Alzheimer's Association Alzheimer's Disease Facts and Figures 2014
Alzheimer's disease
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Transcript of Alzheimer's disease
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Alzheimer’s Disease
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• What’s Alzheimer’s Disease(AD)?• Signs/Symptoms• Stage of progression• Risk factors• Pathology• Ethiology
– Beta-amyloid– Tau
Outline
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What’s Alzheimer’s Disease(AD)?
• AD is an illness of the brain. It causes large numbers of nerve cells in the brain to die.
• AD is a progressive, irreversible brain disease that destroys memory and thinking skills.
• Most common cause of dementia in adults
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Pathology
• Amyloid plaques,• Neurofibrillary tangles• Neuron and Synapse loss• Neuronal cell death
Amyloid plaque
NFTs
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Sign and Symptom• Memory loss• Difficulty performing familiar tasks• Problems with language• Disorientation to time and place• Poor or decreased judgment• Problems with abstract thinking• Misplacing things• Changes in mood or behavior• Changes in personality• Loss of initiative
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Stage of progression
• Stage 1 (Mild)– 2 to 4 years – Less energetic and spontaneousEx. of behaviors– Getting lost– Repetitive questions and conversations– Losing things or misplacing them in odd places– Noticeable changes in personality or mood
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Stage of progression (Con.)
• Stage 2 (Moderate):– 2 to 10 years– Clearly disable– Forget recent events and their personal history– More disoriented and disconnected from reality– Speech problems arise and understanding– Reading and writing are more difficult
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• Stage 3 (Severe): – 1 to 3 years during final stage– lose the ability to feed themselves, speak,
recognize people and control bodily functions– Their memory worsens and may become almost
non-existent. They will sleep often and grunting or moaning can be common.
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Risk factors
• Age– After age 65, and rises sharply after age 75
• Genetics– Family history of AD
• Sex– Women > Men
• Having Down syndrome
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Cell damage
Cerebral cortex
Hippocampus Long-term memory/Short-term memory
Neurotransmitter deficits: NE: depression
5-HT3: Depression/Anxiety
ACh: Memory and Cognition loss http://www.memorylossonline.com/glossary/hippocampus.html
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β-amyloid (Aβ)
• Aβ peptides 36-43 amino acids• Prevalence of Aβ peptides : Aβ40, Aβ42
• Amyloid hypothesis : Aβ monomer Soluble oligomers (2-6 peptides) Amyloid plaques (insoluble fibers) Alzheimer’s disease
1. Imbalance between production and clearance2. Aggregation of peptides Accumulation of Aβ
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β-amyloid production
APP : amyloid precursor protein (type-1 transmembrane glycoprotein)BACE-1 : beta-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme 1 β-SecretasesAPP : large amyloid precursor proteinC83, C99 : 83, 99-residue carboxyl-terminal fragmentAICD : amyloid intracellular domain
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Aggregation & accumulation of Aβ Aβ monomer
Soluble oligomers • Aβ40 > Aβ42, 2-6 peptides
• The most neurotoxic : dimers & trimers toxic to synapses
Amyloid plaques or insoluble fibers in neocortex (Neocortex sensory perception, generation of motor
commands, spatial reasoning, and language)
Pathological features of Alzheimer’s disease (as well as NFT in medial temporal-lobe)
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Pathological features of Alzheimer’s disease
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Clinical trials of therapeutic management
• ɣ-secretase inhibitor (LY450139)• Vaccination
– Phase 2a trial (NCT00021723) : encephalitis and no cognitive
– Phase 2 trial (passive immunization of NCT00112073) : vasogenic cerebral edema in some patients
– Phase 3 trial (NCT00574132 & NCT0088662)
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Vaccination
Dale Schenk, Michael Hagen, Peter Seubert. Current progress in beta-amyloid immunotherapy. Current Opinion in Immunology, Volume 16, Issue 5, October 2004, Pages 599-606
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• Proteases neprilysin : a membrane-anchored zinc endopeptidase Degradation of Aβ monomers & oligomers
• Insulin-degrading enzyme : a thiol metalloendopeptidase Degradation of monomer
• Overexpression Prevent plaque formation
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[ Tau & Neurofibrillary tangles ]
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Axonal transport
http://www.mpih-frankfurt.mpg.de/global/Nc/view.htmhttp://www.colorado.edu/intphys/Class/IPHY3430-200/002cellular.htm
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Structural organization of microtubule
http://manual.blueprint.org/Home/glossary-of-terms/mechano-glossary--m/mechano-glossary-microtubules
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Tau protein• Stabilization and assembly
of microtubule
• Vesicles transport
• Phosphorylation dependent
• Phosphotau and total Tau in CSF as predicting markers
http://www.gate2biotech.com/early-testing-for-alzheimers-disease/
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22 Que
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What accelerate Tau accumulation ?
