quasi Judicial matters.

The High Courts Cont… o On the Criminal side, the High Court has to confirm all sentences of death

passed by Courts of Sessions and hear References in this behalf. o High Court hears Criminal Appeals from convictions awarded by Sessions

Judges and Additional Sessions Judges or from the judgment of any other Court, where a sentence for more than seven years imprisonment has been passed.

o The High Court is also empowered to entertain appeals from orders of acquittal passed by any Court.

o High Court has also been conferred with Criminal Revisional Jurisdiction. The Subordinate Courts

o This subordinate Courts are: o (a) District Courts, empowered to hear appeals from courts of original

civil jurisdiction besides having original civil jurisdiction o (b) Sessions Court is courts of criminal jurisdiction, having the similar

scope of powers. o The courts of specific original jurisdiction are courts of Civil Judges, of

Judicial Magistrates; Small Causes courts & Courts of Metropolitan Magistrates.

Quasi - Judicial System

o This appendage to the Indian judicial system is a recent & sincere attempt on the part of the government to expedite the judicial process through dilution of procedural formalities & avoidance of litigation.

o Tribunals form an indispensable part of this system, which are appointed by the government and comprise of judges & experts on the particular field, for which the tribunal has been constituted.

RECENT TRENDS IN LAW o CRIMINAL PROCEDURE CODE o Plea Bargaining in Criminal Cases o Plea bargaining is introduced in India by Criminal Law (Amendment) Act,

2005. o This affects cases in which the maximum punishment is imprisonment for

seven years. o However, offenses affecting the socio-economic condition of the country

and offenses committed against a woman or a child below the age of fourteen are excluded.

RECENT TRENDS IN LAW o CIVIL PROCEDURE CODE, 1908 o MEDIATION & CONCILIATION ENCOURAGED o NUMBER OF ADJOURNMENTS-3 o SERVICE OF SUMMONS BY OTHER MEANS o EVIDENCE BY WAY OF AFFIDAVITS o TIME LIMIT TO PRONOUNCE JUDGEMENTS

NEW TRENDS IN JUDICIARY o Computerisation of Courts o Scope of PIL is being limited o Judiciary has become more open o Concept of Justice at Door-Step encouraged o Lok Adalats o Special Courts to dispose off Petty Cases o Evening Courts started in many States

Legal Education o At present there are two educational options for would-be Law graduates

in India. o One is a five year program, to which one can be admitted after passing a

school-leaving examination taken after completion of 10+2. o The other is a three year program available only to those who have already

graduated with a degree in Arts, Science or Commerce. Are you aware that...

o About two-thirds of our laws have not been used in independent India. o About 10 per cent of them can be scrapped right away. o And most of the 10 per cent in use currently have so many obsolete and

conflicting provisions. o The oldest law in the country has been in operation for over a century and

half. The one sentence 1836 Bengal District Act empowers the Bengal government to create as many zillas as it wants. The Act still exists.

Are you aware that... Cont… o Under the Indian Sarais Act, 1867, it is a punishable offence for ‘inn-

keepers’ not to offer free drinking water to passer-by. o Only about 40 per cent of our laws are in regular use. Independent India

has till now found no conceivable use for the rest. o While India badly needs efficient laws, the time spent by the law-making

body on the job is unbelievably little. o Parliament spends less than 0.6 per cent of a Lok Sabha day on law-

making. THANKS

o Interesting Legal websites: o www.indlii.org o www.judis.nic.in o www.indiacode.nic.in o www.delhicourts.nic.in o www.legalbasket.com o www.indiacyber.net o www.cybercases.blogspot.com o www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in o In case of any suggestion/clarification, Please mail at: [email_address]

The Indian Judicial SystemA Historical SurveyBy Mr. Justice S. S. DhavanHigh Court, AllahabadPart A: Judicial System in Ancient IndiaIndia has the oldest judiciary in the world. No other judicial system has a more ancient or exaltedpedigree.But before describing the judicial system of ancient India I must utter a warning. The reader must rejectthe colossal misrepresentation of Indian Jurisprudence and the legal system of ancient India by certainBritish writers. I shall give a few specimens. Henry Mayne described the legal system of ancient India "asan apparatus of cruel absurdities". An Anglo-Indian jurist made the following remark about what he called"the oriental habits of life" of the Indians before the British turned up in India: "It (British rule in India) is arecord of experiments made by foreign rulers to govern alien races in a strange land, to adapt Europeaninstitutions to Oriental habits of life, and to make definite laws supreme amongst peoples who bad always

associated government with arbitrary and uncontrolled authority."1 (italicized by me). Alan gledhill, aretired member of the Indian Civil Service, wrote that when the British seized power in India, "there was adearth of legal principles."2

These statements are untrue. It is not for me to guess why they were made. They may be due to sheerignorance, or imperialist self-interest, or contempt for Indian culture and civilization which was a part ofthe imperialist outlook which dominated British Jurists, historians, and thinkers in the heyday ofimperialism. But the effect of this misrepresentation, which has few parallels in history, was to create afalse picture of the Indian judicial system both in India and outside.We must go the original texts to get a true and correct picture of the legal system of ancient India. Thereader will discover from them that Indian jurisprudence was found on the rule of law; that the Kinghimself was subject to the law; that arbitrary power was unknown to Indian political theory andjurisprudence and the kind’s right to govern was subject to the fulfillment of duties the breach of whichresulted in forfeiture of kingship; that the judges were independent and subject only to the law; thatancient India had the highest standard of any nation of antiquity as regards the ability, learning, integrity,impartiality, and independence of the judiciary, and these standards have not been surpassed till today ;that the Indian judiciary consisted of a hierarchy of judges with the Court of the Chief Justice(Praadvivaka) at the top, each higher Court being invested with the power to review the decision of theCourts below ; that disputes were decided essentially in accordance with the same principles of naturaljustice which govern the judicial process in the modern State today: that the rules of procedure andevidence were similar to those followed today ; that supernatural modes of proof like the ordeal werediscourage ; that in criminal trials the accused could not be punished unless his guilt was provedaccording to law ; that in civil cases the trial consisted of four stages like any modern trial – plaint, reply,hearing and decree ; that such doctrines as res judicata (prang nyaya) were familiar to Indianjurisprudence ; that all trials, civil or criminal, were heard by a bench of several judges and rarely by ajudge sitting singly ; that the decrees of all courts except the King were subject to appeal or reviewaccording to fixed principles ; that the fundamental duty of the Court was to do justice "without favour orfear".Rule of law in Ancient IndiaWas there a rule of law in ancient India? Let the texts speak for themselves.In the Mahabharata, it was laid down " A King who after having sworn that he shall protect his subjectsfails to protect them should be executed like a mad dog."3

"The people should execute a king who does not protect them, but deprives them of their property andassets and who takes no advice or guidance from any one. Such a king is not a king but misfortune."4

These provisions indicate that sovereignty was based on an implied social compact and if the Kingviolated the traditional pact, he forfeited his kingship. Coming to the historical times of Mauryan Empire,Kautilya describes the duties of a king in the Arth-shastra thus : "In the happiness of his subjects lies theKing’s happiness; in their welfare his welfare; whatever pleases him he shall not consider as good, butwhether pleases his people he shall consider to good."5

