AlexandertheGreat,356–323BCKeysources:Source Period Aimsandagenda Keyproblems Viewson

AlexanderPlutarch

LivedAD46–AD120

Wrotethe‘ParallelLives’comparingfamousGreekstoRomans.Each‘Life’comparisonattemptedtogiveamorallesson.AlexanderwascomparedtoJuliusCaesar.

Plutarchwrote‘biography,nothistory’.Moreconcernedwithcharacteroverpoliticalandmilitaryachievements.Plutarchdidnotwriteingreatdetail–hestatesthathewill‘merelysummarise’Alexander’slife.Plutarchhighlightedsupernaturaleventsanddreamsasomens.PlutarchwasapriestattheimportantTempleofApolloatDelphi.

Overall,PlutarchispositiveaboutAlexander.

Arrian

Livedapprox.AD86–AD146

ArrianwasaGreekandfeltthatAlexander’sachievementshadnotbeenrecordedwellenoughbyhistorians.ArrianwantedtopreserveandcelebrateAlexander.ArrianhadpoliticalandmilitaryexperienceundertheRomanemperor,Hadrian.Factualandchronologicalstyle,e.g.indescriptionsofbattlesInterestinstrategyandtacticsasamilitaryhistorian

WrotemuchlaterthanAlexander’slife.UsedpositivesourcesofinformationforhiscoverageofAlexander(PtolemyandAristobulus)whichdonotsurvivesowecannotcheckArrianisbeingaccurate.ArrianmostlyexcusesAlexander’smorenegativedeeds.However,ArriandoessometimescriticiseAlexander’sactions.

PositiveaboutAlexander–viewedhimwith‘ungrudgingadmiration’.

Diodorus

Wrotethe‘LibraryofHistory’between60and30BC.LikePlutarch,Diodoruswasamoralist–hehopedthatreaderswouldlearnalessonfromhishistory.

Diodorus’workisincomplete.WrotemuchlaterthanAlexander.Diodorususedanolderhistorian(Ephorus)forhisinformationwhoseworkdoesnotsurvive.

AmajorproblemforanyhistorianofAlexanderisthattherearenocontemporarysources(writtenatthetime)thatsurvive.Allofourancientsources(e.g.Plutarch,ArrianandDiodorus)wrotehundredsofyearsafterAlexander’sdeath.TheinformationtheyusedwaswrittenbypeoplewhoknewandlikedAlexander.Unfortunately,noneofthisoriginalmaterialhassurvived.Thismeansthatthereisnowaywecancheckthatourwritersarebeingcompletelyaccurate!Italsomeansthat,becauseourwriterswerepro-Alexanderandtheirinformationwasalsopro-Alexander,Alexanderisoftenshowninanextremelypositivelight.

Introduction–GreekconcernabouttheexpansionofMacedonunderPhilipIIDemosthenes’‘Philippic’speechesThisextractofDemosthenes’ThirdPhilippicisnotspecmaterial.ItisincludedheretosupportageneralintroductionlessonregardingMacedon’sincreasinginfluenceintheGreekworldunderPhilipII(Alexander’sfather).TheAthenianorator,Demosthenes,wasattemptingtopersuadetheAtheniansthatPhilipIIandtheMacedonianswereathreattoAthensandtheGreekworld.

Manyspeeches,menofAthens,aremadeinalmosteveryassemblyaboutthehostilitiesofPhilip,hostilitieswhicheversincethetreatyofpeacehehasbeencommittingaswellagainstyouasagainsttherestoftheGreeks.

…Isayweoughttomaintainpeace.Butifanymansupposesthistobeapeace,whichwillenablePhiliptomasterallelseandattackyoulast,heisamadman.Defendyourselvesinstantly,andIsayyouwillbewise:delayit,andyoumaywishinvaintodosohereafter.

…ThatPhilipfromameanandhumbleoriginhasgrownmighty,thattheGreeksarejealousandquarrelingamongthemselves,that itwasfarmorewonderfulforhimtorisefromthat insignificance,thanitwouldnowbe,aftersomanyacquisitions,toconquerwhatisleft.

…ButIobservethatallpeople,beginningwithyou,haveconcededtohimaright,whichinformertimeshasbeenthesubject of contest in everyGreekwar. Andwhat is this? The right of doingwhat he pleases, openly fleecing andpillagingtheGreeks,oneafteranother,attackingandenslavingtheircities.

…YouwereattheheadoftheGreeksforseventy-three years, theSpartansfor twenty-nine;andtheThebanshadsomepowerintheselattertimes.Yetneitheryou,myAthenians,norThebansnorSpartans,wereeverallowedbytheGreekstoactasyoupleased;farotherwise.Whenyou,orrathertheAtheniansatthattime,appearedtobedealing

harshlywithcertainpeople,alltherest,evensuchashadnocomplaintagainstAthens,thoughtpropertosidewiththeinjuredpartiesinawaragainsther.

AndyetinregardtoPhilipandhisconducttheyfeelnotthis,althoughheisnotonlynoGreekandnowaysimilartoGreeks,butnotevenabarbarianofaplacehonorabletomention; in fact,avile fellowofMacedon, fromwhicharespectableslavecouldnotbepurchased.

…AndwetheGreekcommunity,seeingandhearingthis, insteadofsendingmessagestooneanotherabout itandexpressing anger, are in such a miserable state, so entrenched in our miserable towns, that to this day we canattemptnothingthatinterestornecessityrequires;wecannotcombine,orformanyalliance;welookunconcernedlyontheman'sgrowingpower,eachtryingtoenjoytheintervalthatanotherisdestroyedin,notcaringorstrivingforthesalvationofGreece:fornonecanbeignorant,thatPhilip,likesomecourseorattackoffeverorotherdisease,iscomingevenonthosethatyetseemveryfarremoved.

Alexander’syouthPlutarch,LifeofAlexander2–3On his father’s side, Alexander was descended from Heracles through Caranus. On his mother’s, he was adescendentofAeacus(Achilles’grandfather)throughNeoptolemus.Thisisbeyonddoubt.Philipissaidtohavebeeninitiated intothemysteriesatSamothracewithOlympias,whenhewasstillayoungman.He fell in lovewithherwhen shewas an orphan andproposedmarriage to her, after persuading her brother, Arymbas, to consent. Thebride,onthenightbeforetheyslepttogetherintheirbedroom,thoughtthattherewasapealofthunderandthatathunderbolt fell on her womb. From the blow much fire sprung up, and then it broke into flames that wenteverywhere,beforebeingextinguished.Philip,atalatertime,afterhismarriage,dreamtthathewasputtingasealonhiswife’swomb.Inhisopinion,thecarvingonthesealhadtheimageofalion.Whentheotherseersconsideredthevision,theythoughtthatPhilipneededtokeepascloseaneyeaspossibleonhismarriagerelations.Aristanderof Telmessus said that thewomanwas pregnant, because a seal is not used on empty things, and that shewascarryingachildwhowasboldinspiritandhadalion-likenature.Inaddition,asnakewasseenstretchedoutnexttoOlympias’bodyassheslept.Andtheysaythatthis,morethananythingelse,reducedPhilip’slovetowardshiswife,andthatheno longersleptwithhiswife,eitherbecausehe fearedsomespellsandenchantmentsmightbeusedagainsthimbyhiswifeorbecausehewasavoidingassociationwithher,asshewasthepartnerofasuperiorbeing....

