Provide a one word answer

for Alexander’s greatest impact

on World History:?

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT: 1. Where was Macedon located? 2. Who was Philip II? 3. How did the death of Philip II

affect Alexander the Great? 4. List the lands Alexander the

Great conquered: 5. What happened to Alexander’s

empire after his death? 6. Definition of Hellenism.

What does this story reveal

about Alexander the

Great?

In 338 B.C., Philip II, the king of MACEDONIA (an area north of Greece), brought all the Greek city-states under his control. His son, Alexander the Great, went on to conquer most of the Mediterranean world – including Persia and Egypt. He founded new cities, some of which he named after himself. Alexander even extended his conquests to the Indus River valley. Although his empire collapsed shortly after his early death, his conquests helped to spread Greek culture throughout the ancient world.

Alexander was only twenty when his father died. Two years later, Alexander marched eastward with 35,000 soldiers. Alexander’s soldiers quickly conquered Asia Minor. They then freed Egypt from Persian rule. Next, Alexander moved east again and conquered Babylon. He continued to move eastward and by 330 B.C., he had defeated all the Persian armies. For four more years, Alexander’s tired army moved eastward. They went as far as the Indus River. For the Greeks, this was the end of the known world. Alexander wanted to push on, but his men begged him to turn back. In 323 B.C., Alexander developed a fever in Babylon. Within a few days, the thirty-two year old leader was dead. For 13 years, Alexander ruled. During that time he had changed the world. After his death, his followers created separate kingdoms in Egypt, Persia, and the other areas that Alexander had conquered. These kingdoms often fought each other. But one thing held them together – their Greek culture. Throughout the

Middle East, people adopted Greek customs. Greek immigrants, traditions, and the use of the Greek language spread. As Greek culture spread eastward, it blended with other cultures. This blend of eastern and western cultures is called HELLENISM. The word comes from the Greek word “Hellas”, which means “their own land” or “Greece.” An important new culture emerged. Known as Hellenistic Culture, it was a blend of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian influences. SO, ALTHOUGH ALEXANDER WAS NOT GREEK, HE KEPT GREEK CULTURE ALIVE AND ALTHOUGH HE DIED

AT AN EARLY AGE, HE GREATLY INFLUENCED WORLD HISTORY. An Interesting Story about Alexander the Great:

The story begins with a man bringing a wild horse to Philip II. However, nobody could tame the horse, and Philip grew upset at the man for bringing such an unstable horse to him. Alexander, however, publicly defied his father and claimed that he could handle the horse. Alexander's reaction was viewed by his father as immature, in addition to being disrespectful to all the people that failed to tame the horse, Bucephalus. For that reason, Philip proposed, and Alexander agreed instantly, that if Alexander could ride the "wild" horse, Philip would buy it; on the other hand, if Alexander failed, he would have to pay the price of the horse, which was 13 talents, an enormous sum for a boy of Alexander's age. Alexander apparently noticed that the horse had been shying away from its own shadow, and so he led it gently into the sun, so that its shadow was behind it, all the while stroking it gently and whispering into its ear. Eventually the horse let Alexander mount him, and the 12 year-old Alexander was able to show his equestrian skill to his father and all who were watching. Alexander entered India in 327, encountering some of the toughest fighting of his career in the crossing. He reached the Indus River in 326. None of the Greeks had ever encountered anything to prepare them for India. The terrain, the monsoons, the fierce tribes, all combined with the long years of campaigning to take some of the heart out of the Macedonians.

Alexander's geographers had assured him that just beyond India was Ocean, the great body of water that completely encircled the world. Most historians believed that Alexander had no idea of the true size of the subcontinent and that he truly believed he need make only one more push to bring the entire eastern world under his dominion.

Two factors combined to bring Alexander's march to a halt: he began to realize that India was much bigger than he had thought, and a war with an Indian king named Porus showed that India would not fall easily to the Greeks. Porus was powerful both as a man and a king. He stood seven feet tall. He fielded an army that was a match for the Greeks, but Porus' army had an additional advantage: war elephants. DEATH While considering the conquests of Carthage and Rome, Alexander the Great died of malaria in Babylon, Persia (now Iran), on June 13, 323 B.C. He was just 32 years old. Rhoxana gave birth to his son a few months later. After Alexander died, his empire collapsed and the nations within it battled for power. Over time, the cultures of Greece and the Orient synthesized and thrived as a side effect of Alexander's Empire, becoming part of his legacy and spreading the spirit of Panhellenism. Adapted from: http://www.whiteplainspublicschools.org/

QUICK FACTS NAME: Caesar Augustus

OCCUPATION: Emperor

BIRTH DATE: 63 BCE

DEATH DATE: August 19, 14

PLACE OF BIRTH: Velletri, Italy

PLACE OF DEATH: Nola, Italy

NICKNAME: Octavian

FULL NAME: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus

ORIGINALLY: Gaius Octavius

AKA: Caesar Augustus

BEST KNOWN FOR Caesar Augustus, or Octavian, became the first emperor of the Roman Empire after Julius Caesar died. The country was peaceful under Augustus's rule.