The Principle enunciated by Kautilya was based on a very ancient tradition which was already establishedin the age of the Ramayana. Rama, the King of Ayodhya, was compelled to banish his queen, whom heloved and in whose chastity he had comlete faith, simply because his subjects disapproved of his havingtaken back a wife who had spent a year in the house of her abductor. The king submitted to the will ofpeople thopugh it broke his heart.In the Mahabharata it is related that a common fisherman refused to give his daughter in marriage to the1 History of the Constitution of the Courts and Legislative Authorities in India, by Cowell (1872), p.3.2 Alan Gledhill: The Republic of India, p.147.In fairness I must state that several British Indologists of eminence like E.B. Havell, A.L.Basham, Spellman, and others, do notshare the prejudices of their imperialist predecessors though their approach may be different from ours. The reader is advisedto study The History of Aryans Rule in India by E.B. Havell; The Wonder that was India by A.L. Basham, and Political Theory ofAncient India by John W. Spellman.3 SANSKRIT SLOK4 SANSKRIT SLOK5 SANSKRIT SLOKKing of Hastinapur unless he accepted the condition that his daughter’s sons and not the heirapparentfrom a former queen would succeed to the throne. The renunciation of the throne and the vow of life-longcelibacy (Bhishma Pratgyan) by Prince Deva Vrata is one of the most moving episodes in theMahabharata.6 But its signifiance for jurists is that even the sovereign was not above the law. The greatKing of Hastinapur could not compel the humblest of his subjects to give his daughter in marriage to himwithout accepting his terms. It refutes the view that the kings in ancient India were "Oriental despots" whocould do what they liked regardless of the law or the rights of their subjects.Judiciary in Ancient IndiaWith this introductory warning, I shall endeavour to describe the judicial system of ancient India.According to the Artha-shastra of Kautilya, who is generally recognised as the Prime Minister of the firstMaurya Emperor (322-298 B.C.), the realm was divided into administrative units called Sthaniya,Dronamukha, Khrvatika and Sangrahana (the ancient equivalents of the modern districts, tehsils andParganas). Sthaniya was a fortress established in the center of eight hundred villages, a dronamukha inthe midst of 400 villages, a kharvatika in the midst of 200 villages and a sangrahana in the center of tenvillages, Law courts were established in each sangrahana, and also at the meeting places of districts

(Janapadasandhishu). The Court consisted of three jurists (dhramastha) and three ministers (amatya).7This suggests the existence of circuit courts, for it is hardly likely that three ministers were permanentlyposted in each district of the realm.The great jurists, Manu, Yajn-valkya, Katyayana, Brihaspati and others, and in later times commentatorslike Vachaspati Misra and others, described in detail the judicial system and legal procedure whichprevailed in India from ancient times till the close of the Middle Ages.Hierarchy of courts in Ancient IndiaAccording to Brihaspati Smiriti, there was a hierarchy of courts in Ancient India beginning with the familyCourts and ending with the King. The lowest was the family arbitrator. The next higher court was that ofthe judge; the next of the Chief Justice who was called Praadivivaka, or adhyaksha; and at the top wasthe King’s court.8The jurisdiction of each was determined by the importance of the dispute, the minor disputes beingdecided by the lowest court and the most important by the king. The decision of each higher Courtsuperseded that of the court below.9

According to Vachaspati Misra, "The binding effect of the decisions of these tribunals, ending with that ofthe king, is in the ascending order, and each following decision shall prevail against the preceding onebecause of the higher degree of learning and knowledge".10

It is noteworthy that the Indian judiciary today also consists of a hierarchy of courts organized on a similarprinciple-the village courts, the Munsif, the Civil Judge, the District Judge, the High Court, and finally theSupreme Court which takes the place of the King’s Court. We are following an ancient tradition withoutbeing conscious of it.The institution of family judges is noteworthy. The unit of society was the joint family which might consistof four generations. Consequently, the number of the member of a joint family at any given time could bevery large and it was necessary to settle their disputes with firmness combined with sympathy and tact. Itwas also desirable that disputes should be decided in the first instance by an arbitrator within the family.Modern Japan has a somewhat similar system of family Courts. The significance of the family courts isthat the judicial system had its roots in the social system which explains its success.The fountain source of justice was the sovereign. In Indian jurisprudence dispensing justice and awardingpunishment was one of the primary attributes of sovereignty.11

Being the fountain source of justice, in the beginning the king was expected to administer justice inperson, but strictly according to law, and under the guidance of judges learned in law.12

A very strict code of judicial conduct was prescribed for the king. He was required to decide cases in opentrial and in the court-room, and his dress and demeanour were to be such as not to overawe the litigants.

He was required to take the oath of impartiality, and decide cases without bias or attachment. SaysKatyayana: "The king should enter the court-room modestly dressed, take his seat facing east, and withan attentive mind hear the suits of his litigants.13 He should act under the guidance of his Chief Justice(Praadvivaka), judges, ministers and the Brahmana members of his council. A king who dispenses justicein this manner and according to law resides in heaven".14

These provisions are significant. The king was required to be modestly dressed (vineeta-vesha) so thatthe litigants were not intimidated. The code of conduct prescribed for the king when acting as a judge wasvery strict and he was required to be free from all "attachment or prejudice"15 Says Narada: "If a kingdisposes of law suits (vyavaharan) in accordance with law and is self-restrained ( in court), in him the6 SANSKRIT SLOK7 SANSKRIT SLOK8 SANSKRIT SLOK9 SANSKRIT SLOK10 SANSKRIT SLOK11 SANSKRIT SLOK12 SANSKRIT SLOK13 SANSKRIT SLOK14 SANSKRIT SLOK15 SANSKRIT SLOKseven virtues meet like seven flames in the fire"16 Narada enjoins that when the king occupies thejudgment seat (dharmasanam), he must be impartial to all beings, having taken the oath of the son ofVivasvan. (The oath of Vivasvan is the oath of impartiality: the son of Vivasvan is Yama, the god of death,who is impartial to all living beings).17

The King’s JudgesThe judges and counselors guiding the king during the trial of a case were required to be independentand fearless and prevent him from committing any error or injustice. Says Katyayana: "If the king wantsto inflict upon the litigants (vivadinam) an illegal or unrighteous decision, it is the duty of the judge(samya) to warn the king and prevent him.”18

"The judge guiding the king must give his opinion which he considers to be according to law, if the kingdoes not listen, the judge at least has done his duty.19 When the judge realizes that the king has deviatedfrom equity and justice, his duty is not to please the king for this is no occasion for soft speech(vaktavyam tat priyam natra); if the judge fails in his duty, he is guilty."20

Delegation of Judicial power by the KingAs civilization advanced, the king’s functions became more numerous and he had less and less time tohear suits in person, and was compelled to delegate more and more of his judicial function to professionaljudges. Katyayana says: "If due to pressure of work, the king cannot hear suits in person he shouldappoint as a judge a Brahmin learned in the Vedas."21

The qualifications prescribed for a judge were very high. According to Katyayana; "A judge should beaustere and restrained, impartial in temperament, steadfast, God-fearing, assiduous in his duties, free

from anger, leading a righteous life, and of good family.22

In course of time, a judicial hierarchy was created which relieved the king of much of the judicial work, butleaving untouched his powers as the highest court of appeal. Under the Maurya Empire a regular judicialservice existed as described above.Quality of the Judiciary: IntegrityI shall now say a few words about the quality of the Judiciary and the code of conduct prescribed forjudges. The foremost duty of a judge was integrity which included impartiality and a total absence of biasor attachment. The concept of integrity was given a very wide meaning and the judicial code of integritywas very strict. Says Brihaspati: "A judge should decide cases without any consideration of personal gainor any kind of personal bias; and his decision should be in accordance with the procedure prescribed bythe texts. A judge who performs his judicial duties in this manner achieves the same spiritual merit as aperson performing a Yajna."*23

The strictest precautions were taken to ensure the impartiality of judges. A trial had to be in open courtand judges were forbidden to talk to the parties privately while the suit was pending because it wasrecognised that a private hearing may lead to partiality (pakshapat). Shukra-nitisara says: "Five causesdestroy impartiality and lead to judges taking sides in disputes. There are attachment, greed, fear,enmity, and hearing a party in private."24