• Oxidative stress
• Impaired protein-folding function
• Deficient proteasome-mediated proteins clearance
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24http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_neurodegenerative/Case1/Case1Micro2.htm
Neurofibrillary tangles
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Approaches for therapeutic agents
• Inhibitors of Tau oxidation and aggregationMethylene blue, NCT00568776“Under way”
• Polyphenolic agentGrape seeds extracts: Resveratrol Aging-suppressor gene
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The Synapse in The Synapse in Alzheimer’s DiseaseAlzheimer’s Disease
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• Alzheimer’s disease is primarily disorder of synaptic failure.
• Synaptic failure– decrease in number– functional deficit
Synaptic failureSynaptic failure
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Depletion of Neurotrophin
Neurotrophins are a family of proteins that induce the survival, development and function of neurons.
learning memory behavior
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Neurotrophin
Types of Neurotrophin
1. Nerve growth factor (NGF)
2. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
3. Novel Neurotrophin-1 (NNT-1)
4. Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3)
5. Neurotrophin-4 (NT-4)
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Depletion of neurotrophin
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Depletion of neurotransmitterDepletion of neurotransmitter
“Cholinergic hypothesis” Loss of cholinergic function in the CNS contributes significantly
to the cognitive decline associated with advanced age and AD
Building up of - Amyloid and tua
Deficiency of cholinergic projection
Alzheimer’s disease
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Depletion of neurotransmitterDepletion of neurotransmitter
Evident • ↓Presynaptic α7-nicotinic Ach receptor (nACh-R)¥ Aβ bind to α7-nACh-R impair its signaling and the
release of Ach.• ↓Muscarinic ACh receptor¥ Stimulate postsynaptic M1 ACh-R
→ activate PKC favoring processing of amyloid precursor protein that does not yield amyloid.
Activation of nACh-R or M1-R limited tau phosphorylation
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Depletion of neurotransmitterDepletion of neurotransmitter
• Cholinesterase inhibitor improve neurotransmission but it loss efficacy over time.
• M1 agonist showed improvement in cognition and reduced Aβ levels in the cerebrospinal fluid.
(but this agent are toxic)
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Synaptic Dysfunction in Alzheimer’s DiseaseSynaptic Dysfunction in Alzheimer’s Disease
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Alzheimer’s Disease
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction• -amyloid (A) is potent
mitochondrial poison• A inhibits key mt. enzyme
esp. Cyt. c oxidase• Impairment of electron
transport, ATP production, oxygen consumption and mt. membrane potential
• Increase in mt. superoxide (O2-)
radical formation H2O2 oxidative stress, cyt. C release and apoptosis
Cyt. C oxidase
http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org/content/54/1/101/F1.large.jpg
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction• ROS & RON interact with
lipid mb, mb proteins• Lead to mitochondrial
mb potential (MMP) collapses
• Lead to opening of mitochondrial permea-bility transition pore (form when mitochodrial get damaged) apoptosis
• Antihistamine agent dimebolin improve cognition and behavior in patients with mild to modest
• Act on NMDA & mt. pore
New England Journal of Medicine. 362(4):329-344, January 28, 2010.
Promote tau phosphorylation
TCA cycle
Accumulation of mtDNA mutation
Stress-activated p38 and JNK
Toxic aldehyde disturbs glu transportation
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction Oxidative Stress
• Dysfunctional mt. release oxidizing free radicals oxidative stress
• Experimental model show oxidative damage markers occur prior to pathological changes
• A generator of ROS and NOS oxidative stress• RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products)
mediate A ’s pro-oxidant effects on neuron, microglial & cerebrovacular cells
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction Oxidative Stress
Amany Mohamed , et. al., Int J Alzheimers Dis. 2011, 127984.