3

Afterthisvision,PhilipsentChaeronofMegalopolistoDelphi.TheysaythathebroughtbackanoraclefromthegodwhichtoldhimtosacrificetoZeusAmmonandhonourthisgodveryhighly.Hewould,however,losetheeyewhichhehadputtothechinkinthedoorwhenhehadseenthegodintheformofasnakesharingthebedwithhiswife.Olympias, as Eratosthenes says, sent Alexander on his expedition, and told him about the secret surrounding hisconception,andtoldhimtobeproudofhisbirth.Otherssaythatsherejectedthe ideaandsaid“AlexandermuststopslanderingmetoHera.”

Andso,Alexanderwasbornearly in themonthofHecatombaeon,which theMacedonianscall Loüs,on the sixthday.ThiswasthedaywhenthetempleofEphesianArtemiswasburnt.HegesiastheMagneianmadeastatementaboutthiswhichwouldhavebeenabletoextinguishthefirewithitscoldness.Forhesaidthatitwasnotsurprisingthat the templeofArtemiswasburneddownas thegoddesswasatworkdeliveringAlexander.All theMagiwhowereatEphesusatthattimethoughtthatthedisasterofthetemplewasasymptomofanotherdisaster.Theyranabout,beatingtheir facesandshoutingoutthatonthatdayacurseandagreatdisasterforAsiahadbeenborn.Philip,ontheotherhand,hadjusttakenPotidaea.Threemessagescametohimatthesametime.Thefirst,thattheIllyrianshadbeenconqueredinagreatbattlebyParmenio;thesecondthathisrace-horsehadwonavictoryattheOlympicGames, and the thirdwasabout thebirthofAlexander.Hewasdelightedby these things, as youwouldexpect.Theseers raisedhis spiritsevenhigherstillwhen theysaid thatasonbornat the timeof threevictorieswouldbeunconquerable.

Keylearning:

• AlexanderdescendedfromGreekheroesHerakles(throughhisfather)andAchilles(throughhismother).

• Alexander’smothercamefromEpirus…thismeantthatAlexanderwasonlyhalf-Macedonian.• PlutarchtellsusofmanydivinesignsthatsignifiedAlexander’sbirth…Alexanderwasdestined

forgreatness.Plutarch,LifeofAlexander6–96Philoneicus the ThessalianbroughtBucephalas to sell to Philip for 13 talents. They allwentdown to theplain toinspectthehorse,andheappearedtobedifficultandcompletelyunmanageable,notallowinganyonetoridehimorrespondingtothevoiceofanyofPhilip’smen,butrearingatallofthem.Philipwasannoyedandorderedthemtotakethehorseawayas itwascompletelywildanduntrained.Alexanderwasthereandsaid,“Whatahorsetheyarelosingwhentheycannothandlehimthroughlackofskillandpatience.”AtfirstPhilipkeptquiet,butwhereAlexandersaidthesamethingmanytimesandwasingreatdistress,hesaid,“Doyou find fault with your elders because you know more than they do or are better able to handle a horse?”Alexander replied, “I couldcertainlymanage thishorsebetter thananyoneelse.” “And if youdon’t,whatpenaltyshouldyoupayforyourrecklessness?”StraightawayAlexandersaid,“ByZeus,Iwillpaythepriceofthehorse.”Thismadeeverybodylaugh,andthenfatherandsonmadeanagreementaboutthepenalty.AtonceAlexanderranuptothehorse and, taking the reins, turnedhim towards the sun, ashehadnoticed that thehorsewasdisturbedbyseeinghisownshadow falling infrontofhimanddancingaround.Thenhecalmedthehorsea littlebydoingthisandstrokedit,andwhenhesawthatitwasfullofspiritandenergyhetookoffhiscloakquietly,leaptupandseatedhimselfsafely.Thengentlydirectingthebitwiththereinswithoutstrikingthehorseortearinghismouth,Alexanderheldthehorseback.Whenhesawthatthehorsehadstoppedmisbehavingandwaseagerforarun,hespokemoreboldly,kickedwithhisheelsandgavethehorsehishead.AtfirstthosewithPhilipwereterrifiedandkeptquiet.ButwhenAlexandercamebackproudandoverjoyed,everyonetherecriedoutandhisfatherissaidtohavecriedwithjoy;whentheboyhaddismountedhekissedhimonhisheadandsaid,“Mychild,youmustseekakingdomequaltoyourself;Macedoniaisnotbigenoughforyou.”

Keylearning:

• AlexandertamedthehorseBucephalas–herealisedthehorsewasscaredofhisownshadow.• Philip,Alexander’sfather,viewedthisasanexampleofAlexander’sambition.

7

[1] Seeing that his son’s nature was resolute and that he did not like to be forced to do things but was easilyconvincedbyargumenttodotherightthing,Philiptriedrathertopersuadehimtoorderhim.[2]Becausehedidnotentirelytrustthedirectionandeducationoftheboytotheteachersofmusicandotherstudies,asthiswasamatterofgreaterimportance. Itrequired,asSophoclessays,“Therudder’sguidanceandthebit’srestraint”,hesentforthemostwell-knownphilosopher,Aristotle, and paid him a feewhichwas noble and appropriate. [3] Sometimebefore,PhiliphaddestroyedthecityofStageira,ofwhichAristotlewasacitizen;henowrepopulateditagainandbroughtbackthoseofthecitizenswhowereinexileorwhohadbeenenslaved.

[4]HegavethemthesanctuaryofthenymphsatMiezaasaschool,wheretothisdaythelocalspointoutthestoneseatsand shadywalksofAristotle. [5]Alexanderappears tohave studiednotonlyAristotle’sethical andpoliticalphilosophy but also his secret and deeper doctrines,which philosophers do not sharewithmany people. [6] ForwhenAlexanderhadjustcrossedintoAsiaandlearntthatAristotlehadpublishedanaccountofthesemattersinabook,heboldlywrotealettertohimonbehalfofphilosophy,ofwhichthisisacopy:“AlexandersendsgreetingstoAristotle.[7]Inpublishinganaccountofyourprivatedoctrinesyouhavenotactedproperly;whatwilldistinguishme

fromothermeniftheprivatedoctrinesinwhichyoutrainedmewillbeavailabletoeverybody?Iwouldratherexceltherestofmankindinmyknowledgeofwhatisbestthanintheextentofmypower.Farewell.”...

8Inmy opinion Aristotlewasmore responsible than anyone else for Alexander’s interest in healing. Not onlywasAlexanderinterestedintheorybuthealsoofferedhelptofriendswhentheywereillandhesuggestedremediesandchangestothewaytheylooked,ascanbeseeninhisletters.Hewasnaturallyinterestedinlearningandwasakeenreader. He considered and called the Iliad amanual ofmilitary skill, and he took with him a copy corrected byAristotlewhichwascalledtheIliadofthecasket;healwayskeptitbyhimunderhispillowtogetherwithadagger,asOnesicritusrelates.WhenhecouldnotgetholdofotherbooksonhiscampaignintoPersia,heorderedHarpalustosendsome.HereceivedfromhimthebooksofPhilistustogetherwithmanytragediesbyEuripidesandSophoclesandAeschylus, andalso thedithyrambsofTelestusandPhiloxenus.HeadmiredAristotle from thebeginningandlovedhimnotless,ashehimselfsaid,thanhisfather,ashegainedthegiftoflifefromhisfather,butfromAristotlehehadlearnthowtolivenobly.InlateryearshewasmoresuspiciousofAristotle,notthathedidhimanyharmbuthis friendliness towards him was less warm, which was proof of an estrangement between them. However, hisnatural interest andenthusiasm forphilosophy,whichhedemonstrated since childhood, didnot leavehimashegrew older as can be shown by his respect for Anaxarchus and the 50 talents he gave Xenocrates and his closeassociationwithDandamisandCalanus.Keylearning:

• PhilipwantedAlexandertobeeducatedbyAristotle–afamousphilosopher.• Aristotle’steachinggaveAlexanderaloveoflearningandknowledge.• Alexander’sfavouritebookwastheIliad–heevensleptwithacopyunderhispillow.