Another safeguard of judicial integrity was that suits could not be heard by a single judge, even if he wasthe king. Our ancients realized that when two minds confer, there is less chance of corruption or error,and they provided that the King must sit with his counselors when deciding cases, and judges must sit inbenches of uneven numbers. Shukra-nitisara enjoined that "Persons entrusted with judicial duties shouldbe learned in the Vedas, wise in wordly experience and should function in groups of three, five, orseven."25 Kautilya also enjoined that suits should be heard by three judges (dharmasthstrayah). Ourpresent judicial system, created by the British, does not follow this excellent safeguard. Today every suitis heard by a single Munsif or civil Judge or District Judge for reasons of economy. But the state inancient India was more interested in the quality of justice than economy.IntegrityEvery Smriti emphasizes the supreme importance of judicial integrity. Shukra-nitisara says: "The judgesappointed by the king should be well versed in procedure, wise, of good character and temperament, softin speech, impartial to friend or foe, truthful, learned in law, active (not lazy), free from anger, greed, ordesire (for personal gain), and truthful."26

Punishment for corruptionCorruption was regarded as a heinous offence and all the authorities are unanimous in prescribing the

severest punishment on a dishonest judge. Brihaspati says: "A judge should be banished from the realmif he takes bribes and thereby perpetrates injustice and betrays the confidence reposed in him by atrusting public."27 A corrupt judge, a false witness, and the murderer of a Brahmin are in the same class16 SANSKRIT SLOK17 SANSKRIT SLOK18 SANSKRIT SLOK19 SANSKRIT SLOK20 SANSKRIT SLOK21 SANSKRIT SLOK22 SANSKRIT SLOK23 SANSKRIT SLOK24 SANSKRIT SLOK25 SANSKRIT SLOK26 SANSKRIT SLOK27 SANSKRIT SLOKof criminals.28 Vishnu says: "The state should confiscate the entire property of a judge who is corrupt."29

Judicial misconduct included conversing with litigants in private during the pendency of a trial. Brihaspatisays: "A judge or chief justice (Praadvivaka) who privately converses with a party before the case hasbeen decided (anirnite), is to be punished like a corrupt judge."30

JurorsThe most noteworthy feature of the judicial system was the institution of sabhasada or councilors whoacted as assessors or adviser of the King. They were the equivalent of the modern jury, with oneimportant difference. The jury of today consists of laymen- "twelve shopkeepers"-whereas the councilorswho sat with the Sovereign were to be learned in law. Yajanvalkya enjoins: "The Sovereign shouldappoint as assessors of his court persons who are well versed in the literature of the law, truthful, and bytemperament capable of complete impartiality between friend and foe."31

These assessors or jurors were required to express their opinion without fear, even to the point ofdisagreeing with the Sovereign and warning him that his own opinion was contrary to law and equity.Katyayana says: ‘The assessors should not look on when they perceive the Sovereign inclined to decidea dispute in violation of the law; if they keep silent they will go to hell accompanied by the King."32

Thesame injunction is repeated in an identical verse in Shukr-nitisara.33 The Sovereign-or the presiding judgein his absence-was not expected to overrule the verdict of the jurors; on the contrary he was to pass adecree (Jaya-patra) in accordance with their advice. Shukr-nitisara says: " The King after observing thatthe assessors have given their verdict should award the successful party a decree (Jaya-patra)."34 Theirstatus may be compared to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which "humbly advise" theirSovereign, but their advice is binding. It may also be compared to the peoples’ assessors under theSoviet judicial system who sit with the professional judge in the Peoples’ Court but are equal in status tohim and can overrule him.

But there was one exception. If in a difficult case the jurors were unable to come to a conclusion, theSovereign could decide the matter himself. Shukra-nitisara says, "If they (the assessors) are unable todecide a dispute because it raises difficult or doubtful issues (sandigdha-roopinah), in such a case theSovereign may decide in the exercise of his Sovereign privilege.35

Criminal TrialsIn criminal trials it appears that the question of innocence or guilt of the accuse was decided by the judgeor the jurors, but the quantum of punishment was left to the King.36 In the trial scene in Mrichchhakatika,The Little Clay Court, the judge after pronouncing Charudatta guilty of the murder of Vasantasena,referred the question of punishment to the King with the remark, "The decision with regard toCharudatta’s guilt or innocence lies with us and our decision is binding (Pramanam), but the rest lies withthe King."37

Interpretation of the Text of the lawPrinciples of interpretation were developed to high degree of perfection. Judges were required to decidecases, criminal and civil, according to law (samyak, yath-shastram, shastro ditena vidhina). This involvedinterpretation of the written text of the law-a task which created many problems such as the elucidation ofobscure words and phrases in the text, reconciliation of conflicting provisions in the same law, solution ofconflict between the letter of the law and principles of equity, justice and good conscience, adjustment ofcustom and smritis, and so on. This branch of law was highly developed and a number of principles wereenunciated for the guidance of the courts. The most important of them related to the conflict between thedharm-shastra and the artha-shastra.Three systems of substantive law were recognized by the court, the dharma-shastra, the arth-shastra,and custom which was called sadachara or charitra. The first consisted of laws which derived theirultimate sanction from the smritis and the second of principles of government. The bordr line between thetwo often overlapped. But the real distinction between the smritis and arth-shastra is uniformaly secular,but that of the dharma-shastra not always so. IN fact so remarkably secular is the arth-shastra in itsapproach to the problems of government that this has induced some writers to advance the theory thatthe artha-shastra (literal meaning: the science of ‘artha’ or pursuit of material welfare), did not evolve fromthe dharma-shastra but had an independent origin and developed parallel to it.Whatever their respective origins, in several matters the arthashastra and the dharma-shastra are inconflict. How did the law courts resolve this conflict when it arose in particular suits? The first principlewas that of avirodha: the court must try to resolve any apparent conflict between the two.38 (This is called

the principle of harmonious construction today. But if the conflict could not be resolved, the authority ofthe dharma-shastra was to be preferred. Bhavishya purana provides : "whens mriti and artha-shastra areinconsistent, the provision in the artha-shastra is superseded (by smriti); but if two smritis, or twoprovision in the same smriti are in conflict, whichever is in accordance with equity is to be preferred."39

Narada smriti lays down a similar rule of interpretation according to reason in case of conflict between two28 SANSKRIT SLOK29 SANSKRIT SLOK30 SANSKRIT SLOK31 SANSKRIT SLOK32 SANSKRIT SLOK33 Shukra, IV, 5,27534 SANSKRIT SLOK35 SANSKRIT SLOK36 The State and Government in Ancient India, by A.S. Alkkar, p.249. I am indebted to this work for several valuable ideas.37 SANSKRIT SLOK38 SANSKRIT SLOK39 SANSKRIT SLOKtexts of the smritis.40 But while interpreting the written text of the law, the court was to bear in mind thatits fundamental duty was to do justice and not to follow the letter of the law. Brihaspati enjoined: " Thecourt should not give its decision by merely following the letter of the shastra for if the decision iscompletely devoid of reasoning, the result is injustice (dharma-hani)."41 Brihastpati further says that thecourt should decide according to the customs and usages of the country even if they are in conflict withthe letter of the law;42 and he gives several remarkable illustrations which incidentally throw a flood of lighton contemporary social conditions.He points out that the maternal uncle’s daughter is accepted in marriage by brahmanas of the south; inMadhya desha (Central India), brahmanas become hired labourers and craftmen and eat cow’s flesh;eastern brahmanas eat fish and their women are addicted to drinking and can be touched by men evenwhen in their monthly courses. On account of the acts specified these communities, in their respectivecountries, should not be liable to undergo penance r incur judicial punishment.43

