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Sports Psychology Module 2565

Personality

Objectives – over 2 lessons

Understand what ‘personality’ is, discussing examples

Learn different theories of how personality can be interpreted

Understand how personality can be assessed

Answer an exam question

Personality

What is personality? Write down your own definition.

How do you think our personalities are formed?

Definition of Personality

Personality is the sum total of an individuals characteristics which make him or her unique (Gill, 1977)

Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a persons character, temperament, intellect and physique, which determines the unique adjustment the individual makes to the environment. (Eysenck, 1968)

Personality

STABLE ENDURING UNIQUE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

Determines the way you react/respond to the environment

Links all components of this syllabus – should therefore make synoptic links easier

PERSONALITY

CONCENTRATION

CONTROL

COMMITMENT

CONFIDENCE

Sporting Personalities

Look back at Gill’s definition

Pick a sport & find 2 people within it whom you feel have conflicting personalities. Are they as successful as one another?

Why / Why not?

Sporting Personalities

John McEnroe

Ronnie O’Sullivan

Wayne Rooney

Lewis Moody

Dennis Rodman

Philips Idowu

Bjorn Borg

Peter Ebdon

Gary Lineker

Johnny Wilkinson

Larry Bird

Jonathon Edwards

Hollander’s Structure of Personality

12 3

Psychological Core

Typical Responses

Role related behaviour

Hollander’s Structure (1967) 1 = The Psychological Core:

The ‘real you’ Private, not revealed in questioning

2 = Typical Responses: Usual way we respond to the environment. Learned & stored experience. LH Responses may indicate the nature of the core.

3 = Role-related behaviour: Determined by our perception of env. at any given time. Can be changed at any time Action may not be a typical response but uncharacteristic

action. AGG

Personality Theories - OVERVIEW

1. Hollander – Structure of Personality

2. Freud – Psychodynamic Theory

3. Cattell, Eysenck + Girdano – Trait Theory

4. Bandura – Social Learning Theory

5. Bowers – Interactionist Theory

Psychodynamic theory – Freud (1933)

ID: basic instincts – no conscious control. Eating when hungry

EGO: Conscious link with situation. Seeks to satisfy desire of ID.

SUPEREGO: your ‘moral arm’. Judges whether behaviour of EGO is appropriate

These components interact to produce individual patterns of behaviour in sporting situations


ID EGO

SUPEREGO

BEHAVIOUR


According to this theory, personality is formed because of a permanent state of conflict between seeking (ID), releasing (EGO) and inhibiting (SUPEREGO) behaviour.

This theory provides a good explanation for aggression in sport

However, this raises the question is personality nature or nurture?

Trait Theory

WHAT ARE TRAITS?

A trait is said to be a characteristic inherited at birth

Causes you to act in a certain way

Stable and enduring across all situations, SO…

Trait Theory

Trait theory attempts to predict behaviour via personality traits

B=F(P)

Cattell (1965) identified 16 groups of traits, arranged in hierarchical order with the strongest overriding others (see book)

Measurement through questionnaires +

Trait Theory – Cattell’s 16 PF

Cattell's sixteen factors of personality, all bipolar are listed below. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

reserved - - - - - - - - outgoing less intelligent more intelligent affected by feelings emotionally stable submissive dominant serious happy-go-lucky expedient conscientious timid venturesome tough-minded sensitive trusting suspicious practical imaginative forthright shrewd self-assured apprehensive conservative experimenting group dependent self-sufficient uncontrolled controlled relaxed tense

http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/whatamilike/index.shtml

Trait Theory - Eysenck

Eysenck (1968) supported Cattells work, although suggested that ‘personality types’ should be used.

See page 224 – copy diagram

Therefore, a number of possible behaviours could happen although the personality type would still predict response

http://www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=696#n

Trait Theory – Girdano (1990)

Developed from trait theory is the ‘Narrow Band approach’

Very simply, it defines 2 personality types: type A and type B

Complete Questionnaire

Trait Theory – Narrow Band

TYPE A:Highly competitive, strong desire to

succeed, works fast, likes control, suffers stress

TYPE B:Non-competitive, un-ambitious, works at

slower pace, does not enjoy control, relaxes easily

Trait Theory – sporting success??