9

WhenPhilipwasmakinganexpeditionagainstthepeopleofByzantium,Alexander,aged16,wasleftinchargeofaffairs in Macedonia and was keeper of the king’s seal. When the Maedi revolted, he overcame them. Aftercapturing their city he drove out the barbarians and settled a mixed population there and renamed the cityAlexandropolis.HewaspresentatandtookpartinthebattleagainsttheGreeksatChaeroneia,anditissaidthatheledthechargeagainsttheSacredBandoftheThebans.StilleveninmytimeanancientoaktreeispointedoutasAlexander’streenexttotheRiverCephisuswherehepitchedhistentatthetimeofthebattle;thegeneralburyingplaceoftheMacedoniansiscloseby.

Becauseofthis,asonemightexpect,Philipwasveryfondindeedofhissonandwasevendelightedwhenheheardthe Macedonians calling Alexander their king, and Philip their general. But the disturbances in the royalhousehold, brought aboutbyhismarriages andhis love affairs, causedproblems in his kingdomvery similar tothoseinthewomen’squartersofthepalaceandresultedingreatquarrelsbetweenAlexanderandhisfather,whichthebadtemperofOlympias,anenviousandsullenwoman,madestillworse,assheencouragedtheyoungman.ThemostobviousquarrelwasbroughtaboutbyAttalusatthetimeofPhilip’smarriagetoCleopatra;Philipfellinlovewithayounggirl,eventhoughhewastoooldforher.AttaluswasheruncleandwhenhewasdrunkatabanquethecalledontheMacedonianstoaskthegodsforalegitimateinheritorofthekingdomfromPhilipandCleopatra.StungbythisremarkAlexandersaid,“DoIappeartoyoutobeabastard,youfool?”Andhethrewacupathim.PhilipdrewhisswordandstooduptofaceAlexander,butfortunatelyforbothofthembecauseofhisangerandthewinehetrippedandfellover.Alexander insultedhimandsaid,“Lookatthisman,myfriends,who ispreparingtocrosstoAsia from Europe,who comes a cropper crossing from one couch to another.” After this drunken brawl he tookOlympiasandputherinEpirus,whilehespenttimeamongsttheIllyrians.

MeanwhileDemaratustheCorinthian,whowasafriendofthefamilyandpreparedtospeakhismind,wenttoPhilip.Aftertheygreetedeachother,whenPhilipaskedhowtheGreekswereagreeingwitheachother,Demaratusreplied,“Itiscertainlyveryappropriate,Philip,tobeworriedaboutGreece,whenyouhavefilledyourownhousewithsuchstrifeanddifficulties.”Philiprealisedhewasright,andsentforAlexanderandbroughthimhomewithDemaratus’help.Keylearning:

• Alexandergainedmilitaryexperiencefromanearlyage.• TheMacedoniansoldiersviewedAlexanderwithrespectwhichgreatlypleasedPhilip.• However,Philip’smarriagescausedproblems–AlexanderandPhiliparguedatPhilip’swedding

whenAlexanderreactedangrilytoAttalus’suggestionthathewasnotalegitimateheirtothethrone.

ThemurderofPhilip(336BC)DiodorusSiculus,LibraryofHistory16.91–16.9416.91...[2]In336BC,KingPhilip,chosenasleaderbytheGreeks,beganawaragainstthePersiansandsentAttalusandParmeniointoAsia;hegavethempartofhisarmyandtoldthemtofreetheGreekcities.Hewasanxioustostartthewarwiththegods’blessing,soheaskedthePythianpriestessifhewoulddefeatthekingofthePersians.Shegavehimthefollowingreply:“Thebullisgarlanded;ithascometoanend;thereistheonewhowillmakethesacrifice.”[3]Philip,althoughhefoundthisoracleunclear,interpreteditasfavourabletohimselfthattheoracleforetoldthatthePersianwouldbekilledlikeasacrificialanimal;butinfactthetruthwasthecompleteoppositeasitmeantthatPhilipwasbekilledatafestivalduringthesacrificestothegodslikeagarlandedbull.[4]Yetasheexpectedthegodsto fight on his side hewas very happy that Asiawould be captured by theMacedonians. So at once he orderedmagnificentsacrificesforthegodsandarrangedtheweddingofhisdaughterCleopatra;hermotherwasOlympias.Itwasherbrother,Alexander,KingofEpirusthatPhiliphadgivenCleopatrato.[5]AshewantedasmanyoftheGreeksaspossibletotakepart inthefestivalandtheworshipof thegods,hearrangedmagnificentmusicalcontestsandsplendidbanquetsforhisfriendsandguests.[6]Forthatreasonhesentforhisownpersonalguest-friendsfromalloverGreece,andtoldhisfriendstoinviteasmanyaspossibleoftheirownfriendsfromabroad.Hewasverykeentoshowhimselfaswelldisposedto theGreeksandto repay thehonoursshowntohimwhenhereceivedcompletecontrolofGreekforceswithappropriateentertainment.16.92

[1] In the end,many hurried to the festival from all over Greece,when the games and themarriage [of Philip’sdaughterCleopatra]werecelebratedinAegaeinMacedonia.Notonlydidmanyfamousindividualscrownhimwithgoldcrownsbutthemajorityoftheimportantcitiesalsodidso,includingAthens....

16.93

[1]ThetheatrewasfullwhenPhilipenteredwearingawhitecloak;hisbodyguardshadbeenorderedtoaccompanyhimatadistance;hewantedtoshoweveryonethathewasprotectedbythecommongoodwilloftheGreeksanddidnotneedanyotherprotection.[2]Sogreatwashissuccessatthistime;everyonewaspraisingandblessingtheking.Thenincredibleandcompletelyunexpectedwastheplotagainstthekingwhichbroughtabouthisdeath.[3]Sothatmyaccountofthesemattersmaybeclear,Iwillsetoutthereasonsfortheplot.PausaniaswasaMacedonianby birthwho came from the district ofOrestis, and hewas a bodyguard of the king and a friend because of hisbeauty.[4]WhenhesawthatanotherindividualcalledPausaniaswasbecomingclosetotheking,heusedabusivelanguageagainsthim,saying thathewasahermaphroditeandwouldreadilyaccept theadvancesofanyonewhoapproachedhim.[5]TheotherPausanias,unabletoputupwiththisviolentabuse,remainedsilentforatime,butthenhesharedwithoneofhisfriends,Attalus,whathewasgoingtodoandbroughtabouttheendingofhisownlifewillinglyandinanunusualmanner.[6]Afewdayslater,whenPhilipwasinabattlewithPleurias,Kingofthellyrians,Pausanias stood in front of the king and took all the blows aimed at him and so died. [7] These events becamecommontalk.Attalus,whowasoneoftheinnercirclewhohadgreatinfluencewiththeking,summonedtheotherPausanias to dinner and gave him a great deal of unmixed wine. Then he gave the inebriated Pausanias to themuleteers for violenceanddrunkenexcess. [8]WhenPausanias soberedup fromhisheavydrinking,hewasveryangryattheviolencedonetohimwhilehewasdrunkandhemadeacomplaintaboutAttalusbeforetheking.Philipwasangeredbythelawlessnessoftheact,buthedidnotwishtoshowhisangerbothbecauseofhisrelationshipwithAttalusandbecauseheneededhimatthetime.[9]AttaluswasthenephewofCleopatra,thewomanwhohad

justbeenmarriedbytheking,andhehadbeenappointedgeneraloftheadvancepartysentintoAsia,ashewasabraveman inwar.Becauseof this thekingwishedtocalmPausanias’ justifiedanger forwhathehadsuffered,sogavehimworthypresentsandpromotedhimwithinhisbodyguard.