PROFILE: Augustus (63 BC - AD 14) Augustus Caesar (63 BCE – 14 CE) was the name of the first (and, by all accounts, greatest) emperor of Rome. Augustus was born Gaius Octavius Thurinus on 23 September 63 BCE. He was adopted by his great-uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BCE, and then took the name Gaius Julius Caesar. In 27 BCE the Senate awarded him the honorific Augustus ("the illustrious one"), and he was then known as Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus. Owing to the many names the man went by in his life, it is common to call him Octavius when referring to events between 63 and 44 BCE, Octavian when referring to events between 44 and 27 BCE, and Augustus regarding events from 27 BCE to his death in 14 CE. It should be noted, however, that Octavian himself, between the years 44 and 27 BCE, never went by that name, choosing instead to align himself closely with his great uncle by carrying the same name (a decision which prompted Mark Antony’s famous accusation, as recorded by Cicero,“You, boy, owe everything to your name”). After Julius Caesar’s assassination in March of 44 BCE, Octavian allied himself with Caesar’s close friend and relative, Mark Antony. Together with another supporter of Caesar, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Antony and Octavian formed the Second Triumvirate in October of 43 BCE. Their first order of business seems to have been the systematic killing of any political rivals and supporters

of Caesar’s assassins (though exactly which of the three was most responsible for the killings is disputed by ancient and modern writers alike with some claiming Octavian innocent and others ascribing to him the most bloodshed). Having cleansed Rome of the 'bad blood’ of their opposition, the SECOND TRIMVIRATE then turned their attention to Caesar’s assassins. At the Battle of Phillipi in October 42 BCE, the forces of Brutus and Cassius were defeated by those of the Second Triumvirate forcing both assassins to kill themselves. Between 38 and 36 BCE, Octavian and Lepidus battled Sextus Pompeius (son of Pompey Magnus, Julius Caesar’s great rival) for rule of Rome with Antony lending aid from Egypt. The SECOND TRIUMVIRATE was victorious over Pompeius, and Lepidus, glorying in the triumph and confident of his strength, insulted Octavian by ordering him to leave Sicily, the theatre of operations, with his troops. Octavian, however, offered Lepidus’s troops more money than Lepidus could pay and his army defected to Octavian. Lepidus was stripped of all his titles save Pontifex Maximus and the Second Triumvirate came to an end. During this time, however, relations between Octavian and Mark Antony began to deteriorate. In 40 BCE, in an effort to solidify their alliance, Octavian had given his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony. Antony, though, had allied himself closely with Cleopatra VII of Egypt (the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of his son Caesarion) and, in fact, had become her lover. To Octavian, Antony’s behavior in the east, both in private, politically and militarily, was intolerable. Among the worst of Antony’s offenses was his declaration that Caesarion (son of Caesar and Cleopatra) was the true heir of Julius Caesar, not Octavian. The Senate revoked Antony’s consulship and declared war on Cleopatra VII. At the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BCE Octavian’s forces, under the General Agrippa, defeated the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra, scattered them (many had already defected to Octavian’s side before the battle) and pursued the survivors until 1 August 30 BCE when, after the loss of Alexandria, Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves. Octavian had Caesarion strangled (stating that “two Caesars are one too many”) and Antony’s eldest son executed as a possible threat to Rome. Octavian was now the supreme ruler of Rome and all her territories but, in order to keep from making the same mistake his adoptive father had of seeming to covet power, Octavian was careful to characterize all of his political schemes as being for the good of the Republic of Rome. In January of 27 BCE, Octavian resigned his powers humbly only to receive them back from the grateful Senate who also bestowed upon him the title Augustus. Octavian was careful not to refer to himself by that title at any time in public, simply calling himself 'Princeps’, or, First Citizen. So carefully did Octavian play the political game in Rome that his claims to restoration of the Republic seemed in earnest, even when he gained supreme power, giving him absolute control over Rome and her colonies. Popular already with the soldiers of his army, the title Augustus solidified his power in the provinces as Imperator, or commander-in-chief (from which the English word 'emperor’ is derived). The month of August was named in his honor. In the year 19 BCE, he was given Imperium Maius (supreme power) over every province in the Roman Empire and, from that time on, Augustus Caesar ruled supremely, the first emperor of Rome and the measure by which all later emperors would be judged. By 2 BCE Augustus was declared Pater Patriae, the father of his country. The era of Augustus’ reign was a golden age in every respect. The peace which Augustus restored and kept (THE PAX ROMANA) caused the economy, the arts and agriculture to flourish. An ambitious building program was initiated in which Augustus completed the plans made by Julius Caesar and then continued on with his own grand designs. In his famous inscription Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of the Divine Augustus)

32e - identify the ideas and impact of important individuals to include Socrates, Plato, Aristotle; the diffusion of Greek

culture by Aristotle's pupil, Alexander the Great; and the impact of Julius and Augustus Caesar

he claims to have restored or built 82 temples in one year. The famous public baths of Rome were constructed under Augustus by his second-in-command, Agrippa, and the poet Virgil composed his epic the Aeneid. Augustus took great personal concern in the arts and was a personal patron of many artists. He passed many sweeping reforms as well as laws to maintain stability in marriage and to raise the birth rate in Rome, making adultery illegal, offering tax incentives to families with over three children and penalties for childless marriages. So strictly did Augustus himself adhere to his laws that he banished his own daughter, Julia, and his grand-daughter, for adultery. Augustus died at Nola in 14 CE. His official last words were, “I found Rome a city of clay but left it a city of marble” which aptly describes Augustus’ achievements during his reign as emperor. According to his wife Livia and his adopted son Tiberius, however, his last words were actually, “Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit.” Augustus’ body was brought back to Rome in state and, on the day of the funeral, all businesses in Rome closed out of respect for the emperor. He was succeeded by Tiberius who he had adopted in 4 BCE and who read the eulogy (along with his own son, Drusus) at Augustus’ famously grand funeral. The emperor’s body was cremated and his ashes interred in his mausoleum. Augustus’ death was mourned as the loss of a great ruler of immense talent and vision. and he was proclaimed a god among the host of the Roman pantheon.