Changing customs: Changing lawsIn view of the vital part played by custom (achara, sadachara, charitra ) in society, the State was requiredto maintain an authenticated record of the customs observed in the various parts of the country.Katyayana enjoins: "Whatever custom is proved to be followed in any particular region, it should be dulyrecorded as established (dharya) in a record stamped with the seal of the Sovereign."44 But even anestablished custom could be formally "disestablished" if in course of time it became inequitable. In fact, itwas the duty of the Sovereign to remove from time to time the dead or rotten branches of custom.Katyanana enjoined: "When the Soverign is satisfied that a particular custom is contrary to equity(nyayatah) in the same way-that is in the way it was established- it should be annulled by a formaldecision of the Sovereign."45 This remarkable provision indicates how highly developed was the judicial

and legal system of ancient India. The state was required to keep an authenticated record of all validcustoms prevailing in the different regions of the realm.Very often the decision in a suit depended on proof of the existence of a custom. Narada says, "The basisof a judicial decision (vyavahara) may be: (i) Dharma-shastra, (ii) (previous) judicial decisions (vyavahara)or custom (charitra) or the decrees of the Soverign. The authority of these four is in the reverse order,each preceding one being superseded by the one following it.46 The artha-shastra contains an indenticalprovision.Evolutionary concept of lawThe significance of these provisions can not be overemphasized. By gearing law to changing customsIndian jurisprudence gave the concept of law a secular content. Moreover, it developed the evolutionaryconcept of law and rejected the concept of an absolute, eternal, never-chaning law. Both Manu andParashara say: "The laws of kritayuga are different from those of treat and dwapara, and the laws of kaliyuga are different from those of all the previous; ages- the laws of each age being according to thedistinctive character of each age (yuga roopanusaratah)."47

Mode of Proof (Law of Evidence)The law of evidence (the mode of proof) is an index of the quality of a judicial system. In this respect, theIndian judicial system was in advance of any other system of antiquity.In ancient societies proof by supernatural devices, such as trial by ordeal, was quite common. In Englandit prevailed till the very close of the middle ages. But our judicial system prohibited resort to supernaturaldevices, if oral or documentary evidence was available.48

Discovery of truth is real testThe real test of any judicial system is that it should enable the law courts to discover the truth, and that ofancient India stands high under this test. "In disputes the Court has to ascertain what is true and what isfalse from the witnesses," enjoins Gautam.49 All available evidence indicates that in ancient India bearingfalse witness was viewed with great abhorrence.50 All the foreign travelers from Megasthenes in the 3rdcentury B. C. to Huan Tsiang in the 7th century A. D. Testified that truthfulness was practiced by Indiansin their wordly relations. "Truth they hold in high esteem", wrote Megasthenes.51 Fa Hien and HuanTsiang (who visited India during the reign of Harsha) recorded similar observations. A virtue practiced fora thousand year became a tradition.The procedure and atmosphere of the Courts discouraged falsehood. The oath was administered by thejudge himself, and not by a peon as today. While giving the oath the judges were required to address thewitness extolling truthfulness as a virtue and condemning perjury as a horrible sin. Brihaspati says,

"Judges who are well-versed in the dharmashastra should address the witness in words praising truth anddriving away falsehood (from his mind)".52 The judges’ address to the witness did not consist of set words40 SANSKRIT SLOK41 SANSKRIT SLOK42 SANSKRIT SLOK43 SANSKRIT SLOK44 SANSKRIT SLOK45 SANSKRIT SLOK46 SANSKRIT SLOK47 SANSKRIT SLOK48 SANSKRIT SLOK49 SANSKRIT SLOK50 A.L. Basham: The Wonder that was India, p.116.51 Ancient India as described by Magasthenes and Arian, by Mc. Rindle, p.6.52 SANSKRIT SLOKbut a moral exhortation intended to put the fear of God in him. All the texts are unanimous on this point.53

According to Narada, "The judges should inspire awe in the witness by citing moral precepts which shoulduphold the majesty of truth and condemn falsehood".54 All the smirtis were unanimous in holding thatperjury before a law court was a heinous sin as well as a serious crime.55 There were other provisions,calculated to reduce the changes of false evidence being given. Katyayana enjoined, with much commonsense that there should be no delay in examining witnesses- obviously because delay dims the memoryand stimulates imagination. "The Sovereign should not grant any delay in the deposition of witnesses; fordelay leads to great evil and results in witnesses turning away from the law.”56

Administrative CourtsAn important feature of the judicial system of ancient India were the Special Courts of criminal jurisdictioncalled the Kantakasodhana Courts. The artha-shastra says, "Three commissioners (pradeshtarah) orthree ministers shall deal with measures to suppress disturbance to peace (kantakasodhanam kuryuh).57

According to the artha-shastra these courts took cognizance not only of offences against the States butalso violations of the law by officials in the discharge of their official duties. Thus if traders used falseweights or sold adulterated good, or charged excessive prices, if the labourer in the factory was givenless than a fair wage or did not do its work properly, the Kantakasodhana courts intervened to punish theculprits. Officers charged with misconduct, persons accused of theft, dacoity and sex offences had toappear before the same court. These Courts had all the characteristics of administrative courts. Theexistence of an Administrative Code is indicated in the Fourth part of the Artha-shastra.Administrative CodeThe State in ancient India had a public sector of huge dimensions engaged in commerce and industry.The modern capitalist notion that there should be no industries run by the State would have appeared

idotic to our ancients. Under the Mauryan Empire there was a State mercantile marine, a state textileindustry, a state mining industry, and a state trading department in charge respectively of aSuperintendent-General of Shipping (navadhyaksha). Textiles (Sootradhyaksha), mining(akaradhyaksha), and commerce. The regulation of each state industry was under its own rules and allthe rules were compiled and classified in the artha-shastra and may be regarded as an AdministrativeCode. I shall give a few illustrations.The artha-shastra provides a complete Administrative Code prescribing rules of maritime and ripariannavigation. It enjoined that the State should have a Superintendent-General of Navigation whose dutiesare defined thus: "The Superintendent of ships shall examine the accounts relating to navigation not onlyon the oceans and mouths of the rivers, but also on lakes, natural or artificial, and in the vicinity ofSthaniya and other fortified cities.”58 The chapter contains a provision for the ships to have adequate fewfor ships. There were strict regulations to ensure the safety of vessels: "For navigation on large riverswhich cannot be forded (atarya) even during winter and summer season, there shall be a service of largeboats (mahanavo), with a captain (shasaka), pilot (niyamaka), a crew to hold the sickle and the ropes,and to clear the boat of water.”59

The artha-shastra also contains regulations indicating that the state mercantile marine operated on thehigh seas and it provided that "passengers arriving in port on the royal ships shall pay their passagemoney (yatra-vetanam)."60 The rates were to be fixed by the Superintendent-General. Incidentally, theexistence of this code proves beyond doubt that the people of India were a sea-faring people withextensive trade relations with foreign countries.Similarly, the manufacture of textiles and cotton yarn, which was a huge industry exporting textiles toforeign countries had a public as well as a private sector. The public sector was under a Superintendent-General of Textiles (Sootradhyaksha). He had a large organization under him. The artha-shastraprescribed the duties of the Sootradhyaksha and the other officials working under him. It enjoins: "TheSuperintendent-Genral of Weaving shall employ qualified persons to manufacture treads (sutra), coats(varma), clothes (vastra), and ropes.”61 One of his duties was to give employment to women in their ownhomes. Cotton was distributed among them and spun into tread and either collected by the departmentor delivered by the women themselves. But the artha-shastra contains strict regulation against the takingof liberties with such women or withholding their wages. It prescribed: "If the official of the Superintendentstares at the face of such woman or tries to engage her in conversation about matters other than her work(in other words, makes what an American would call a pass at her) he will be punished as if he is guilty ofa first assault.62 "Delay in payment of wages shall be likewise punishable.63 Another regulation made it a

punishable offence to show any undue favour to a women worker. It provided; "If an official pays wages toa woman for no work done, he will be punished.”64