16.94[1]Pausaniaspreservedhisanger,justasithadbeen,andwaskeennotonlytoavengehimselfontheonewhohadwrongedhimbutalsoonthekingwhohadfailedtogranthimrevenge.HewassupportedinthisplanbythesophistHermocrates;hehadbeenapupilof thisman,andduringhis studieshadaskedhowamanmightbecomemostfamous.Hermocratesrepliedthathemightachievethisifhekilledthemanwhohadachievedthegreatestdeeds,asthekillerofsuchamanwouldberememberedtogetherwiththemanhekilled.[2]Pausaniasappliedthissayingtohispersonalanger,and,allowingnopostponementofhisplanbecauseofhissenseofbeingwronged,puthisplanintoactionduringthisfestivalinthefollowingmanner.[3]Hepositionedhorsesbythegatestothecityandwenttothe entrance of the theatre with a Celtic dagger hidden from view. When Philip told those friends who wereaccompanyinghimtogointothetheatrebeforehedid,thebodyguardskepttheirdistance,thenPausanias,seeingthatthekingwasalone,ranuptohimandstrikinghimstraightthroughtheribslefthimdeadontheground;thenhesprintedforthegatesandthehorseshehadreadiedforflight.[4]Atoncesomeofthebodyguardsrushedtothebodyoftheking,whiletheotherspouredoutinpursuitofthekiller;inthisgroupwereLeonnatusandPerdiccasandAttalus.Pausaniashadaheadstartandwouldhaveleaptontoahorsebeforetheyreachedhim,ifhehadnotcaughthisbootonavineandfallen.Becauseofthis,themenwithPerdiccascaughtupwithhimashewasgettingupfromthegroundandkilledhimwiththeirspears.Keylearning:

• Philipwasmurderedbyoneofhisguardsattheweddingofhisdaughter-Philiphadnotcorrectlyunderstoodaprophecygiventohim.

• PhilipwasusingtheweddingofhisdaughtertoshowhehadcompletecontroloverGreece–theGreekcitieswereinvitedtosendrepresentativestothewedding.

• TheguardthatmurderedPhilip,Pausanias,wasangrythathehadbeeninsulted…Philiphaddonenothingtopunishthoseinvolved.

Alexander’sinvasionofPersiaArrian,AnabasisofAlexander1.11–16Alexander’svisittoTroy11

Whenhe[Alexander]hadcompletedthesethings,hewentbacktoMacedonia.HemadethesacrificetoOlympianZeuswhichstill remainedfromthetimeofArchelausandputontheOlympicGamesatAegae;otherssaythatheheldacontestfortheMuses.Meanwhile,itwasannouncedthatthestatueofOrpheus,sonofOeagrustheThracianin Pieria had been sweating constantly. Different seers interpreted this in different ways, but Aristander ofTelmissus,aseer,encouragedAlexandertobebold.HesaidthatitwasclearthattherewouldbealotofworkforthepoetsofepicandchoralsongsandwritersofodesincomposingpoetryandsinginghymnsaboutAlexanderandtheactionsofAlexander.Atthebeginningofspring,hemarchedtotheHellespont.HehadgivencontrolofthingsinMacedoniaandGreecetoAntipater.Hehimself led the infantrywith the lightlyarmed troopsand thearcherswhowerenotmuchover30,000innumber,andcavalryofover5,000.HisroutewaspastLakeCercinitisgoingtowardsAmphipolisandtothedeltaoftheRiverStrymon.HecrossedtheStrymonandpassedMountPangaeum.HethenmadehiswaytoAbderaandMaronea, which were Greek cities that had been established by the sea. From there he went to the RiverHebrus,andcrossedthiseasily.ThenhewentthroughPaeticatotheBlackRiver.HecrossedthisandcametoSestuswithintwentydaysintotalafterhisdeparturefromhome.WhenhecametoElaeushesacrificedtoProtesilausathis

tomb,becauseProtesilausseemstohavebeenthefirstoftheGreekstodisembarkinAsiawhentheycametoTroywithAgamemnon.Thereasoningbehindthesacrificewasthathewantedhis landinginAsiatobemorefortunatethanthatofProtesilaus.Parmeniowasappointedtoorganisethetransportofmostof the infantryandthecavalry fromSestustoAbydus.Theyembarkedon160triremesandmanyothercargoboats.ThemostcommonstoryholdsthatAlexanderwentfrom Elaeus to the Achaean harbour; he himself steered the admiral’s ship.When he was in the middle of thechanneloftheHellespont,hesacrificedabulltoPoseidonandtheNereids,andpouredalibationfromagoldencupintothesea.TheysaythathewasthefirsttodisembarkfromtheshipontoAsiansoil infullarmour.Hesetupaltars toZeusofSafeLandings,AthenaandHeracles,bothwherehehadstarted from inEuropeand in theplacewherehedisembarkedinAsia.HethenwentontoTroyandsacrificedtoTrojanAthena,anddedicatedhisfullsuitofarmourinthetemple,andtookdownintheirplacesomeofthesacredweaponsthatwerepreservedfromtheTrojanWar.Theysaythattheroyalguardscarriedthesebeforehimintobattle.HethensacrificedtoPriamaswellonthealtarofZeusofEnclosures(asthestorygoes),askingthattheangerofPriamshouldnotbevisitedontheraceofNeoptolemus,asAlexanderhimselfwasdescendedfromhim.

12

Menoetius the helmsman crowned Alexander with a golden wreath when he arrived at Troy. Then Chares theAtheniancamefromSigeum,alongwithothersbothGreeksandlocals....SomesaythatAlexanderplacedacrownonthetombofAchilles,whileHephaestioncrownedthetombofPatroclus.Alexander,asgoesthestory,declaredAchilleshappybecausehehadHomertoproclaimhisfametofuturegenerations.However,AlexandermightwellhaveconsideredAchillestobehappynotleastforthisreason,because,settingononesidehisgoodfortuneinotherrespects,therewasasignificantgaphereforAlexander,andhisgreatdeedswerenotbroughttoawiderpublicinamannerworthyofhisachievement,eitherinhistoryorpoetry.AlexanderwasnotevencelebratedinsongsinthewaythatHiero,GeloandTherowere,andmanyothersnotworthytobecomparedwithhim,sothatAlexander’sachievementsarelesswell-knownthantheveryinsignificantdeedsofancienttimes.Forexample,theexpeditionintoAsiaoftheTenThousandwithCyrusagainstKingArtaxerxes,themisfortunesofClearchusandthosewhowerecapturedwithhim,andtheirreturntothecoastundertheleadershipofXenophonarefarbetterknowntomankindbecause of Xenophon’s account than Alexander and all that he achieved. Yet Alexander did not campaign insomeoneelse’sarmy,nordidhefleeagreatking,andonlydefeatthosewhotriedtopreventhisreturntothecoast.Noothersingleindividual,eitherGreekorbarbarian,hasachievedsuchincrediblesuccessonsomanyoccasionsandtosuchanoverwhelmingextent.ForthatreasonIhavemyselfstartedwritingthishistory,asIthinkI’muptothetaskofbringingAlexander’sdeedstoawideraudience.Whatevermyabilitiesasawritermaybe,Idonotneedtowritemynamehere,foritisnotunknowntomycontemporaries,norismycountrynormyfamily,northesuccessesthatI’vehadinpubliclifeinmyowncountry.ButIdostatethis,thatthesestoriesareandhavebeenfrommyyouth,mycountryandmyfamilyandmysuccesses.ItisforthatreasonthatIconsidermyselfworthyofthefinestwritersintheGreeklanguage,sincemysubject,Alexander,wasthefinestofwarriors....Keylearning:

• AftersucceedingPhilipasking,Alexander’sarmiesinvadedPersia.AlexanderleftAntipaterinchargeofGreece.