Definition: During the late Republic Roman generals had a

body guard or cohort called THE PRAETORIAN GUARD.

The praetorian guard became the military unit that served

as the emperor's body guard. They gradually gained

enough power to affect the succession of the Roman

emperor. The person or persons in charge of the

praetorian guard was the praetorian prefect (praefectus

praetorio). Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard as

a military unit in about A.D. 313, making it a civil office

responsible for the prefectures into which the empire was

divided.

Octavian / Augustus' Achievements

Octavian / Augustus reformed the Praetorian Guardand

laws on marriage and adultery, he had the power of

a tribune, and was Pontifex Maximus(head priest). He

extended the boundaries of the Roman Empire, caused

the Pax Romana, and built up the city of Rome

[see Augustus' famous saying].

DID YOU KNOW? Mongol leader Genghis Khan never allowed anyone to paint his portrait, sculpt his image or engrave his likeness on a coin. The first images of him appeared after his death. Shortly thereafter, Temujin killed his older half-brother and took over as head of the poverty-stricken household. At one point, he was captured and enslaved by the clan that had abandoned him, but he was eventually able to escape. Most of what we know about Genghis Khan’s childhood comes from “The Secret History of the Mongols,” the oldest known work of Mongolian history and literature, which was written soon after his death.

Genghis Khan rose from humble beginnings to establish the LARGEST LAND EMPIRE in history. After uniting the nomadic tribes of the Mongolian plateau, he conquered huge chunks of central Asia and China. His descendants expanded the empire even further, advancing to such far-off places as Poland, Vietnam, Syria and Korea. At their peak, the Mongols controlled between 11 and 12 million contiguous square miles, an area about the size of Africa. Many people were SLAUGHTERED in the course of Genghis Khan’s invasions, but he also granted religious FREEDOM to his subjects, abolished torture,

encouraged trade and created the first international postal system. Genghis Khan died in 1227 during a military campaign against the Chinese kingdom of Xi Xia. His final resting place remains unknown.

GENGHIS KHAN: THE EARLY YEARS

Temujin, later Genghis Khan, was born around 1162 near the border between modern Mongolia and Siberia. Legend holds that he came into the world clutching a blood clot in his right hand. His mother had been kidnapped by his father and forced into marriage. At that time, dozens of nomadic tribes on the central Asian steppe were constantly fighting and stealing from each other, and life for Temujin was violent and unpredictable. Before he turned 10, his father was poisoned to death by an enemy clan. Temujin’s own clan then deserted him, his mother and his six siblings in order to avoid having to feed them. GENGHIS KHAN UNITES THE MONGOLS Going against custom, Temujin put competent allies rather than relatives in key positions and executed the leaders of enemy tribes while incorporating the remaining members into his clan. Though Temujin was an animist, his followers included Christians, Muslims and Buddhists. By 1205 he had vanquished all rivals, including his former best friend Jamuka. The following year, he called a meeting of representatives from every part of the territory and established a nation similar in size to modern Mongolia. He was also proclaimed Chinggis Khan, which roughly translates to “UNIVERSAL RULER,” a name that became known in the West as Genghis Khan. GENGHIS KHAN ESTABLISHES AN EMPIRE Having united the steppe tribes, Genghis Khan ruled over some 1 million people. In order to suppress the traditional causes of tribal warfare, he abolished inherited aristocratic titles. He also forbade the selling and kidnapping of women, banned the enslavement of any Mongol and made livestock theft punishable by death. Moreover, Genghis Khan ordered the adoption of a writing system, conducted a regular census, granted diplomatic immunity to foreign ambassadors and allowed freedom of religion well before that idea caught on elsewhere. Genghis Khan’s first campaign outside of Mongolia took place against the Xi Xia kingdom of northwestern China. After a series of raids, the Mongols launched a major initiative in 1209 that brought them to the doorstep of Yinchuan, the Xi Xia capital. Unlike other armies, the Mongols traveled with no supply train other than a large reserve of horses. The army consisted almost entirely of cavalrymen, who were expert riders and deadly with a bow and arrows. At Yinchuan, the Mongols deployed a false withdrawal—one of their signature tactics—and then initiated a siege. Though their attempt to flood the city failed, the Xi Xia ruler submitted and presented tribute. The Mongols next attacked the Jin Dynasty of northern China, whose ruler had made the mistake of demanding Genghis Khan’s submission. From 1211 to 1214, the outnumbered Mongols ravaged the countryside and sent refugees pouring into the cities. Food shortages became a problem, and the Jin army ended up killing tens of thousands of its own peasants. In 1214 the Mongols besieged the capital of Zhongdu (now Beijing), and the Jin ruler agreed to hand over large amounts of silk, silver, gold and horses. When the Jin ruler subsequently moved his court south to the city of Kaifeng, Genghis Khan took this as a breach of their agreement and, with the help of Jin deserters, sacked Zhongdu to the ground. In 1219 Genghis Khan went to war against the Khwarezm Empire in present-day Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Iran. The sultan there had agreed to a trade treaty, but when the first caravan arrived its goods were stolen and its merchants were killed. The sultan then murdered some of Genghis Khan’s ambassadors. Despite once again being outnumbered, the Mongol horde swept through one Khwarezm city after another, including Bukhara, Samarkand and Urgench. Skilled workers such as carpenters and jewelers were usually saved, while aristocrats and resisting soldiers were killed. Unskilled workers, meanwhile, were often used as human shields during the next assault. No one knows with any certainty how many people died during Genghis Khan’s wars, in part because the Mongols propagated their vicious image as a way of spreading terror. GENGHIS KHAN’S DEATH AND THE CONTINUATION OF THE EMPIRE When Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia in 1225, he controlled a huge swath of territory from the Sea of Japan to the Caspian Sea. Nevertheless, he didn’t rest for long before turning his attention back to the Xi Xia kingdom, which had refused to contribute troops to the Khwarezm invasion. In early 1227 a horse threw Genghis Khan to the ground, causing internal injuries. He pressed on with the campaign, but his health never recovered. He died on August 18, 1227, just before the Xi Xia were crushed. Genghis Khan conquered more than twice as much land as any other person in history, bringing Eastern and Western civilizations into contact in the process. His descendants, including Ogodei and Khubilai, were also prolific conquerors, taking control of Eastern Europe, the Middle East and the rest of China, among other places. The Mongols even invaded Japan and Java before their empire broke apart in the 14th century. Genghis Khan’s last ruling descendant was finally deposed in 1920.