Ogilvie – born with sporting excellence – endurance, ambition, aggression

Research in 60’s - generally top athletes extroverted and stable

Gondola – marathon runners introverted, stable

Mishcel – no link between personality and sports performance

Trait Theory - Drawbacks

Narrow view of personality in some cases (narrow band approach, Cattell)

Does not take into account nurture or personal development

Unreliable predictor of behaviourDoes not take into account environment or

situation

Homework

Read through notes.

Complete worksheet 4.1

There will be an exam question at the end of next week’s lesson on personality theories. You need to know…

Theories and characteristics Drawbacks

Social Learning Theory

Bandura (1963)

B=F(E)

States that behaviour changes with the situation

Rather than being born with characteristics, we learn them from other people, especially those we hold in high esteem

eg significant others such as role models, friends & parents

Social Learning Theory

Therefore responses by the individual cannot be predicted

Learning takes place in two ways:

1) Observation (modelling) 2) Social reinforcement

Weakness: Doesn’t take into account inherited behaviours

Interactionist Approach

Combines trait theory & social learning theory. Bowers (1978)

‘interaction between the person and the situation explains twice as much as traits and situations alone’

B=F(PE)

Suggests that we base behaviour on inherent traits that we then adapt to the situation we are in.

Interactionist Approach

Example:a games player might be loud, extrovert &

dominant manner in the game because that is the best way to succeed, but would be more quiet & focused when in a training session designed to improve individual technique.

Personality Measures

Personality can be measured using 2 different methods.

Observation Can record situation /environment Can be over an extended period Description of personality can be made by analysing

behaviour/responses

Psychometric Tests Self report/questionnaires E.g. Cattell’s 16 PF questionnaire Predicts behaviour in situations by analysing traits

Personality Measures

Psychometric TestsSelf report/questionnairesE.g. Cattell’s 16 PF questionnairePredicts behaviour in situations

Problems with predicting behaviour according to personality

Results are too generalResults are subjective (situational)Evidence unreliable – no scientific proofPoor predictors of behaviour

Sceptical approach ? Is there a link ?

Credulous approach – supports link, but objective evidence is lacking

Most likely theory to be correct is…..

Exam question answers

1 mark for example:e.g. aggressive act against a team mate may

make another player retaliate against the aggressor

Predicts B=f(PE)

Environment plus innate characteristics

Inherited tendencies more likely to be displayed when situation triggers them

Exam question answers

Personality does not predict excellence or participation

Contradictions – credulous/sceptical both lack evidence

Evidence is inconclusiveTesting lacks reliability / subjective

Environment can change and therefore alter behaviour

Objectives – over 2 lessons

Understand what ‘personality’ is, discussing examples

Learn different theories of how personality can be interpreted

Understand how personality can be assessed

Answer an exam question

Attitudes

Sport Psychology

Module 2565

Objectives (Over 2 lessons)

Understand what attitudes are, how they are formed and influenced

Learn the components of attitudes

Learn how attitudes measured and how they can be changed

Answer exam questions

Attitudes

Stand up, get into a mixed sex group of 4/5

Your task is to produce a short (45sec) and simple gymnastics routine to be performed to the rest of the group.

You can have 4 mats per group

You have 5 minutes to prepare GO!

Attitudes

What did you think when?

You were put in groups?Mixed sex?Gymnastics?Performing to rest of group?

Negative / Positive?

Attitudes

What is an attitude?Definition:Moody (1980)

“A mental state of readiness organised through experience that influences the response of an individual towards any object or situation to which it is related”

Attitudes

Used to explain a pattern of behaviour or a response in a given situation.

An enduring emotional & behavioural response

Although it can be established firmly, an attitude is unstable and can be changed and controlled.

Attitudes

Attitudes are directed towards ATTITUDE OBJECTS, which can be PLACES, SITUATIONS and the BEHAVIOUR of other people.

E.g. A player dislikes training. The attitude object is the training & the player may adopt a negative attitude towards training.