Collection of taxes and import dutiesThere was a code prescribing rules governing the collection of taxes and import duties. This developmentwas in charge of the Superintendent General of taxes (Shulkadhyaksh). The merchants at the customs53 Manu, VIII, 79-87; Narada I, 200-228, Katyayana, 388-390; Yajnaa-II, 273-74.54 SANSKRIT SLOK55 Brihaspati V, 34; Manu VIII, 80-87; Yajna II, 73-74; Narada I, 220-228; Baudh I, 13,14,19.56 SANSKRIT SLOK57 SANSKRIT SLOK58 SANSKRIT SLOK59 SANSKRIT SLOK60 SANSKRIT SLOK61 SANSKRIT SLOK62 SANSKRIT SLOK63 SANSKRIT SLOK64 SANSKRIT SLOKwere liable to declare their merchandise which had to bear a seal when imported. Penalties wereprescribed for making a false declaration. One rule enjoined: "If the merchandise bears no seal, their dutyshall be doubled".65 But in case of counterfeit seal, the merchant was liable to pay a penalty amounting toeight times the normal duty.66 If the seal was torn, the merchant was liable to be detained in a lock-upreserved loiterers.67

The Administrative Code in the 4th Section of the artha-shastra contains detailed regulations for thecontrol of the other departments of the state. These regulations were not enforced by the ordinary courtsbut by Commissioners (Pradeshtarah) who functioned as Kantak Shodhana courts.I shall sum up the fundamental principles on which the judicial process in ancient India was founded: Thetrial was always in public68 and always by several judges collectively. Cases were heard in their serialorder except in case of urgency.69 Delay in the disposal of cases was condemned by all authorities andjudges who were guilty of such delay were liable to be punished.70 The Sovereign was not to interferewith the judiciary but on the contrary the latter was under a duty to interfere in case of a wrong (judicial)decision by the king.71 The Judges were to be impartial ; during the pendency of the suit they wereforbidden to have any private talks or relations with the parties. If a judge was guilty of partiality, orharassment, or deliberately violated the prescribed procedure, he was liable to be punished. Corruptionwas the most heinous offence in a judge and a corrupt judge was banished from the realm and forfeitedall his property. The procedure for suits was prescribed by law, and every suit was initiated by a complaintor plaint filed by the aggrieved party who prayed for the redress of a legal wrong.72 Citizens were strictlyforbidden to instigate or finance or file complaints in which they were not interested, and champerty was a

punishable offence. I cannot do better than quote the verdict of a very recent English writer: "In somerespects the judicial system of ancient India was theoretically in advance of our own today."73

Part B: Judicial System in Medieval IndiaAfter the disintegration of the Harsha empire a veil of obscurity descends on the history of India whichdoes not lift till the Muslim invasion. The country was divided once more into small kingdoms. But this didnot result in any great change in the judicial system which had taken roots during the precedingthousands of years. The standards and ideals of justice were maintained in each kingdom, in spite ofpolitical divisions, the unity of civilization was preserved, and the fundamental principles of law andprocedure were applied throughout the country. This I is indicated by the fact that the great commentarieson law like Mitakshara and Shukarneeti Sar were written during this period and enjoyed an all-Indiaauthority. But the establishment of the Muslim rule in India opened a new chapter in our judicial history.The Muslim conquerors brought with them a new religion, a new civilization, and a new social system.This could not but have a profound effect on the judicial system.The ideal of justice under Islam was one of the highest in the Middle ages. The Prophet himself set thestandards. He said in the quran, "Justice is the balance of God upon earth in which things when weighedare not by a particle less or more. And He appointed the balance that he should not transgress in respectto the balance; wherefore observe a just weight and diminish not the balance". He is further reported tohave said that to God a moment spent in the dispensation of justice is better than the devotion of the manwho keeps fast every day and says prayer every night for 60 years.74 Thus the administration of justicewas regarded by the Muslim kings as a religious duty.This high tradition reached its zenith under the first four Caliphs. The first Qadi was appointed by theCaliph Umar who enunciated the principle that the law was supreme and that the judge must never besubservient to the ruler. It is rported of him that he had once a personal law suit against a Jewish subject,and both of them appeared before the Qadi who, on seeing the Caliph, rose in his seat out of deference."Umar considered this to be such an unpardonable weakness on his part that he dimissed him fromoffice."75 The Muslim kings in India bought with them these high ideals. It is reported by Badaoni thatduring the reign of Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq the Qadi dimissed a libel suit filed by the Kind himselfagainst Shaikhzada Jami, but no harm was done to him. (This however did not prevent the Sultan fromexecuting the defendant without a trial).76 Individual Sultans had very high ideals of justice. According toBarani, Balban regarded justice as the keystone of sovereignty "wherein lay the strength of the sovereign

to wipe out the oppression".77 But unfortunately the administration of justice under the Sultans workedfitfully. The reason was that the outstanding feature of the entire Sultanate period was confusion andchaos. No Sultan felt secure for a long time. One dynasty was replaced by another within a comparativelyshort period, and the manner of replacement was violent. Consequently the quality of justice dependedvery much on the personality of the sovereign.As a modern writer says, "The medieval State in India as elsewhere throughout its existence had all thedisadvantages of an autocracy-everything was temporary, personal, and had no basic strength. Thepersonal factor in the administration had become so pronounced that a slight deviation of the head from65 SANSKRIT SLOK66 SANSKRIT SLOK67 SANSKRIT SLOK68 SANSKRIT SLOK69 SANSKRIT SLOK70 SANSKRIT SLOK71 SANSKRIT SLOK72 SANSKRIT SLOK“ When a person who is the victim of a wrong in violation of the Smritis and the custom of the realm files a plaint (or complaint)before the sovereign, this is the commencement of a law suit (Vyavahara)”.73 Political Theory of Ancient India: John W. Spellman, Clarendon Press, Oxford, p.128.74 Fakhr-ud-din Mubarak Shah, Edited by D.Ross, p.12.75 Abdul Rahim : The Principles of the Muhammedan Jurisprudence, page 21.76 Badaoni : Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, quoted by M.B.Ahmad in the administration of Justice in the Medieval India, p. 278.77 Brani : Tarikh Firuz Shahi, p. 77.the path of duty, produced concomitant variations in the whole ‘trunk’. If the King was drunk ‘hisMagistrates were seen drunk in public’.78 Justice in not possible without security, and the Sultans of Indianever felt secure. Consequently, the democratic ideal of government preached by Islam was obscure inIndia.79 During the Sultanate, Islamic standards of Justice did not take root in India as an establishedtradition, unlike the judicial traditions of ancient India which had struck deep roots in the course of severalthousand years and could not be uprooted by political divisions.Under the Moghal Empire the country had an efficient system of government with the result that thesystem of justice took shape. The unit of judicial administration was Qazi-an office which was borrowedfrom the Caliphate. Every provincial capital had its Qazi and at the head of the judicial administration wasthe Supreme Qazi of the empire (Qazi-ul-quzat). Moreover, every town and every village large enough tobe classed as a Qasba had its own Qazi. In theory, a Qazi had to be "a Muslim scholor of blameless life,thoroughly conversant with the prescriptions of the sacred law.80

According to the greatest historian of the Mughal Empire, "the main defect of the Department of Law andJustice was that there was no system, no organization of the law courts in a regular gradation from thehighest to the lowest, nor any proper distribution of courts in proportion to the area to be served by them.