33h - analyze the spread of the Mongol Empire; include the role of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan in developing the empire, the impact of the Mongols on Russia, China, and the west, the development of trade (including the Silk Road), and European observations through the writings of Marco Polo

One of the earliest and most

complete ancient legal codes was proclaimed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi, who reigned from 1792 to 1750 B.C. Hammurabi expanded the city-state of Babylon along the Euphrates River to unite all of southern Mesopotamia. His code, a collection of 282 laws and standards, stipulated rules for commercial interactions and set fines and punishments to meet the requirements of justice. Hammurabi’s Code was proclaimed at the end of his reign and carved onto a massive, finger-shaped black stone stela (pillar) that was looted by later invaders and rediscovered in 1901 by a French archaeological team in present-day Iran. HAMMURABI’S KINGDOM Hammurabi was the sixth king in the Babylonian dynasty, which ruled in central Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) from c.1894 to 1595 B.C. His family was descended from the Amorites, a semi-nomadic tribe in western Syria, and his name reflects a mix of cultures: Hammu, which means “family” in Amorite, combined with rapi, meaning “great” in Akkadian, the everyday language of Babylon. In the 30th year of his reign Hammurabi began to expand his kingdom up and down the Euphrates, overthrowing Larsa, Eshunna, Assyria and Mari until all of Mesopotamia under his sway. DID YOU KNOW? Hammurabi’s Code includes many harsh punishments, sometimes demanding the removal of the guilty party’s tongue, hands, breasts, eye or ear. But the code is also one of the earliest examples of the idea of the accused being considered innocent until proven guilty. Hammurabi combined his military and political advances with irrigation projects and the construction of fortifications and temples celebrating Babylon’s patron deity Marduk. The Babylon of Hammurabi’s era is now below the water table, and whatever archives he kept are long dissolved, but clay tablets discovered at other ancient sites reveal glimpses of the king’s personality and statecraft. One letter records his complaint of being forced to provide dinner attire for ambassadors from Mari just because he’d done the same for some other delegates: “Do you imagine you can control my palace in the matter of formal wear?” HAMMURABI’S CODE The black stone stela containing Hammurabi’s Code was carved from a single, four-ton slab of diorite, a durable but incredibly difficult stone for carving. At its top is a two-and-a-half-foot relief carving of a standing Hammurabi receiving the law—symbolized by a measuring rod and tape—from the seated Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. The rest of the seven-foot-five-inch monument is covered with columns of chiseled cuneiform script. The text, compiled at the end of Hammurabi’s reign, is less a proclamation of legal principles than a collection of precedents set between prose celebrations of Hammurabi’s just and pious rule. The 282 edicts are all written in if-then form. For example, if a man steals an ox, he must pay back 30 times its value. The edicts range from family law to professional contracts and administrative law, often outlining different standards of justice for the three classes of Babylonian society—the propertied class, freedmen, and slaves. A doctor’s fee for curing a severe wound would be 10 silver shekels for a gentleman, 5 shekels for a freedman and two shekels for a slave. Penalties for malpractice followed the same scheme: a doctor who killed a rich patient would have his hands cut off, while only financial restitution was required if the victim was a slave. Hammurabi’s Code provides some of the earliest examples of the doctrine of “An eye for an eye.” REDISCOVERY OF HAMMURABI’S CODE In 1901 Jacques de Morgan, a French mining engineer, led an archaeological expedition to Persia to excavate the Elamite capital of Susa, more than 250 miles from the center of Hammurabi’s kingdom. There they uncovered the stela—broken into three pieces—that had been brought to Susa as spoils of war, likely by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte in the mid-12th century B.C. The stela was packed up and shipped to the Louvre in Paris, and within a year it had been translated and widely publicized as the earliest example of a written legal code—one that predated but bore striking parallels to the laws outlined in the Hebrew Old Testament. The 1935 U.S. Supreme Court building features Hammurabi on the marble bas relief of historic lawgivers that lines the south wall of the courtroom. Although other subsequently-discovered Mesopotamian laws, including the Sumerian “Lipit-Ishtar” and “Ur-Nammu,” predate Hammurabi’s by hundreds of years, Hammurabi’s reputation remains as a pioneering lawgiver who worked—in the words of his monument—”to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak and to see that justice is done to widows and orphans.”

If a builder builds a house and does not make the construction firm and the house collapses and causes death of the owner, that builder shall be put to death.