Formation of attitudes

How do you think attitudes are formed?

Mainly through experiences - a pleasant experience in PE brought about by when positive reinforcement follows success is likely to promote a positive attitude towards PE.


Parents - in early childhood

Peer Group/ Friends - teenage years. If members of your friendship group participate in an activity, you are more likely to do it too.

Teacher/coach - by presenting new experiences & possibilities


Role models - watching & imitating their behaviour.

The process of interaction between individuals & groups of people is called socialisation.

Formation of positive attitudes

Positive attitudes of sport are formed by… belief in exercise/health benefits enjoyable experiences in sport being good at a particular sport being excited by the challenge of sport using sport as a stress release the influence of others where participation is the

norm

Formation of negative attitudes

Negative attitudes are formed by… not believing in the benefits of exercise a bad past experience injury a lack of ability fear of taking part / embarrassment suffering stress when taking part the influence of others when non-participation is

the norm

Attitudes and prejudice

Attitudes can bring false perceptions & bring behaviour that is inconsistent & prejudiced.

Prejudice is a prejudgement arising from an evaluation based on inadequate information.

P.228 last paragraph

Prejudice in sport

Examples in sport include: age/ gender/ race/ officials (T2 links to mass participation/discrimination in CS)

These prejudices can be formed by: social learning effect - learning from others wishing to fit in to social norm groups past bad experiences media pressure fear

Overcoming Prejudice

How can a coach or leader can prevent or help dispel prejudice?

use role-models to re-educate mixing abilities within groups using punishment for prejudicial behaviour reinforcing fair behaviour

persuasive communication cognitive dissonance

The components of attitudeTHE TRIADIC MODEL

1 The Cognitive Component: Known as information component . Reflects beliefs & knowledge. (What you believe)

2 The Affective Component: Known as emotional component. Feelings or an emotional response towards an attitude object. (How you feel)

3 The Behavioural Component: How a person tends to behave towards an attitude object. (What you do)

Objectives (Over 2 lessons)

Understand what attitudes are, how they are formed and influenced

Learn the components of attitudes

Learn how attitudes measured and how they can be changed

Answer exam questions

Homework

Read through notesComplete Q1 and Q2 of worksheet 4.3

Read pages 229-234 in preparation of next weeks lesson

Changing Attitudes

In sport, coaches try to change negative attitudes into positive ones.

2 useful strategies are: Cognitive Dissonance Persuasive Communication

Cognitive Dissonance Theory - Festinger (1957)

Challenging 1 or more component of an attitude causes unease in the performer, which could motivate him to change his mind.

If a person holds 2 ideas that oppose & conflict with each other an element of discomfort arises.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

This emotional discomfort is called dissonance.

The cognitive (beliefs) part of the attitude could be challenged

Cognitive Dissonance cont...

Eg: a rugby player might believe that aerobics is too ‘girlie’ so the coach tells him that some of the fittest people do it to improve stamina.

This attack on the player’s beliefs causes a change in attitude and the player now does aerobics to keep fit.

Think of a practical example

Cognitive Dissonance cont...

Other methods used by coaches include: pointing out the benefits to health making the activity fun & enjoyable allowing easy initial success using the examples of role-models using reinforcement attributing the reasons for success internally

Persuasive Communication

Changing the attitude of a performer through a process of persuasion.

There are 4 elements to this theory: 1 - The persuader: needs to be perceived as significant

& have a high status. 2 - The message: needs to be presented in a way that

makes the recipient want to change an attitude. 3 - The recipients: attitude is more easily changed if the

recipient really wishes to be changed. 4 - The situation: attitudes are easier to change if there

are other persuaders present.

Attitude Measures

Measured by questionnaires called ‘attitude scales’, which rate responses

1 - Thurstone’s scale - statements are rated according to ‘favourableness’

It is acceptable to have ‘men only’ golf and cricket clubs

AGREE DISAGREE

Attitude Measures

2 - Likert’s Scale - agree/disagree on statements

Ice cream is good for breakfast Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree

Attitude Measures

3 - Osgood’s Semantic Differential - rate an object using a given set of words.