• AlexandervisitedthesiteofTroy(rememberhelovedtheIliad)andleftofferingsatAthena’stempleandthetombofAchilles.

• ArrianthoughtthatAlexander’slifehadnotbeencelebratedenoughbyhistoriansandpoets.ArrianwantedtocorrectthisbywritingaboutAlexander’slifeandcampaigns.

TheBattleofGranicusRiver,334BCArrian13InthemeantimeAlexandermarchedforwardtotheRiverGranicuswithhisarmyinbattleorder;hehaddrawnuphis phalanx of hoplites in two lines, with the cavalry on the wings and the baggage animals following behind.Hegelochusledtheforcegiventhetaskoffindingoutwhattheenemyweredoing,whichconsistedofsomelancersonhorsebackandabout500lightarmedtroops.WhenAlexanderwasnotfarfromtheRiverGranicus,somescouts

quicklyrodeuptohimandtoldhimthatthePersiansweredrawnupforbattleonthefarsideoftheGranicus.Atthispoint,Alexanderbegantoorganisehiswholearmyforbattle,butParmeniocameuptohimandsaid,“Inmyopinion,Oking,itwouldbegoodinthissituationtosetupcampontheriverbankjustasweare.Idonotbelievethattheenemywilldarecampnearusasweoutnumberthemininfantry,andbydoingthiswewillensurethatthearmycaneasilycrosstheriveratdawn;forwewillbeabletodothisbeforetheycangetreadyforbattle.Butasthingsare,Ithinkitwouldbedangeroustomaketheattempt,becauseitisnotpossibletoleadthearmythroughtheriverinabroad line of battle. You see how there are many deep stretches in the river, and the banks are very high andextremelysteepinplaces;theenemycavalrydrawnupinbattleorderwillbeuponusaswecomeoutoftheriverinmarchingformationandinnoproperorder,whichputsusinaveryweakposition.Thefirstdefeatwouldbedifficultinthepresentsituationanddamagingfortheoutcomeofthewholecampaign.”Alexandersaid,“Iunderstandwhatyousay,Parmenio.Iwouldbeashamed,ifIcrossedtheHellesponteasily,andthenthislittlestream(hedisparagedtheGranicusbydescribing it like this)preventedus fromcrossing just asweare. I feel notmakingan immediateassault is notworthyof thegloryof theMacedoniansnormyown cleverness in dealingwithdangers. I think thePersianswouldbeencouraged tobelieve theywereworthyopponentsof theMacedoniansbecause theyhavenotsufferedanythingstraightawaytocausethemfear.”14

Oncehehadsaidthis,AlexandersentParmeniototakecontroloftheleftwing,whilehewentalonghisforcestotheright.Hehadalreadyputinpositionnumberofcommanders.OntherighttherewasPhilotas,sonofParmenio,inchargeof thecompanioncavalry, thearchersandtheAgrianian javelinmen;next tohimwasAmyntas, sonofArrabaeus,whowasinchargeofthelancers,andthePaeoniansandthesquadronofSocrates;nextweretheroyalguards,under the leadershipofNicanor,sonofParmenio; thenthephalanxofPerdiccas, thesonofOrontes,andnexttothat,thetroops ledbyCoenus,sonofPolemocrates,thenthose ledbyAmyntas,sonofAndromenes,andfinally on the rightwing thephalanx ledbyPhilip, sonofAmyntas.On the leftwing, theThessalian cavalrywerepositionedfirst,undertheleadershipofCalas,sonofHarpalus,andnexttothemthealliedcavalry,commandedbyPhilip, the sonofMenelaus; thenAgatho led theThracian contingent;beyond themwere infantrybattalions, thephalanxofCraterus,thanthoseofMeleagerandPhilip,rightuptothemiddleofthewholebattleline.

ThePersiancavalrynumberedabout20,000,andtherewereaboutthesamenumberofforeignmercenaryinfantry;theywerealldrawnupforbattlestretchedoutalongthebanksoftheriver,theinfantrybehindthecavalry.Thelandbeyondtheriverbankprovidedacommandingposition.WhenevertheygotaclearsightofAlexanderaimingattheirleft flank(hestoodoutbecauseof thesplendourofhisarmourandtheexcitedreactionof themenaroundhim),theydrewupthesquadronsandcavalryincloseformationatthatpointonthebank.

Forsometimebotharmiesstoodontheedgeoftheriverandkeptquietbecauseoftheirworriesaboutwhatwouldsoonhappen,andtherewasaprofoundsilenceonbothsides.ThePersianswerewaiting for theMacedonians toenterthechannel,sothattheymightattackthemwhentheycameout.Alexanderleaptupontohishorseandtoldthoseinhisentouragetobebraveandfollowhim;heorderedtheadvancedguardofcavalryandthePaeonianstogofirstintotheriver,undertheleadershipofAmyntas,sonofArrabaeus,togetherwithonecontingentofinfantryand before them the squadron of Socrates under Ptolemy, son of Philip, which happened to be the leadingcontingent of the whole cavalry on that particular day. Alexander himself led the right wing when the trumpetsounded,and ledhismenchantingthebattlecrytotheGodofBattle intotheriver,continuallystretchingouthisbattlelineatanangleasthecurrentpulledonthem,toensureboththatthePersiansdidnotattackhiminhisflankashecameout,andthathemightengagewiththem,asfaraspossible,inproperformation.

15WherethosewithAmyntasandSocratesfirstreachedthebank,thePersiansassailedthemwithmissilesfromabove;somethrewjavelinsfromtheirhighpositiononthebankintotheriver,whileothers,wherethegroundwasmorelevel,wentdowntomeetthemasfarasthewater.Therewasagreatthrustingofcavalry,sometryingtogetoutofthe river, while others tried to prevent them; therewas a great shower of javelins from the Persians, while theMacedonianswerefightingwiththeirspears.ButtheMacedonians,astheyweregreatlyoutnumbered,begantostruggleinthefirstassault,sincetheyweredefendingthemselvesfromtheriverongroundthatwasnotfirmandfromalowerposition,asthePersiansheldthehighbank.AfurthersignificantproblemwasthatthemostpowerfulpartofthePersiancavalryhadbeendrawnupatthisspot,andthesonsofMemnon,andMemnonhimself,threwthemselvesintodangerwiththem.ThefirstoftheMacedonianswhoengagedwiththePersianswerecutdownbythem, though they were bravemen, apart from those of themwho were driven back towards Alexander as he