If a freeman wants to disinherit his son but the judges find the son has done no grave wrong, the father may not disinherit his son.

If a trader borrows money from a merchant and then denies it, and the merchant can prove this loan was made, the trader shall pay the merchant three times the amount he borrowed.

If a freeman brings false testimony in a case that carries the death sentence, he shall be put to death.

43b - explain Napoleon’s rise to power, the role of geography and climate in his defeat, and the consequences of France's defeat for Europe

(Congress of Vienna)

QUICK FACTS

NAME: Julius Caesar

OCCUPATION: General, Dictator

BIRTH DATE: c. 100 BCE

DEATH DATE: 44 BCE

PLACE OF BIRTH: Rome, Italy

PLACE OF DEATH: Rome, Italy

FULL NAME: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus

AKA: Julius Caesar BEST KNOWN FOR Roman general and statesman Julius Caesar turned the Roman Republic into the powerful Roman Empire. A coup ended his reign, and his life, on the Ides of March.

Allegedly the descendent of Trojan prince Aeneas, Julius Caesar's auspicious birth c. July 12 or 13, 100 B.C., marked the beginning of a new chapter in Roman history. By 31, Caesar had fought in several wars and become involved in Roman politics. After several alliances, he became dictator of the Roman Empire. This led to a senatorial coup, and Caesar's eventual assassination, on the Ides of March.

A politically adept and popular leader of the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar significantly transformed what became known as the Roman Empire, by greatly expanding its geographic reach & establishing its imperial system. While it has long been disputed, it's estimated that Julius Caesar was born in Rome on July 12 or 13, 100 BC. While he hailed from Roman aristocrats, his family was far from rich. The Rome of Caesar's youth was unstable. An element of disorder ruled the Republic, which had discredited its nobility and seemed unable to handle its considerable size and influence. . …Caesar returned to Rome to begin his career in politics as a prosecuting advocate. He relocated temporarily to Rhodes to study philosophy, but during his travels there was kidnapped by pirates. In a daring display of his negotiation and counter-insurgency tactics, he convinced his captors to raise his ransom. He then organized a naval force to attack them. The pirates were captured and executed. His stature was enhanced further in 74 BC when he put together a private army and combated Mithradates VI Eupator, king of Pontus, who had declared war on Rome. . When Caesar returned to Rome he began to work with Pompey, a former lieutenant under Sully, who'd switched sides following the dictator's death. Not long after, in 68 or 69 BC, Caesar was elected quaestor (a base political office) and then went to serve in several other key government positions under Pompey. Caesar's political ascendency, however, continued. In 61-60 BC he served as governor of the Roman province of Spain. He also continued his close alliance with Pompey, which enabled him to get elected as consul, a powerful government position, in 59 BC.

As Caesar was cultivating his POLITICAL PARTNERSHIP with POMPEY, the astute leader was also aligning himself with Marcus Licinius CRASSUS, a Roman general and politician who'd served valiantly during Sulla's rule. Crassus proved to be instrumental in Caesar's rise to power. A leader himself, and cited as the wealthiest man in Roman history, Crassus offered financial and political support to Caesar. Over the years Pompey and Crassus had come to be intense rivals. But once again Caesar displayed his abilities as a negotiator, earning the trust of both men and convincing them they'd be better suited as allies instead of enemies. This partnership among the three men came to be known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. For Caesar, this political alliance and the power it gave him was the perfect springboard to greater domination. . Not long after, Caesar secured THE GOVERNORSHIP OF GAUL (now France and Belgium), allowing him to build a bigger military and begin the kind of campaigns that would cement his status as one of Rome's all-time great leaders.. As he expanded his reach, he also showed his ruthlessness with his enemies. In one instance he waited until his opponents' water supply had gone dry, and then ordered the hands of all the remaining survivors be cut off. Even while he conquered Gaul, Caesar was mindful of the political scene back home, and he hired key political agents to act on his behalf in Rome. . But Pompey, who grew envious of his political partner's power and prestige, did not meet Caesar's growing stature with enthusiasm. Meanwhile, Crassus still had never completely overcome his disdain for Pompey. The three leaders patched things up temporarily in 56 BC at a conference in Luca that cemented Caesar's existing territorial rule for another five years, and granted Crassus a five-year term in Syria and Pompey a five-year term in Spain. Three years later, however, Crassus was killed in a battle in Syria. Around this time Pompey revisited his old concerns about Caesar.

Through a series of events, Caesar eventually went to war against Pompey, leading troops across the river Rubicon on January 10-11, 49 BC. With Pompey further aligning himself with nobility, and the nobility increasingly seeing CAESAR AS A NATIONAL THREAT, civil war proved to be inevitable. But Pompey and his troops were no a match for Caesar and his military campaign. By the end of 48 BC, Caesar had pushed his enemies out of Italy and pursued Pompey into Egypt, where he was eventually killed. There, Caesar aligned himself with Cleopatra, with whom he had a son, Caesarion. .

Upon his return to Rome, Caesar was made DICTATOR FOR LIFE and hailed as the Father of his Country. For Caesar and his countrymen, his rule proved instrumental in REFORMING ROME. He would serve just a year's term before his assassination, but in that short period Caesar greatly transformed the empire. He RELIEVED DEBT and REFORMED THE SENATE by increasing its size & opening it up so that it better represented Romans. He reformed the Roman calendar & reorganized how local government was constructed. In addition he resurrected two city-states, Carthage and Corinth, which had been destroyed by his successors, and he granted citizenship to a number of foreigners. He also proved to be a benevolent victor by inviting some of his defeated rivals to join him in the government. But Caesar was also careful to SOLIDIFY HIS POWER AND RULE. He stuffed the Senate with allies, and required the same body to grant him honors and titles. He was allowed to speak first at assembly meetings, and Roman coins bore his face.