Homework

Complete Worksheet 4.3

Revise work so far for exam questions next week

Personality Attitudes

Motivation

Achievement Motivation

Achievement Motivation is “an individual’s motivation to strive for success”

Can be instinctive - always want to compete

Can be nurtured - through experienceCan depend on the situation

Achievement Motivation cont...

A.M is the extent to which we approach and welcome challenge and competition, or avoid competitive situations.

This theory links personality with competitiveness.


Biddle suggests there are several goals against which success can be judged: 1: Mastery or Task Goals: Associated with self-

improvement (eg,Getting a PB). AKA process goals

2: Ego or Ability Goals: Involve comparison against one’s rivals (eg,winning club comp by beating opponents) AKA Performance/product goals


3: Socially Approved Goals: Involve seeking social reinforcement as a measure of success (winning approval from parents)

The most competitive individuals may strive to satisfy each of the 3 outcomes.

Atkinson & McClelland (1976): Personality Factors that determine competitiveness

High Naf

Low Nach

Low Naf

High NachTAS: people with a tendency to approach success

TAF: people with the tendency to avoid failure

Atkinson & McClelland cont...

A person who is motivated by the need to achieve, or ‘Nach’ will: accept challenges demonstrate task persistence be quick & efficient take risks welcome feedback take personal responsibility for actions try harder after failure


A person who is motivated by the need to avoid failure, or ‘Naf’, will: avoid responsibility take an easy option give up after failure


TAS individuals are regarded as people who are motivated to succeed & are not worried about the possibility of failure.

They are more competitive & tend to be stimulated by situations involving risk.


TAF individuals are worried by the prospect of failing & therefore lack competitive edge.

They have a low need to achieve & therefore lack a competitive edge.

LEARN ABOUT INCENTIVE VALUE

GROUP AND TEAM DYNAMICS A group is defined as a collection of people

mutually interacting to achieve a common goal. Team work is an essential feature of the

psychology of group performance. A collection of individuals is not necessarily a

group. Interaction and social processes between group

members is termed ‘group dynamics’

Qualities needed…

Features of a group: A collective identity – the group is a unit Shared objectives/goals – group members depend on

each other to achieve goals Interaction & communication between members (a clear

structure)

The extent to which a group bonds or has collective group co-operation in termed group cohesion

Cohesion

There are 2 types of cohesion: Task cohesion – the degree to which group members

are united in achieving the common goal, such as winning the game (important in interactive games)

Social cohesion – the degree to which group members like each other & get on, with mutual trust (important in co-active games)

LOOK AT THE TEXTBOOK p237

Cohesion cont…

The 2 types are independent. It is possible to be committed to achieving the

team goals but not get on with other team members.

A team with major disputes can still do well & a social team may not be successful.

It is possible that SUB GROUPS may emerge Look at textbook p237/238

Group Performance in Sport

Steiner’s model of group performance: Actual productivity = potential productivity – faulty

processes

Actual productivity is the result of group achievement – eg, the actual score of the game

Potential productivity is the group’s best possible performance given the resources & task demands. Eg. A tall basketball team should beat a smaller set of players.

Faulty processes are things that go pear shaped!

Group Performance Problems

The group’s performance usually falls short of its potential because it is hard to get a perfect performance.

The key to success is is to minimise these faulty processes, which include coordination & motivational problems.

Co-ordination losses

Coordination losses involve bad timing or poor strategies

Activities that require interaction are more prone to coordination problems.

Group performance decreases as group size increases

Coactive & individual sports suffer less from coordination problems because the performer operated alone.

The ‘Ringlemann effect’

Motivational Losses

Motivational problems include the concept of ‘social loafing’.

Withdrawal of effort‘Coasting’ or ‘hiding in group’Perception that others aren’t trying is a

cause of SL, as well as thinking they are not recognised by team/coach

Low confidence

Group Locomotion

Group locomotion is the process that explains why the group has formed and symbolises the activity of the team.

For locomotion to be effective there must be a LEADER to ensure co-ordination of the team

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