A can be translocated to the cellvia interacting with RAGE
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction Oxidative Stress
A can be translocated to mt via TOM
Inhibit cyt. c oxidase lead to ROS and oxidative stress
Renato X. Santos, et. al., -Int J Clin Exp Pathol 2010;3(5):570 581
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction Oxidative Stress
• Elevated levels of free divalent transition metal (Fe, Cu and Zn) and Aluminum related with ROS damage and neurodegeneration
• Seek for therapeutic approach to deal with divalent metals• So far, safe compound derived from clioquinol (PBT2) – show
some efficacy
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction Oxidative Stress
http://clinicaltrials.gov/
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction Insulin Signaling Pathway
• Observation of subgroups of AD advanced AD have high fasting insulin levels & low rates of glucose
disposalLevels of insulin receptors, GLU-transport proteins and other
insulin-pathway components in brain are reduced in some studies with AD
• Resistance to insulin signaling energy deficiency in neuron and prone to oxidizing or other metabolic insults and impairs synaptic plasticity
• High serum glucose --> up regulate the tau kinase, glycogen synthase kinase 3 and reduce levels of insulin-degrading enzyme in the AD’s brains
• Thiazolidine (PPAR agonist) activate insulin responsive gene transcription had significant effects in some AD patients
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction Insulin Signaling Pathway
• It is not clear whether signaling is up-regulated (compensatory) or down-regulated (pathologic) in AD
Douglas C.Wallace, et. al., -Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 2010.5:297 348.
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ALZYMER’S DISEASE
DEFINING PHATOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL CARACTERISTICS
• Amyloids plaques(extracellular)• Neurofibrillary tangles(intracellular)• Inflammation(astrocytosis, miccrogriosis,
cytokines, complement, acute phase inflammatory proteins)
• Selective neuronal degeneration• Synaptic loss• Multiple neurotransmitter deficits
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VASCULAR EFFECTS IN ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
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VASCULAR EFFECT OF ALZHEIMER’ S DISEASE
• Vascular dementia• Cerebral amyloid angiopathy• Capillary abnormalities• Disruption of blood brain barrier• Large-vessel atheroma
None of these changes alone explain the symmetric reductions of cerebral blood flow in patients with Alzheimer's disease
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Cerebral hypoperfusion and clinical onset of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Ruitenberg A, Ann Neurol. 2005
• Cerebral blood flow (CBF) velocity is decreased in patients with Alzheimer's disease.
• It is being debated whether this reflects decrease because of advanced neurodegeneration or cerebral hypoperfusion contributes to dementia
• Although they cannot prove that this is caused by preclinical neurodegeneration leading to hypoperfusion
• But they suggest that cerebral hypoperfusion precedes and possibly contributes to onset of clinical dementia
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Atherosclerosis of Cerebral Arteries in Alzheimer Disease Alex E. Roher, MD PhD; Stroke. 2004
Large-vessel atheroma• Vascular disease underlies Alzheimer dementia• Atherosclerotic lesions and large leptomeningeal
vessels were found to correlate with Alzheimer disease (AD) clinical diagnosis and neuropathology
• AD pathology is the complex end result of slowly evolving vascular disease and parenchymal lesions
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Inflammation and Mechanism of Aβ Clearance
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VASCULAR CHANGED IN ALZHEIMER’S THERAPY
Immunotherapy
Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor
Folic acid
Advance glycation end product inhibitor
The reduction of cognitive decline
Reduced homocyteine level and may lower the risk of AD but not improve cognitive
Phase 2 study in mild-to-Moderate AD
Might be concern increasedvascular amyloid, microhemorrhages, vasogenicedema
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Chronic microglia activation and macrophage infiltration in Alzheimer’s disease
http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v6/n9/fig_tab/nrn1725_F2.html
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Inflammatory-activated glia co-cultured neurons
http://www.neuroscience.cam.ac.uk/directory/profile.php?gcb3
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Some components of the inflammatory to CNS degeneration
http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/wp/2009/10/inflammationalzheimers/
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Inflammatory responses and neurodegeneration
http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/wp/2009/10/inflammationalzheimers/
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Neurotoxic and neurotrophic action of microglia and astrocytes
McNally L, Bhagwager Z, Hannestad J, CNS Spectr, Vol 13 NO.6. 2008.