Caesar's reforms greatly enhanced his standing with Rome's lower- and middle-class populations. But his popularity with the Senate was another matter. Envy and concern over Caesar's increasing power led to angst among a number of politicians who saw in him an aspiring king. History had shown that Romans had no desire for monarchical rule. Legend had it that by the time Caesar came to power it had been five centuries since they'd last allowed a king to rule them. .

Caesar's wish to include his former Roman enemies in the government helped spell his downfall. Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius BRUTUS were both former enemies who'd joined the Senate. Together, the two of them led the assassination of Caesar on the Ides of March (the 15th), 44 BC. It's not altogether clear whether Caesar knew ahead of time of the plot to kill him. What was clear, though, was that the conspirators, who dubbed themselves "the liberators," needed to act fast. By all accounts Caesar had plans to leave Rome on March 18 for a military campaign in what is now modern-day Iraq. There he hoped to avenge the losses suffered by Crassus. Brutus' involvement in the killing packed the most complicated backstory. He had originally sided with Pompey during Rome's earlier civil war, but then had been encouraged to join the government after Caesar's victory. .

Following Caesar's death, a power struggle ensued in Rome, leading to the end of the Roman Republic. A mob of lower- and middle-class Romans gathered at Caesar's funeral, with the angry crowd attacking the homes of Cassius and Brutus. Caesar quickly became a martyr in the new Roman Empire, and just 2 years after his death he became the first Roman figure to be deified. The Senate also gave him the title "The Divine Julius." .

Playing on the late ruler's popularity, Caesar's great-grandnephew, Gaius Octavian, assembled an army to fight back the military troops defending Cassius and Brutus. His victory over Caesar's assassins allowed Octavian, who would assume the name Augustus, to take power in 27 BC and become the first Roman emperor.

OCCUPATION: Emperor of Byzantium BORN: 482 in Macedonia DIED: 565 in Constantinople REIGN: 527 - 565 BEST KNOWN FOR: The Golden Age of

Byzantium and the Justinian Code of Law

He introduced new laws that protected both slaves and women.

There was a horrible plague in Constantinople during the 540s. Justinian got sick, but managed to recover.

He was the last Roman emperor to speak Latin. Because of his hard work he was sometimes called

the "emperor who never sleeps."

EARLY LIFE Unlike most of the great rulers during the Middle Ages, Justinian was not born into a royal family. He was born to a peasant woman named Vigilantia in the Macedonian town of Tauresium. Fortunately for Justinian, his uncle Justin was a rising star in the emperor's imperial guard. Justin adopted Justinian and had him move to Constantinople, the capital of

the Byzantine Empire. There Justinian received a good education learning how to read and write as well as law and history. Justinian's uncle was an ambitious man. He became very close to the emperor and gathered many strong allies. When the emperor died without an heir in 518, Justin seized the position of emperor. Justinian soon became one of his Uncle Justin's chief advisors and generals.

MARRYING THEODORA In 525, Justinian married Theodora. Although Theodora was considered below his class, Justinian didn't care. He loved Theodora and wanted to marry her. Theodora was very intelligent and turned out to be one of Justinian's closest advisors and supporters. BECOMING EMPEROR When Justin died in 527, Justinian became the new emperor. He was a hard working emperor who was known for surrounding himself with talented people. EXPANDING THE EMPIRE The Byzantium Empire was also known as the Eastern Roman Empire. It was Justinian's dream to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory. He sent out his armies commanded by his two powerful generals, Belizarius and Narses. They successfully regained much of the land lost by the collapse of the Western Roman Empire including Italy and the city of Rome. JUSTINIAN CODE Justinian also wanted to preserve the laws of Rome. He had all of the laws written down in one place. Then he added new laws to make sure that everyone was protected by the laws. This set of laws was called the Justinian Code. It was so well written that it became the basis of laws for many countries throughout the world. BUILDING, RELIGION, AND THE ARTS Justinian had a passion for the arts and for religion. Under his reign arts such as poetry and literature flourished. He had a strong belief in Christianity and wrote laws to protect the church and to suppress paganism. He also was a prolific builder. He had churches, dams, bridges, and fortifications built throughout the empire. These three elements of Justinian's passion came together when he rebuilt the Hagia Sophia. This magnificent cathedral is still one of the most famous and beautiful buildings in the world today. CHARIOT RACE RIOTS Despite all his accomplishments, many people in Constantinople were not happy with Justinian's rule. He had placed high taxes on his people in order to pay for his armies and building projects. In 532, this all came to a head at a chariot race. At the chariot race the two rival teams, the Green and Blue, united together in their dislike for Justinian. They began to riot. Soon they were attacking the emperor's palace and burning much of the city of Constantinople. Justinian considered fleeing, but at the urging of this wife Theodora, he fought back. Around 30,000 rioters were put to death to end the riot. DEATH Justinian died in 565 after ruling for nearly 40 years. He left no children so his nephew Justin II became emperor. Adapted from: http://www.ducksters.com/history/middle_ages/justinian_i.php

Justinian 33b - describe the significance of Justinian's law code, Theodora and the role of women, Byzantine art and

architecture, and Hagia Sophia

Louis XIV, the 'Sun King', was king of France from 1643 to 1715 and widely held to be the greatest monarch of his age. Louis was born on 5 September 1638 at St Germain-en-Laye. He became king at the age of four on the death of his father, Louis XIII. While Louis was a child, his mother, Anne of Austria, served as regent, assisted by Louis XIII's chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin.

