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with imagining the alternate realities suggested by the hypnotist. Inhypnotic age regression, for instance, people do not actually relivechildhood incidents or experiences; they merely imagine that theyare again children (T. X. Barber, 1999). In general, responsiveness tohypnotic suggestions may have more to do with the efforts and skillsof the people who are hypnotized than with those of the hypnotist(I. Kirsch & Lynn, 1995).

Though most people can be hypnotized to some extent, some aremore hypnotizable, or susceptible to suggestions, than others. Typicalcharacteristics of highly hypnotizable people include a well-developedfantasy life, a vivid sense of imagination, a tendency to be forgetful,and a positive attitude toward hypnosis (T. X. Barber, 1999; Barrett,1996). These traits help them think along with the hypnotist—toimagine whatever the hypnotist suggests, perhaps so vividly that itseems real to them.

The study of hypnosis has long existed on the fringes of scien-tific and academic respectability, in large part because of the associa-tion of hypnosis with sideshows and stage acts. In recent years, how-ever, hypnosis has attracted increasing numbers of scientificinvestigators and is slowly becoming incorporated in the mainstreamof psychology and medicine.

We now have evidence of a legitimate therapeutic role for hyp-nosis in treating a wide range of problems (Callahan, 1997;“Hypnosis,” 2000). For example, hypnotic suggestions may be help-

ful when combined with other forms of treatment, such as behavior therapy, inassisting people who want to quit smoking or lose weight (I. Kirsch, 1996; I. Kirsch, Montgomery, & Sapirstein, 1995). Hypnosis may also help the body’simmune system to function better during times of stress (Kiecolt-Glaser et al.,2001). Hypnosis can also help alleviate pain (Dowd, 2001; “Hypnosis,” 2000) andmay allow physicians to use lesser amounts of sedation or anesthesia during in-vasive procedures (R. Kessler & Dane, 1996).

Scientists continue to explore the therapeutic uses of hypnosis and to argueabout why it works in clinical applications. Perhaps it works in blunting pain bydistracting the patient’s attention from the source of pain ( J. T. Smith, Barabasz,& Barabasz, 1996). Or perhaps, as Hilgard’s neodissociation theory suggests, itenables people to divide consciousness so that they can split off the part that reg-isters pain from the rest of consciousness. Nonetheless, hypnosis should be usedonly as an adjunctive treatment, not as a substitute for traditional treatments.

For a summary of altering consciousness through meditation and hypnosis,see Concept Chart 4.3.

Hypnosis Scholars continue to debate thenature of hypnosis.

CONCEPT CHART 4.3Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis

Technique Method of Induction Key Points

Meditation

Hypnosis

Narrowing attention to a single object,word, or thought or performing arepetitive ritual

Narrowing attention to the hypnotist’svoice or repetitive stimulus

Meditation relaxes the body and mind, helps combat stress, and can helppeople cope with pain. Some people believe it leads to a state of inner peaceor spiritual enlightenment, but others practice it for its stress- and pain-relieving effects.

Debate about the nature of hypnosis continues. Role-playing theory andneodissociation theory have emerged as the major contemporary theories of hypnosis. All forms of hypnosis may actually involve self-hypnosis.

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