approached.Alexanderwasalreadynear,bringingwithhimtherightwing,andheledtheattackagainstthePersianswhere thewholemassof cavalry and the leadersof thePersianswere stationed.Aroundhima fiercebattlewaswaged;andinthemeantime,waveafterwaveofMacedonianbattalionscrossedtheriver,bynowwithmuchlessdifficulty.Thebattlewas foughtonhorseback, but it seemedmuchmore likean infantrybattle.Horse struggledwithhorseandmanwithman;theMacedoniansstrovetothrustbackthePersianscompletelyfromthebankandforce them into theplain,while thePersians tried toprevent theMacedonians leaving the river and thrust themback into it. Alexander’s men were already beginning to get the upper hand partly through their strength andexperience, but particularly because they were fighting with the cornel-wood spears against lighter and shorterweapons.At this point in the battle Alexander’s spear was broken; he asked Aretas, a groom in the royal entourage, foranotherspear,buthisspearwasalsobroken,andhewasstrugglinginthebattle,fightingbravelywithonehalfofhisbrokenspear.HeshowedthistoAlexanderandtoldhimtoasksomeoneelse;theCorinthianDemaratus,oneofhiscompanions,gavehimhisownspear.Alexandertookit,andseeingMithridates,theson-in-lawofDarius,ridingfarinfrontoftherestattheheadofawedgeshapedformationofcavalry,herodeoutaheadofhisownlineandstruckMithridates in the facewithhisspearandbroughthimdown. In themeantime,RhoesaceschargedatAlexanderandstruckAlexander’sheadwithhissword;hebrokeoffpartofthehelmet,butthehelmetdeflectedtheblow.Alexanderstruckhiminturn,thrustinghis lancethroughhiscuirassintohischest.SpithridateshadalreadyraisedhisswordtostrikeAlexanderfrombehind,butCleitus,thesonofDropides,struckhimfirstontheshoulder,andcutoffSpithridates’armtogetherwiththeswordhewasholding.MeanwhilethoseofthecavalrywhomanagedtogetoutoftheriverbedkeptcomingtojointhosearoundAlexander.

16ThePersianswerenowbeingstruckintheirfacesbylancesfromallsides,bothmenandhorses,andtheywerebeingpushed back by the cavalry; they were also suffering a great deal at the hands of light armed troops, who hadmingledwiththecavalry,andtheyfirstbegantogivewayatthatpointwhereAlexanderwasthrustinghimselfintodanger inthefront line.ButwhenthePersians’centrehadgivenway,thenalsobothwingsofthecavalrywerebroken, and there was at that point the general flight from the battlefield. About 1,000 Persian cavalrymanperished. Therewas not a lengthy pursuit, because Alexander turned against the foreignmercenaries; the greatmass of these remainedwhere they had first been drawn up,more through surprise at the unexpected turn ofeventsthanthroughasurereckoningoftherealityofthesituation.Alexanderledhisphalanxagainstthemandtoldthecavalrytofalluponthemfromallsides,andsoontherewasageneralmassacre,notamanescapingunlesshehidamongstthedead;about2,000weretakenprisoner.ManyPersiancommanderswerekilledduringthebattle:Niphates,Petenes,andSpithridates,satrapofLydia, togetherwithMithrobuzanes, rulerof theCappadocians,andMithridates,theson-in-lawofDarius;alsoArbupales,sonofDarius,sonofArtaxerxes,andPharnaces,whowasthebrotherofthewifeofDarius,andalsoOmares,thecommanderofthemercenaryforces.ArsitesfledfromthebattletoPhrygia,andtherehediedbyhisownhand,asthestorygoes,becausetheresponsibilityforthepresentdisasterwasjudgedbythePersianstobehis.AsfortheMacedoniandead,about25ofthecompanionsfell inthefirstattack;therearebronzestatuesofthesemen setupatDium, createdby LysippusonAlexander’s instruction,becausehewas theonly sculptorAlexanderjudged worthy of portraying himself. Of the rest of the cavalry about 60 died, and about 30 of the infantry.Alexanderburiedthesemenonthenextdaywiththeirweaponsandotherequipment;totheirparentsandchildrenhe gave remission of land tax and all other taxes either on personal possessions or services.He showed greatconsideration for thosewhowerewounded, andwent around all of themhimself, looking at theirwounds andaskinghowtheyreceivedthem;hegavethemtheopportunitytosaywhattheyhaddoneandtoboastabouttheirachievementstohim.HealsoburiedtheleadersofthePersiansandthemercenaryGreekswhohadmarchedwiththeenemyanddied;heboundinchainsallthosemercenarieshehadtakenprisonerandsentthemtoMacedoniatoworkasslaves,because,althoughtheywereGreek, theyhadfought forbarbariansagainstGreeks,contrarytothegeneralagreementamongstGreeks.HealsosenttoAthens300Persianpanoplies(shields)asadedicationtoAthenaontheAcropolisandheorderedthisinscriptiontobeplacedonthem:‘AlexanderthesonofPhilipandtheGreeksapartfromtheLacedaemonianstookthesefromthebarbarianswholiveinAsiaandsetthemuphere.’

Keylearning:• Theolderandmoreexperiencedgeneral,Parmenio,didnotthinkthatAlexandershouldattack

thePersiansattheriver…Alexanderignoredthisadvice.• AlexanderwasverynearlykilledbutwassavedbyaMacedoniancalledCleitus.• AfterthePersianshadfled,AlexanderattackedtheGreekmercenarysoldierswhohadbeen

fightingwiththePersians.• AlexanderhonouredthedeadandsentgiftsbacktoMacedonandtoAthens.

TheGordianKnot(333BC)Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander2.3When Alexander came to Gordium, he had a very strong desire to go up to the acropolis, where the palace ofGordiusandhis sonMidaswas, to seeGordius’wagonand theknoton theyokeof thewagon.There isa strongtraditionamongstthelocalpeoplesaboutthatwagon;theyclaimedthatGordiuswasoneoftheancientPhrygiansandapoorman,whohadasmallplotof landtoworkandtwoyokesofoxen,onefortheploughandoneforhiswagon.Oncewhenhewasploughing,aneaglesettledontheyokeandstayedsittingthereuntilitwastimetofreetheoxen fromtheyoke.Gordiuswasamazedbywhathehadseen,andwent toconsult theTelmissianprophetsabout theomen; for theTelmissianswerecleveratexplainingdivinesignsandtheability todosowaspassedonwithin families, women and children as well. When he came to one of their villages, Gordius met a young girldrawingwater and he told her aboutwhat had happenedwith the eagle; as she happened to be of a propheticfamily,shetoldhimtoreturntotheveryspotandsacrificetoZeustheKing.Heaskedhertocomewithhimanddirectthesacrificeforhim,andhesacrificedjustassheinstructedhim.ThenhemarriedthegirlandtheyhadachildcalledMidas.WhenMidashadgrownuptobeahandsomeandnobleman,thePhrygiansweretroubledwithcivildisagreementsamongstthemselves;theyweregivenanoraclewhichtoldthemthatawagonwouldbringthemakingandthatthismanwouldendtheircivilstrife.Whiletheywerestillholdingdiscussionsaboutthis,Midasarrivedwithhismotherandfatherandstoppedattheassemblyintheverywagon.ThePhrygiansinterpretedtheoracletomeanthatthiswasthemanwhomthegodshadtoldthemwouldcomeinawagon;sotheymadeMidasking,andhebroughtanendtothecivilstrife,andheplacedhisfather’swagonontheacropolisasanofferingtoZeustheKingforsendingtheeagle.Inadditiontothis,therewasastoryaboutthewagon,thatwhoeverundidtheknotoftheyokeofthewagonwasdestined to ruleAsia. The knotwasmadeof cornel bark and itwas impossible to seewhere it beganor ended.Alexanderwasnotabletodiscoverhowtoundotheknot,buthedidnotwishtoleaveitstillfastened,incasethisprovoked somedisturbance amongst themany people there.Somewriters say that he struck the knotwith hisswordandcutthroughitandclaimedthatitwasnowundone;howeverAristobulussaysthatAlexandertookthepegfromthepole,whichwasaboltdriventhroughthepolealltheway,andwhichheldtheknottogether;hethendrewtheyokeofthepole.IamnotabletosayforcertainwhatexactlyAlexanderdidaboutthisknot,butheandhiscompanionscertainlyreturnedfromthewagonasiftheoracleabouttheuntyingoftheknothadbeenfulfilled.Thatvery night there was thunder and lightning in the heavens; because of this on the next day Alexander offeredsacrificetothegodsthathadshowntheseomensandalsohowtountietheknot.