Louis's early years were marked by a series of rebellions against his mother and Mazarin, which were known as the 'Fronde'. These created in him a lifelong fear of rebellion, and a dislike of Paris, prompting him to spend more and more time in Versailles, southwest of Paris. In 1660, he married Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV of Spain.

When Mazarin died in 1661, the 23-year-old Louis decided to rule without a chief minister. He regarded himself as an absolute monarch, with his power coming directly from God. He carefully cultivated his image and took the sun as his emblem. Between 1661 and 1689, he built a magnificent palace at Versailles and moved his government there from Paris in 1682.

In the early part of his reign, Louis worked with his finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to tighten central control over the country, reviving the use of regional royal officials, 'intendants' and carrying out other financial and administrative reorganization. Louis also expanded the French army and navy.

Louis's reign was marked by aggressive French foreign policies. After the death of his father-in-law, Louis claimed part of the Spanish Netherlands and launched the War of Dutch Devolution (1667-1668). In the Second Dutch War, he failed to crush the Dutch, led by William of Orange, but made significant territorial gains.

In 1685, Louis, a devout Catholic, revoked the Edict of Nantes which had allowed freedom of worship to French Protestants (Huguenots). Around 200,000 Huguenots, many of them skilled craftsmen, fled to Holland and England.

The last three decades of Louis's reign were marked by almost constant warfare. France was now the dominant power on the continent and other European nations felt threatened by this supremacy. The War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697), followed by the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) severely strained French resources. In the War of the Spanish Succession, for the first time in nearly a century France consistently lost battles, most notably at Blenheim in 1704 and Ramillies in 1706.

Louis XIV died on 1 September 1715, shortly after the Peace of Utrecht which ended the War of the Spanish Succession. As his eldest son and grandson had died before him, his great-grandson succeeded him as Louis XV. Adapted From: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/louis_xiv.shtml

42b - examine absolutism through a comparison of the reigns of Louis XIV, Tsar Peter the

Great, and Tokugawa Ieyasu

(1769 - 1821)

One of the greatest military leaders in history and emperor of France, he conquered much of Europe. Napoleon Bonaparte was born on 15 August 1769 in Corsica into a gentry family. Educated at military school, he was rapidly promoted and in 1796, was made commander of the French army in Italy, where he forced Austria and its allies to make peace. In 1798, Napoleon conquered Ottoman-ruled Egypt in an attempt to strike at British trade routes with India. He was stranded when his fleet was destroyed by the British at the Battle of the Nile.

France now faced a new coalition - Austria and Russia had allied with Britain. Napoleon returned to Paris where the government was in crisis. In a coup d'etat in November 1799, Napoleon became first consul. In 1802, he was made consul for life and two years later, emperor. He oversaw the centralisation of government, the creation of the Bank of France, the reinstatement of Roman Catholicism as the state religion and law reform with the Code Napoleon.

In 1800, he defeated the Austrians at Marengo. He then negotiated a general European peace which established French power on the continent. In 1803, Britain resumed war with France, later joined by Russia and Austria. Britain inflicted a naval defeat on the French at Trafalgar (1805) so Napoleon abandoned plans to invade England and turned on the Austro-Russian forces, defeating them at Austerlitz later the same year. He gained much new territory, including annexation of Prussian lands which ostensibly gave him control of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, Holland and Westphalia created, and over the next five years, Napoleon's relatives and loyalists were installed as leaders (in Holland, Westphalia, Italy, Naples, Spain and Sweden).

In 1810, he had his childless marriage to Josephine de Beauharnais annulled and married the daughter of the Austrian emperor in the hope of having an heir. A son, Napoleon, was born a year later.

The Peninsular War began in 1808. Costly French defeats over the next five years drained French military resources. Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 resulted in a disastrous retreat. The tide started to turn in favour of the allies and in March 1814, Paris fell. Napoleon went into exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba. In March 1815 he escaped and marched on the French capital. The Battle of Waterloo ended his brief second reign. The British imprisoned him on the remote Atlantic island of St Helena, where he died on 5 May 1821.

43b - explain Napolean's rise to power, the role of geography and climate in his defeat, and the consequences of France's defeat for Europe (Congress of Vienna)

QUICK FACTS NAME: Peter the Great

OCCUPATION: Political Leader, Tsar

BIRTH DATE: June 09, 1672

DEATH DATE: February 08, 1725

PLACE OF BIRTH: Moscow, Russia

PLACE OF DEATH: St. Petersburg, Russia

ORIGINALLY: Pyotr Alexeyevich Romanov

AKA: Peter the Great

BEST KNOWN FOR

Peter the Great was a Russian czar in the late 17th century, who is best known for his extensive reforms in an attempt to establish Russia as a great nation.