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Using the inflammatory response against AD
http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/wp/2009/10/inflammationalzheimers/
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INFLAMMATION IN ALZHEIMER’S THERAPY
Aβ Immunization, TNF-α andComplement factor blocker agents
Nonsteroidal anti-Inflammatory agent
Lower the risk’s of AD and slow progression of disease themechanisms of action is selectivereduction of Aβ 42, Inhibition of COX 2 or prostaglandin receptor,stimulation of phagocytosis by microglia (Only in prospectiveObservation study)
Not show evidence of reducingThe risk of AD or slowing cognitive decline
Nonsteroidal anti-Inflammatory agent and derivative(Tarenflubil)
Being investigated
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Calcium
Presenilin
mutation
Disrupt calcium homeos
tasis Aβ level
Calcium in endoplasmic
reticulum
Release calcium
into cytoplas
m
Alzheimer’s disease
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Calcium In late stage of
Alzheimer’s disease
Glutaminergic
receptor activation
+
Cytosolic calcium
Calcium – release channel
in ER
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Axonal – transport deficit
• Kinesin family drive vesicles and mitochondia destined for the synaptic terminal along axonal microtubules.
• BACE 1 ( amyloid precursor protien) and presenilin 1 were reported to undergo fast anterograde transport into terminal fields where Aβ and proteolytic derivatives are released
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Axonal – transport deficit
Impairment of transport
Amyloid precursor protein, vesicle and kinesin
Exonal swelling, Aβ deposition and neurodegeneration
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Aberrant Cell-Cycle Reentry
http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v8/n6/box/nrn2097_BX2.html
Oxidative stress DNA-damaging agents
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Cholesterol Metabolism
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/File:Lipid_Raft*.png
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Cholesterol Metabolism
http://www.rndsystems.com/cb_detail_objectname_WI00_BaceAlzheimers.aspx
promoted and clearance from the brain is reduced
promoted and clearance from the brain is reduced
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Cholesterol Metabolism
http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/wp/2009/10/alzheimersandapoe/
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Cholesterol Metabolism
High serum cholesterol levels
Alzheimer’s disease
Statins-reduce the membrane pool of free cholesterol-reductions in inflammation- up-regulation of α-secretase and vascular function
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Definition
• Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are formed as a result of nonenzymatic reactions between intracellular glucose-derived dicarbonyl precursors (glyoxal, methylglyoxal, and 3deoxyglucosone) with the amino groups of both intracellular and extracellular proteins
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Effective treatment for sporadic Alzheimer’s disease rests on
• Translation of the disease pathways
• Additional molecular mechanisms or new risk genes (eg. Apolipoprotein J)
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Eg, of recently discovered proteins encoded by these risk genes include -
• Apoliprotein J(clusterin)
• TOMM 40
• Sortillin-related receptor
levels are reduced in the brain of patients with AD and mild cognitive impairment
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Another potential risk factor for sporadic AD• (General anesthesia) promote-
• tau insolubility• A β oligomerization• Deficiency of estrogen in brains of post-menopausal women• Chronic activation of the glucocorticoid axis
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• Normally tau protein is soluble and abundant in axons
• Hyperphosphorylated tau is insoluble and lacks affinity for microtubules and self-associates into paired helical structures
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• It’s already observed that the correlation between the levels of A β oligomers in the brain and severity of cognitive defect in AD
• Oligomers and protofibrils are considered potent blockers of long-term potentiation that involved in memory formation
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• But does these factors lead to amyloid deposition and tauopathy in human is still in question?
• Recent studies point to brain atrophy and other pathologic conditions, not severe amyloid or tangle load, in accounting for dementia in the oldest ones
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• Prospective studies show that cognitive leisure activity and training can lower the risk of demensia
• Possible that many of these mechanisms (including the amyloid hypothesis) are minor or wrong and some critical aging-related process is the disease trigger