The bulk fo the litigation in the country (excluding those decided by caste, elders or village Panchayatsmostly for the Hindus) naturally came up before the courts of Qazis or Sadars."81 This view is notaccepted by other writers.82

On the appointment of a Qazi, he was charged by the Imperial Diwan in the following words:"Be Just, be honest, be impartial. Hold trials in the presence of the parties and at the court-house and theseat of Government (muhakuma). Do not accept presents from thepeople of the place where you serve,nor attend entertainments given by anybody and everybody. Write your decrees, sale-deeds, mortgagebonds and other legal documents very carefully, so that learned men may not pick holes in them andbring you to shame. Know poverty (faqr) to be your glory (fakhr)."83 But due to lack of supervision andabsence of good tradition, these noble ideals werenot observed. According to Sircar, "all the Qazis of theMughal period, with a few honourable exceptions, were notorious for taking bribes.84 The Emperor wasthe fountain source of justice. He held his court of justice every Wednesday and decided a few casesselected personally by him but he functioned not as an original court but as the court of highest appeal.There is overwhelming evidence that all the Emperors from Akbar to Aurangzeb took their judicial functionseriously and discharged their duties Jahangir made a great show of it and his Golden Chain has becomefamous in history. The weakness of Indo-Mohammedan Law, according to Jadunath Sircar, was that allits three sources were outside India."No Indian Emperor’s or Qazi’s decisions was ever considered authoritative enough to lay down a legalprinciple to elucidate any obscurity in the Quran, or syupplement the Quranic law by following the line ofits obvious intention in respect of cases not explicitly provided for by it. Hence, it became necessary forIndian Qazis to have at their slbow a digest of Islamic law and precedent compiled from the acceptedArabic writer. . . . . Muslim law in India was, therefore, incapable of growth and change, except so faras it reflected changes of juristic thought in Arabia or Egypt."85 After the death of Aurangzeb, the MughalEmpire collapsed within two generations. The provincial Governors and Faujdars arrogated to themselvesthe status of sovereigns and awarded punishment for criminal offences in their own names. A relic of thisusurpation of the Emperors’ power is the name Faujdari given to criminal trials even today.After the conquest of Bengal by the British the process of replacement of the Mughal system of justice bythe British began. But it took a long time. In fact, The Sadre Diwani Adalat continued to function till it wasreplaced by the High Courts.The Mughal judicial system has left its imprint on the present system, and a good part of our legalterminology is borrowed from it. Our civil courts of first instance and called Munsifs, the plaintiff and the

defendant are termed Muddai and Muddaliya and scores of other legal terms remind us of the great daysof the Mughal Empire.Part C: The Judicial System TodayI shall now give a very brief description of our judicial system today. Barring the Supreme Court, India hasno federal judiciary like the United States. Each State has its own judiciary, which administers both Unionand State laws. As during the Maurya Empire, each district in the State has its hierarchy of judicialofficers- Munsif, Civil Judge, Civil and Sessions Judge- with the District Judge as its head. I shall not givea detailed description of the organization of our state judiciary, as it is the subject-matter of another articlein this volume.High CourtsAt the apex of the State Judiciary is the High Court. It is a court of record and not subject to thesuperintendence of any court or authority, though appeals from its decision may lie to the Supreme Court.It consists of a Chief Justice and as many judges as the President of India may sanction. The numbervaries from 36 for the Allahabad High Court to 3 for Assam. The Chief Justice is in charge of the78 The administration of Justice in Medieval India, by M.B. Amhad, p. 272, quoting Briggs,. Rise of the Muhammendan Power inIndia, Volume I, p.272.79 Ibid., p.273.80 Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. II, page 60681 Mughal Administration, by Sir Jadunath Sarkar, page 108.82 Administration of Justice in Medieval India : M.B.Ahmad.83 Manual of Officers Duties, a Persian Mss. Quoted by Sir Jadunath Sircar, p. 27.84 Ibid., p. 27.85 Manual of Officers Duties, a Persian Mss. Quoted by Sir Jadunath Sircar, p. 115. The Indian legal system today suffers from asimilar weakness for it s theoretical foundations are outside India.administrative work of the Court and distributed judicial work among his companion judges. He is alsoconsulted in the appointment of judges in his own Court. But while sitting in Court, his judicial status is nohigher than that of any other judge and his decisions can be reversed by any two judges in SpecialAppeal, and if sitting on a bench of three Judges, he can be overruled by his colleagues. He has noadministrative control over any judge and his status may be described as primus inter pares (first amongequals).The High Courts hears appeals or revisions from the decisions of all subordinate courts, civil and criminal.In addition, it has original jurisdiction in matrimonial, Company, and testamentary cases. A specialjurisdiction was conferred on all High Courts by Article 226 of the Constitution, empowering them toprevent the infringement of fundamental rights of citizens and other rights, by issuing writs of habeascorpus, quowarranto, prohibition, certiorari, mandamus, or any other orders of directions. In the exerciseof this power, the High Court can restrain the State from interfering unlawfully with the rights of any citizenand invalidating any act or order already done or passed. It can also declare invalid any law passed by

Parliament or the state legislature in violation of the fundamental rights of any citizen. The remedy underArticle 266 has proved to be a very popular remedy and several thousands of petitions are filed everyyear by citizens throughout India for the protection of their rights. In the State of Uttar Pradesh alone overthree thousand petitions are filed in a year.Every High Court Judge is appointed by the President. The recruitment to the High Court bench is partlyfrom the bar and partly by promotion of district Judges of not less than five years’ standing. During histenure of office, a High Court Judge enjoys complete security of tenure which is the foundation of judicialindependence. A judge can be transferred from one High Courts to another, but in practice no transferhas taken place except at the desire of the judge concerned.Independence of JudgesThe principle of judicial independence did not originate with British rule. As I have shown above, it wasfully understood and enforced in ancient India. Katyayana and all other law-givers (whose injunctionshave been quoted above) emphasized the Supreme importance of judges being independent andfearless even of the king. The Constitution of India adopted the English doctrine of security of tenure, anda High court or supreme court Judge can be removed only on the ground of proved misbehaviour orincapacity, and after each House of Parliament has passed by a two-third majority an address to thePresident for his removal (Articles 124 and 217).The Supreme Court and National IntegrationThe Constitution of 1950 created for the first time in Indian history a Supreme Court for the whole of India.The establishment of this Court with an all-India jurisdiction is likely to accelerate the development of acommon law extending over every nook and corner of the republic. Article 141 enjoins "that the lawdeclared by the Supreme Court shall be binding on all Courts in India. " It gives the opinions of ourSupreme Court a constitutional force. The judicial process can be an effective weapon for forging nationalintegration. In England the law Courts were the most effect weapon for creating a common law for theEnglish people. There can be no doubt that the Supreme Court by its decisions and opinions, with theauthority of Article 141 behind them, shall accelerate the process of establishing a common law for thewhole of India.Judiciary has maintained its ancient traditionsAfter the attainment of freedom the Indian judiciary has maintained the ancient Indian tradition of judicialindependence and integrity. The Supreme Court has set the pace and its record of independence issecond to none in the world. The High Courts, too, on the whole, have maintained a high degree ofindependence, and cases of judges carrying favour with the executive have been rare, The highest praise

must go to our subordinate judiciary-the Munsifs, Civil Judges, and District Judges who have dispensedimpartial justice between citizens of different communities and castes, and whose record compares veryfavourably with that of British judges who were not always impartial between Indian and British litigants.Indian Judges have lived up to the injunction of Brihaspati that a Judge should decide cases without anymotive of personal gain or prejudice or bias and his decisions should be in accordance with the lawprescribed by the text.The Weakness of Our Judicial ProcessThe great weakness of our judicial process is that it lacks theoretical nourishment. The impact on thejudicial process of theories of jurists is profound though unseen and subconscious. A great AmericanJudge, Oliver Wendell Homes, wrote, "The felt necessities of the time, the prevalent moral and politicaltheories, institutions of public policy, avowed or unconscious, even the prejudices which judges sharewith their fellowmen have a great deal more to do than the syllogism in determining the rules by whichmen are governed." Another great American Judge, Benjamin Cordozo, observed, "Logic, and history andcustom, and utility, and the accepted standard of right conduct, are the forces which singly or incombination shape the progress of the law.86 Roscoe Pound is also of the view that "current moral ideasand ethical customs are drown upon continually although seldom consciously."87 The Supreme Court ofIndia has observed that in determining whether any restriction on a fundamental right was reasonable,there was no abstract of reasonableness and it was inevitable that the prevailing conditions at the time,and the social philosophy and the scale of values of the judges participating in the decision should playan important part.88 In ancient India the judges were required to be well versed in all branches ofknowledge (vidya) as well as jurisprudence and the science of government (dharma-shastrartha kushalai86 Nature of the Judicial process (1921) Cordozo, pp. 133-11 quoted by Roscoe Pound in Jurisprudence (1949) Vol. 3.p. 470.87 Jurisprudence, Vol. 1, p. 474.88 V.G. Rao vs. State of Madras, AIR 1952 Mad. 297rartha shastra visharadai).89 But what about today? What is the legal and social philosophy on which theIndian judges are broght up today?In England, Western Europe, and the U. S. A., the judge and lawyer have received constant inspirationand education from the jurisprudence of their civilization which has been developoing for twentycenturies. Similarly, the judicial process in the U. S. S. R. derives nourishment from MarxianJurisprudence which is constantly evolving. But where does the Indian judge or lawyer received hisinspiration from? Not from the jurisprudence of his own civilization. He knows something of Roman Lawand of the theories of western jurists but very little about the evolution of the law and jurisprudence of hisown civilization. The syllabus for the law degree in an Indian University does not include Indian