SYNOPSIS Born in Moscow, Russia on June 9, 1672, Peter the Great was a Russian czar in the late 17th century who is best known for his extensive reforms in an attempt to establish Russia as a great nation. He created a strong navy, reorganized his army according to Western standards, secularized schools, administered greater control over the reactionary Orthodox Church, and introduced new administrative and territorial divisions of the country. EARLY RULE Peter the Great was born Pyotr Alekseyevich on June 9, 1672 in Moscow, Russia. Peter the Great was the 14th child of Czar Alexis by his second wife, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. Having ruled jointly with his brother Ivan V from 1682, when Ivan died in 1696, Peter was officially declared Sovereign of all Russia. Peter inherited a nation that was severely underdeveloped compared to the culturally prosperous European countries. While the Renaissance and the Reformation swept through Europe, Russia rejected westernization and remained isolated from modernization. During his reign, Peter undertook extensive reforms in an attempt to reestablish Russia as a great nation. Peter overcame opposition from the country's medieval aristocracy and initiated a series of changes that affected all areas of Russian life. He created a strong navy, reorganized his army according to Western standards, secularized schools, administered greater control over the reactionary Orthodox Church, and introduced new administrative and territorial divisions of the country. SWEEPING CHANGES Peter focused on the development of science and recruited several experts to educate his people about technological advancements. He concentrated on developing commerce and industry and created a gentrified bourgeoisie population. Mirroring Western culture, he modernized the Russian alphabet, introduced the Julian calendar, and established the first Russian newspaper. Peter was a far-sighted and skillful diplomat who abolished Russia's archaic form of government and appointed a viable Senate, which regulated all branches of administration, as well as making, groundbreaking accomplishments in Russia's foreign policy. TERRITORIAL GAINS Peter acquired territory in Estonia, Latvia and Finland; and through several wars with Turkey in the south, he secured access to the Black Sea. In 1709, he defeated the Swedish army by purposely directing their troops to the city of Poltva, in the midst of an unbearable Russian winter. In 1712, Peter established the city of St. Petersburg on the Neva River and moved the capital there from its former location in Moscow. Shortly after, St. Petersburg was deemed Russia's "window to Europe." SHORTCOMINGS AND DEATH Under Peter's rule, Russia became a great European nation. In 1721, he proclaimed Russia an empire and was accorded the title of Emperor of All Russia, Great Father of the Fatherland, and "the Great." Although he proved to be an effective leader, Peter was also known to be cruel and tyrannical. The high taxes that often accompanied his various reforms led to revolts among citizens, which were immediately suppressed by the imposing ruler. Peter, a daunting 6 1/2 feet tall, was a handsome man who drank excessively and harbored violent tendencies. Peter married twice and had 11 children, many of whom died in infancy. The eldest son from his first marriage, Alexis, was convicted of high treason by his father and secretly executed in 1718. Peter the Great died on February 8, 1725, without nominating an heir. He is entombed in the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, located in in St. Petersburg.

42b - examine absolutism through a comparison of the reigns of Louis XIV, Tsar Peter the Great, and Tokugawa Ieyasu

Birth: 1542, Mikawa Province, Japan Death: 1616 Early Influences: Eldest son of Matsudaria Hirotada, daimyo

(Lord) of a castle Spent youth as a hostage of the house of

Imagawa Upon release from captivity in 1560, he

formed an alliance with Nobunaga Education: No Information Available Major Accomplishments: Upon defeat of the Hojo of Odowara in 1590

received land and set up an administration around Edo

Appointed regent to Hideyoshi's son who he eventually killed in 1615

Emerged as new military leader of Japan Made Shogun in 1603 Passed his Shogunate onto his son

establishing the Tokugawa succession Significance: Founded the Tokugawa Shogunate that

ruled Japan until 1868 Established trade monopolies that

eventually led Japan into almost total isolation

One of the most significant figures in Japanese history, Ieyasu was a warrior, statesman and founder of the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns. Tokugawa Ieyasu was born Matsudaira Takechiyo in 1542, son of the lord of the province of Mikawa. At the time of his birth, Japan was convulsed by civil war, with violent feuds between territorial lords which had lasted for nearly a century.

When he was four Ieyasu was sent as a hostage to secure an alliance between his clan and the neighbouring Imagawa clan. He was raised at their court and given the education suitable for a nobleman.

In 1567 Ieyasu, whose father's death had left him as leader of the Matsudaira, allied with Oda Nobunaga, a powerful neighbour. It was at this time that he changed his name from Matsudaira to Tokugawa, which was the name of the area from which his family originated. He also changed his personal name to Ieyasu, so he was now known as Tokugawa Ieyasu.

Ieyasu spent the next decade-and-a-half campaigning with Nobunaga while expanding his own influence and wealth. He had by now gained a considerable military reputation.

When Nobunaga was assassinated in 1582, Ieyasu acquired more territory, and allied with Nobunaga's successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi sent Ieyasu to govern lands in the east of Japan, attempting to contain his growing independence. Ieyasu made his headquarters at the small port of Edo (where Tokyo now stands). When Hideyoshi died campaigning in Korea, Ieyasu became one of the guardians of his young son. The leading military figures in Japan now began to scheme against each other and civil war again broke out. Another of the advisers appointed by Hideyoshi was Ishisa Mitsunari, and it was he who formed the Western Army against Ieyasu .

In 1600 Ieyasu defeated the Western Army in the decisive battle of Sekigahara, thereby achieving supremacy in Japan. In 1603 Emperor Go-Yōzei, ruler only in name, gave Ieyasu the historic title of shogun (military governor) to confirm his pre-eminence. Japan was now united under Ieyasu's control. He worked hard to restore stability to Japan and encouraged foreign trade, which included the exchange of gifts with James I of England and other European rulers. It was only later, under Ieyasu's successors, that Japan effectively isolated itself from foreign contact.

Ieyasu died on 17 April 1616. He was later deified and his mausoleum at Nikko became one of the most important shrines in Japan. Adapted From: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/ieyasu_tokugawa.shtml