Keylearning:• InPersiatherewasatowncalledGordium.Thetownwasfamousforaprophecythatstatedthat

whoevercoulduntieanimpossibleknotwouldbecomethe‘KingofAsia’.

• Alexandereithercuttheknotwithhisswordorremovedthepegthatheldtheknottogether.TheBattleofIssus(333BC)AlexandermosaicfromPompeii(HouseoftheFaun)

TheAlexanderSarcophagus

Thereareno inscriptionson the sarcophagus. Though it is called theAlexander Sarcophagus, in fact, it doesnotbelongtoAlexandertheGreat.ItisthoughttobethesarcophagusofAbdalonymus,thekingofSidonorMazeus(aPersiangovernorappointedbyAlexander).

Eachof its four sides incorporates refinedsculptures,and thewholepiece is considered tobe themostexclusiveworkofartdatingfromtheClassicalGreekperiod.

ThemostsignificantofallscenesdepictedshowsAlexandertheGreatlikelyconfrontingoneofhismajorrivals,theking of Persia, Darius III. This scene is observed on one of the long sides of the sarcophagus and has beentraditionallyinterpretedtobethebattleofIssusof333BC,whenthePersiantroopswereheavilydefeated.

Alexanderisshownwearingapieceoflionskin(linktoHeraclesandtheNemeanlion)onhisheadand,mountedashe is, thePersian troopsare justabout tobeattackedbyhis spear.Additionally,next tohisear,a ramhorn, thesymbol of the Egyptian godAmun is seen. Twomore figures of history are supposedly recognizable on the samereliefof thebattle.Thefirst familiar faceseemstobethewarrior’sclosefriendHephaestion,andthesecondonethatofPerdiccas,anotablegeneralofAlexander’sarmywhogreatlyhelpedtheMacedoniancampaignagainstthePersians.

ThesecondlongsideofthesarcophagusdepictsAlexanderhuntingsomelionsalongwithDariusandthePersians,ormaybe,asotheraccountssuggest,oneotherfigure,thatofAbdalonymus.APhoeniciankingofSidon,Abdalonymusisthoughttohavebeenappointedaking,byAlexanderhimself,shortlyafterthebattleofIssus.

Theshorterendsof theartefactdepict twomorescenes.The first isanother fight,perhapsthatofGaza.AndthesecondpossiblyrepresentsAbdalonymusagain,whoishuntingapanther.

SiegeofTyre(332BC)Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander2.24Asforthemenontheships,thePhoenicians,whohappenedtobemooredneartheharbourwhichfacedtowardsEgypt, forced their way in and after destroying the booms began wrecking the ships in the harbour; some theyrammedwhiletheywereatsea,andotherstheyforcedontotheshore.AttheotherharbourwhichfacedtowardsSidontherewasnotevenabarrieracrosstheentrance,andtheCyprianssailedinandcapturedthecityonthissidestraightaway.ThemajorityoftheTyrians,whentheysawthatthewallhadbeencaptured,deserteditandgatheredtogetheratwhatiscalledtheshrineofAgenor,andtheretheyturnedtofighttheMacedonians.Alexanderfelluponthemwithhisroyalguards,andslaughteredsomeofthemfightingthere,thenpursuedthosewhofled.Therewasagreatmassacre,sincethosewhowerecomingfromtheharbournowhadcontrolofthecityandCoenus’battalionhadenteredit.IntheirangertheMacedoniansturnedoneverything,annoyedatthetimewastedonthesiegeandalsobecausetheTyrianshadcapturedsomeofthemastheyweresailingfromSidon,andmarchedthemupontothewallwheretheycouldbeseenfromthecampandkilledthemandhurledthemintothesea.About8,000Tyriansdied, and in that attack theMacedonian losses consistedofAdmetuswhowas first to capture thewall, showinghimselfabraveman,andwithhimabout20oftheroyalguards;inthewholesiegeabout400mendied.ManyoftheTyrians fledtothesanctuaryofHeracles:amongstthesewerethemenofgreatestauthorityandtheKing Azemilcus, and some envoys from Carthage who had come to their mother city to honour Heracles inaccordance with an ancient custom. Alexander granted an amnesty to all of these; he enslaved the rest, some30,000innumber,bothTyriansandforeigners.AlexanderofferedasacrificetoHeraclesandheldaprocessionforhimwithallhiscontingentsunderarms;hisshipsalsosailedpastinhonourofHeracles,andAlexanderheldathleticgamesandatorchraceinthesanctuaryaswell.Heplacedthesiegeenginebywhichthewallhadbeenbreachedinthetemple,andhealsodedicatedtheTyriansacredshipwhichhehadcapturedduringtheattack.ThisishowTyrewascapturedinthearchonshipofNicetusatAthensinthemonthHecatombaeon.

Keylearning:

• AlexanderhaddefeatedthePersianKing,Darius,attheBattleofIssus,333BC.• Alexanderneededtoattacktheisland-fortresscityofTyreinordertocontrolthecoastline.• TheSiegeofTyrelastforsixmonthsandwasveryfrustratingfortheMacedonians.Thecitywas

capturedwithgreatviolence.BattleofGaugamela(331BC)Plutarch,LifeofAlexander31–33

31:BuilduptotheBattleofGaugamelaWhenAlexanderhadbroughtalltheterritoryfromtheGreekcoasttotheEuphratesunderhiscontrol,hebegantomarch against Darius, who was coming to face him with a million men. One of his companions told him (assomethingveryamusing)thatthecampfollowersforfunhaddividedthemselvesintotwogroupsandhadappointedaleaderandgeneralforeachside,callingoneAlexanderandtheotherDarius;atfirsttheyhurledlumpsofearthateachother,thenfoughtwiththeirfists,andfinally,overexcitedbythecontest,theywentasfarasstonesandclubs,as thereweremanymen on either side and they did notwant to stop.When Alexander heard this, he told theleaderstofightinsinglecombat,andheprovidedthearmourfortheleaderdubbed‘Alexander’,whilePhilotasdidthe same for ‘Darius’. The whole armywatched the spectacle, as they considered that the result would give anindicationofwhatwouldhappeninthefuture.ThebattlewasatoughoneandintheendtheonecalledAlexanderwas victorious and received as a prize 12 villages and the right to wear Persian dress. This is the story told byEratosthenes.TherewasaneclipseofthemoonduringSeptemberaboutthetimeofthebeginningoftheMysteriesatAthens,andonthe11thnightaftertheeclipse,whenthearmieswereinsightofeachother,Dariuskepthisforcesatarmsandwentthroughtheranksbytorchlight,butAlexander,whilehisMacedonianforceswereresting,stayedinfrontofhistentwiththeseerAristander,performingsecretritesandofferingsacrificestothegodFear.Theolderofhiscompanions, amongst them Parmenio, when they saw the whole plain between the River Niphates and theGordyaeanMountainsbrightwiththefireslitbythebarbariansandheardaconfuseddinofvoicesliketheroaroftheopensea,wereamazedatthenumberoftheenemy,andtoldeachotherthatitwouldbeagreatanddifficulttasktowinsogreatabattle inthe lightofday.Theywentuptothekingwhenhecompletedhissacredritesandtriedtopersuadehimtoattacktheenemybynightandinthiswaythecoverupthemostterrifyingaspectofthecomingcontestwithdarkness.Alexandergaveamemorablereply,“Idonotstealmyvictory”.Somethoughtthisachildishandempty-headedreply,asifheweremakinglightofsogreatadanger.However,therewereotherswhofelt that Alexander showed confidence at a critical moment and that he had weighed up what would happencorrectly,ashedidn’twanttogiveDariusanyreasonforconfidenceinanotherbattleifheweredefeated,blamingthenightandthedarknessasbeforeheblamedmountainsandnarrowpassagesandthesea.AlexanderknewthatDariuswouldnotstopfightingthroughlackofweaponsormensincehehadsogreatanarmyandsovastanempire,butonlywhenhegaveupanyhopeofsuccessandwasconvincedbyclear-cutandutterdefeat.