Jurisprudence or the theory of the State in ancient India or the History of Indian Law. Consequently ourjudicial process is an edifice constructed without theoretical foundations, or rather on foundationssupporting other structures in other lands. As an illustration I may cite a recent decision of the SupremeCourt in which a distinction was sought to be drawn between governmental activities proper andgovernment’s commercial undertakings which (it was observed) "have no relation to the traditionalconcept of government activities.90 Now, traditional concept means a concept according to tradition. Butwhich tradition: Indian or British or American? But in India as I have already indicated the state fromtimes immemorial has had a public sector. It cannot therefore be said that state commercial enterpriseshave no relations to the Indian traditional concept of governmental activities. The Supreme Court’sobservation is founded on a British or American but not on any Indian traditional concept. Again the moraland theoretical foundations of our penal code are foreign. To give an illustration, Manu prescribes publiccensure as one of the punishments for crime.91 This provision has been adopted by the Soviet CriminalCode;92 but the Indian Penal Code, drafted by Macaulay, ignores it altogether, though it can be aneffective form of punishment in many cases. Evidently the Soviet jurists have more regard of Indianjurisprudence than Indian themselves.The low standard of legal and juristic studies in India today creates an urgent problem. On the one hand,our High Courts and the Supreme Court are invested with the power to interpret the constitution anddeclare any law or act of the State invalid on the ground that it is unconstitutional or illegal or restrictive ofthe fundamental rights of a citizen. The law declared by the Supreme Court has a binding supremacythroughout the territory of India, and its appellate powers are wider than those of any other federal courtin the world. The interpretation of the Constitution and the adjustment of the rule of law with economicprogress require of our judges a profound knowledge of jurisprudence and the social science and acapacity for applying the law of social evolution to judicial process.93 On the other hand, the standard oflegal education in our universities and law colleges is very low. A poor legal education makes poor juristsand judges. The present disparity between the power and intellectual equipment of those who will be ourfuture judges creates a problem which the state can ignore only at its peril.I am all in favour of our Universities teaching the best that Western and Soviet thought and science cantell us. But the almost complete neglect of Indian jurisprudence and political philosophy leaves theeducation of every Indian lawyer and judge incomplete. I have come to the conclusion that the foundationof legal studies must be the study of Indian jurisprudence and every Indian University should include it asa compulsory subject for the Bachelor of Law Degree.

I concede that there is much in Indian jurisprudence which is out of date today. But this is true of everysystem of jurisprudence. The Greek and Roman civilizations were based on slavery. The divine right ofkings prevailed in Europe till the end of the 17th century. The law of reason was often identified with thelaw of a Christian God. There was no freedom of belief or worship in Europe, and many were burnt alivefor the offence of heresy, including Jeanne D’ Arc who today is worshipped as a saint. Women were triedand burnt for the offence of being witches and men for having communion with the devil. Some of thepeculiar absurdities which disgraced law and justice in Western Europe are absent in Indianjurisprudence. Till the very end of the seventeenth century, trails of animals for criminal offences weretaking place in Europe. I shall cite the following illustrations from Keeton’s Elements of Jurisprudence.94

In Germany, a cock was solemnly placed in the prisoner’s box, and was accused of contumaciouscrowing. Counsel for the defendant failed to establish the innocence of his feathered client, and theunfortunate bird was accordingly ordered to be destroyed. In 1508, the caterpillars of Contes, inProvence, were tried and condemned for ravaging the fields, and in 1545, the beetles of St. Jean de-Maurienne were similarly indicted. So late as 1688, Gaspari Bailey of Chamberg of Savoy was able topublish a volume including forms of incitement and pleading in animal trials. These absurdities find noplace in their judicial system of ancient India which according to one British writer was "in advance of ourown today."95

Rights and DutiesAn important difference between Indian and Western jurisprudence is their respective attitudes to rightsand duties. They are correlated in both systems, but the emphasis is different. In Indian jurisprudence theemphasis is on obligations. In fact, the word right (adhikar) does not occur even once in the whole of theAnushasan Parva or the Arthasastra. Indian jurisprudence is founded on theories which emphasise thatrights are corollaries of the duties. Even freedom of speech is recognised as a duty to speak without fear.89 Katyayana 57.90 Kasturi Lal vs. State of U.P., AIR 1965 SC 1039; 1965(1) SCA 80991 SANSKRIT SLOK92 Article 21, Fundamental Criminal Code of U.S.S.R.93 Our ancient jurists had evolved the evolutionary concept of law and grasped the scientific truth that the laws must change withsocial conditions:SANSKRIT SLOK94 Elements of Jurisprudence: Keeton, p.95 John w. Spellman, 1964, p.128.In Western jurisprudence, on the other hand, rights, natural or legal, are primary, though every right musthave a corresponding duty. This emphasis on rights in one case and obligations in the other has hadimportant effect on social institutions like marriage. Under Indian jurisprudence marriage was a duty, a job

to be performed as one of the many social obligations, which everyone had to perform. But the preoccupationof Western jurisprudence with rights has resulted in marriage being looked upon as analliance from which each partner tries to get us much as he or she can. The high rate of divorce is theresult of neglecting the ‘duty’ aspect of marriage.Future role of Indian JudiciaryWhat shall be the role of our judiciary in the coming social and economic revolution. The judicial systemdoes not operate in a vacuum. The administration of justice has a social function and the judicial processis only a part of the larger social process. Therefore the courts of law cannot function in defiance orignorance of the social objectives or "the felt necessities of times" as Mr. Justice Homes called them. Themaxim Fiat fiat iusticia et peret mundes (Justice must be done though the beams may fall) emphasizesthe impartiality of the judges but does not permit the judiciary to be indifferent to social needs.In theory the judiciary does not legislate; it only states what the law is. But as Goethe observed,96

"thefacts of life are more potent than abstract theories."In practice the judicial process is infinitely more complex than the bare theory of separation of powers.The Judges cannot help making the law while interpreting it. Under the guise of explaining the law the U.S. Supreme Court delivered opinions which affected the destinies of the American people. A formerAttorney-General of the United States writes of the U. S. Supreme Court:"………….. this Court has repeatedly overruled and thwarted both the Congress and the Executive. It hasbeen in angry collision with the most dynamic and popular Presidents in our history. Jefferson retaliatedwith impeachment; Jackson denied its authority; Lincoln disobeyed a writ of the Chief Justice; TheodoreRoosevelt proposed recall of judicial decisions: Wilson tried to liberalize its membership; and Franklin D.Roosevelt proposed to ‘reorganize’ it. It is surprising that it should not only survive but, with no mightexcept the moral force of its judgment, should attain actual supremacy as a source of constitutionaldogma."Surprise turns to amazement when we reflect that time has proved that its judgment was wrong on themost outstanding issue upon which it has chosen to challenge the popular branches. Its judgment in theDred Scott case was overruled by war. Its judgment that the currency that preserved the Union could notbe made legal tender was overruled by the Sixteenth Amendment. Its judgments repressing labour andsocial legislation are now abandoned. Many of the judgments against New Deal legislation are rectified byconfession of error. In no major conflict with the representative branches on any question of social oreconomic policy has time vindicated the Court."97

Indian Constitution, a SynthesisThe role of the Indian judiciary cannot be isolated from the social objectives of the nation. Our

Constitution has; set before the Indian people the ambitious goal of achieving a synthesis of the Westernand the Communist way of life, individual liberty and social control, abolition of anarchy in production andpreservation of democracy in Government-in a word, of political and economic freedom. I must not beunderstood to mean that there is absolutely no political freedom in the Soviet State or economic progressin the Western democracies. The division of the world into black and white and with no shades of grey isgood propaganda for the "cold war" but a poor statement of facts. The difference is one of emphasis. TheSoviet system placed economic progress before political freedom because the Soveit Government hasuptil now been struggling with the problem of transforming a multi-national, multiracial, multi-lingual, andmulti-religious community living in a huge, sprawling, state into a modern industrial nation. Today thewords "economic planning" and "political democracy" are accepted on both sides of the so-called ironcurtain. Our Constitution attempts to achieve a synthesis of the two. It reflects the spirit of non-alignmentin the field of constitutional law. Social control of industry is in accord with the Indian tradition. I havealready indicated that the state in ancient India had a huge public sector, and the Arthashastra prohibitssuch trade practices as cornering the market to raise prices.The Indian Constitution has set before our people a very ambitious and difficult goal. A Constitution is nota collection of abstract theories, nor does it operate in a vacuum. It reflects a way of life which enables aparticular people to realize its objectives and ambitions. If it fails to do this, it will be amended ordiscarded by agreement or otherwise. The Compulsive forces of social life are irresistible in the end.Condition of National SurvivalThe people of India has taken upon itself the titanic task of the transformation of her economy within onegeneration. Our state is determined to achieve within a few years what took Britain and other countriesseveral centuries. There is no choice left for India in this matter. The Himalaya is no longer our shield.Industrial strength has now become a condition of our survival.The only other country in the world which was able within a single generation to transform itself from abackward rural and agricultural community into a modern industrial and highly powerful state in U.S.S.R.But the political system of the Soviet State is very different from that of India. We are living under aconstitution based on the principle of the parliamentary democracy, which has the merit of acting as abrake on the arbitrary exercise of power. But a brake is a brake; it provides safety, not speed. And whatIndia needs is speed in social and economic revolution, because our very survival as a nation depends96 Grau, teurer freund, ist alle theorie, und grun des lebens goldner baum (Gray, may friend, is all theory, and green the golden

tree of life)- Faust, Scene IV.97 The struggle for Judicial Supremacy: Jackson.upon the speed of our economic development. It is possible to achieve a rapid economic transformationunder the present system of laws? This is the fundamental question facing not only India but the whole ofthe non-communist world. This problem was states ten years ago by an American journal, in a specialarticle devoted to India, in the following words:"Nikita Khruschev has challenged the West to complete against communism in the task of developing theunder developed lands… And as the Fifties give way to the Sixties the question that India faces is: canthese poor people, multiplying at the rate of 9 million a year be kept alive under a system of freeparliamentary government? Or will India be forced, in a desperate attempt to keep its masses fromstarving to throw aside its democratic institutions (as much of Asia already has) and adopt in their placethe ruthless methods of communist China.98

It is no exaggeration to say that on the ability, wisdom and patriotism of our future judges depends tosome extent the future of the rule of the law and parliamentary democracy in India. But wise judges donot drop like Ganga from heaven: they grow out of the social soil and are nurtured by the socialatmosphere. Great judges are not born but made by proper education and great legal traditions, as wereManu, Kautilya, Katyayana, Brihasparti, Narada, Parashara, Yajnavalkya, and other legal giants ofancient India. The continued neglect of legal education is against the national interests.98 News Week, Dec. 19. 1959, Challenge of Communism.

Indian Judiciary

The Judiciary of India is an independent body and is separate from the Executive and Legislative bodies of the Indian Government. The judicial system of India is stratified into various levels. At the apex is the Supreme Court, which is followed by High Courts at the state level, District Courts at the district level and Lok Adalats at the Village and Panchayat Level. The judiciary of India takes care of maintenance of law and order in the country along with solving problems related to civil and criminal offences.

The judiciary system that is followed in India is based on the British Legal System that was prevalent in the country during pre-independence era. Very few amendments have been made in the judicial system of the country.

Supreme Court in IndiaThe Supreme Court is the highest judicial body in India. The Supreme Court came into power on 28th January 1950; just two days after the Constitution of India came to effect. In the initial stages, it had its office in a part of the Parliament House. The Supreme Court is endowed with many duties and responsibilities. The biggest responsibility is that it is the highest court of appeal and is also the protector of the Constitution in the country.

The Chief Justice of India and 25 other judges make up the Supreme Court of India. The appointments are done directly by the President of India. There are certain criteria that have to be fulfilled by the advocates to become a judge of the Supreme Court. Being a citizen of India is one of the most important criteria. Apart from this, the person has to have an experience of minimum five years as a judge in the High Court or any other two courts one after another. He should also be a prominent jurist as per the President of the country, so that he can take up responsibilities well. The Chief Justice is also consulted at the time of appointment of the judges in the Supreme Court.

The Judges of the Supreme Court are free to exercise their power as and when required. The process of removal of the Supreme Court judges is quite an interesting but lengthy process. An order from the President is mandatory in case of removal of the judges. A two-thirds majority has to be obtained from both the houses for the removal of the judges.

The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is divided into original jurisdiction, advisory jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction. Original jurisdiction is required when there is a dispute between the Government and the states of India or any one state of India. The Supreme Court can also enforce fundamental Rights according to the Article 32 of the Constitution of India.

The appellate jurisdiction is mentioned in Articles 132(1), 133(1) or 134 of the Constitution. The decision of the High Court can be questioned in the Supreme Court of the country. One can appeal to the Supreme Court, if he or she is not satisfied with the decision of the High Court. The Supreme Court has the provision of accepting or rejecting the case at its own discretion. There are also provisions of pardoning criminals and canceling their lifetime imprisonment or death sentence by the Supreme Court.

Apart from the original and appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, there is an advisory jurisdiction that needs special mention. There are many cases that are directly referred by the President of India and the Supreme Court has to look into those matters. This provision is mentioned in Article 143 of the Indian Constitution.

The Supreme Court in India acts as an independent body and is free from any outer control. The contempt of law court in India is a punishable offence and the Supreme Court takes care of this immaculately.

High Courts in IndiaThere are High Courts in almost all the states of India and the Union Territories. The High Courts work under the Supreme Court in the country. These courts are vested with lot of power. They decide on both civil as well as criminal cases. Most of the cases that are handled by the High Courts of the country are passed on from the district or lower courts.

The judges of the High Courts are appointed by the President of India, in consultation with the Chief justice of India and the Governor of the state. The Chief Justice heads each of the High Courts in India. The numbers of judges vary from one court to other depending on the area that the High Court covers and the number of cases that it handles. There are also High Courts that serve more than one Indian state or Union Territory. Each of these courts have original and appellate jurisdiction under them. Summons can also be issued by the High Court. Revenue matters are dealt by original jurisdiction, while an eminent jury handles original criminal cases.

Established in the year 1862, the Calcutta High Court is the oldest court in India. Apart from this, there are 18 total High Courts in the country, some of which are Bombay High Court, Delhi High Court, Chattisgarh High Court, Gujarat High Court, Jharkhand High Court, Madras High Court, Patna High Court and Sikkim High Courts