32

Whenhiscompanionshadleft,Alexanderissaidtohavesleptinhistentfortheremainingpartofthenight,muchmoredeeplythanheusuallydid;whenhiscommanderscametohistentinthemorningtheywereamazedandgavethe order themselves for the soldiers to have breakfast. Then, as the rightmoment for battle was approaching,Parmeniowentintohistentandstandingbesidethebedcalledhisnametwoorthreetimes.WhenhehadwokenhimheaskedAlexanderhowhecouldsleepasifhehadjustwonavictory,whenhewasabouttofightthegreatestbattle all those he had fought. Alexander repliedwith a smile, “Why do you say that? Don’t you thinkwe have

alreadywonagreatvictoryaswearefreedfromchasingthroughthisvastexpanseofdesolatelandafterDariusashefleesfrombattle?”Notonlybeforethebattle,butalsointheverymidstofdangersheshowedhimselfgreatandconfidentinthecalculationshehadmade.Keylearning:

• Someof Alexander’s generalswanted to launch a night attack – Alexander refused to ‘steal avictory’.

• Alexanderwasconfidentofvictory.

ThebattlebeginsInthebattleontheleftwingParmeniowaspushedbackandwasindifficulty,whentheBactriancavalryfellontheMacedoniansviolentlyandwithgreatforce;Mazaeussentsomecavalrymenaroundtheedgeofthebattletoattackthose who were protecting the Macedonian baggage. Then Parmenio, concerned by both these events, sentmessengerstoAlexandertotellhimthatthecampandthebaggagewerelost,unlesshesentveryquicklysomestrongassistancefromthefrontlinetothoseattherear.Atthatpoint,Alexanderhappenedtobegivingthesignaltoadvancetothosewithhim;whenheheardthemessagefromParmenio,hesaidthatParmeniowasnotthinkingstraight but had forgotten in his confusion that those who were victorious gained whatever the enemy had inadditiontotheirown,whilethosewhowerebeingdefeatedmustnotthinkaboutmoneyoraboutslavesbuthowbesttheymightfightbravelyanddieanobledeath.AlexandersentthismessagetoParmenioandthenputonhishelmet–hehadbeenwearingtherestofhisarmoursincehe lefthis tent;heworeabeltedSiciliantunic,withadoublebreastplateoveritwhichwaspartofthespoilscapturedattheBattleofIssus.Hishelmetwasmadeofiron,though itgleamed likepuresilver,madebyTheophilus; therewasaneckpiece fittedto it,alsomadeof iron,setwithpreciousstones;hehadaswordmarvellousforitslightnessandtempering,agiftfromtheKingofCitium,andheusedaswordforthemostpartinhisbattles.Heworeacloakmoreelaborateinitscraftsmanshipthantherestofhisarmour;ithadbeenmadebyHelicontheancient,andwasamarkofrespectfromthecityofRhodes,whichhadpresentedittohim;healsousuallyworethisinbattle.Aslongashewasridingthroughhistroops,issuingordersorencouragingthem,givinginstructionsorreviewinghismen,heusedanotherhorse,sparingBoucephalasashewaspasthisprime;butwhenhesetoutforbattle,Boucephalaswasbroughttohim,andhemountedhimandatonceledtheattack.

33OnthisoccasionhesaidagreatdealtotheThessaliansandtheotherGreeks;whentheyurgedhimtoleadthemagainstthebarbarians,hetookhisspearinhislefthandandwithhisright,asCallisthenessays,heappealedtothegods inprayer that ifhe trulywas thesonofZeus theyshouldprotectandstrengthentheGreeks.Aristander theseer,inawhitecloakwithagoldengarlandonhishead,rodealongpointingtoaneaglewhichhoveredabovetheheadofAlexanderandthenmadeastraightflighttowardstheenemy,whichbroughtgreatencouragementtothosewho saw it; after encouraging each other, the cavalry raced at full speed towards the enemy, and the infantryphalanx rolled forward like awave. Before those at the front could engagewith the enemy, the barbarians gaveground, and theGreeks came after them, asAlexander drove thosewhowere conquered into themiddle of thebattlefieldwhereDariuswas.He sawhim fromadistance through thedense ranksof theRoyal Squadron, a tall,noble-lookingman, travelling in a high chariot, protected bymany splendid cavalrymen, drawnup in close orderaroundhischariotandreadytofacetheenemy.ButwhentheysawAlexandercloseby,terribleinappearanceanddriving those who were fleeing towards those who stood their ground, they were terrified and the majorityscattered.Thebestandmostnobleofthemwereslaughteredinfrontofthekingandfallingontopofoneanotherhinderedthepursuit,entanglingbothridersandhorses.But Darius, as all the terrors of the battlefield were before him and he could see the forces assigned to hisprotectiondrivenbacktowardshim, lefthischariotandhisweapons,and,theysay,mountedamarewhichwasnewly foaledandescaped fromthebattlefield. For itwasnoteasy to turnhis chariotand rideawayon it, as thewheelswereblocked,entangledwithsomanydeadbodies,andthehorsesweretrappedandhiddenbythegreatnumberofthosewhohadfallen,andwererearingupandterrifyingthecharioteer.Itisbelievedthathewouldnot

haveescapedifsomeofthecavalrymenofParmeniohadnotcometoAlexander,askinghimtobringhelp,astherewasstillaconsiderableforceoftheenemyinthefieldwheretheywere,andtheywerenotyetsurrendering.Manyhave blamed Parmenio for being sluggish and ineffectual in this battle, either because old age had alreadyunderminedhisbraveryor,asCallisthenessays,hewasdepressedandenviousoftheauthorityandself-importanceofAlexander’spower.Atthispoint,theking,althoughhewasannoyedbythesummons,didnottellhissoldiersthetruth,butrecalledhis forces,onthegroundsthat itwasdarkandhewantedtostoptheslaughtering.Asherodetowardsthepartofhisforcesthatwasindanger,heheardashewastravellingthattheenemyhadbeencompletelyvanquishedandwasinflight.Keylearning:

• Alexander’sgeneral,Parmenio,askedAlexanderforhelpatthestartofthebattle.• Dariuspanickedwhenhesawhisarmybeingdefeatedandfledthebattle.Dariushasalsofled

fromthepreviousbattleatIssus.• ParmenioaskedAlexanderforhelpasecondtime.ThismeantthatDariusescapedagain.• PlutarchisverycriticalofParmeniointhisbattle.

Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander3.9–15ontheBattleofGaugamela9

When the Persians’ scouts he had captured told Alexander about Darius’ preparations for the battle, he stayedwherehewaswhenheheardthis informationfromthemforfourdays;hegavehisarmysometimeforrestaftertheirjourney,andfortifiedhiscampwithaditchandapalisade;hedecidedtoleavebehindhisbaggageanimalsandallthesoldierswhowerenotfitforcombat,whilehewouldmarchouttobattlehimselfwiththosewhowerereadyforbattlecarryingnothingexcepttheirweapons.Hetookhisarmyoutofthecampatnightandmarchedthemoffatabout the secondwatch, as hewanted to engagewith the barbarians at dawn.WhenDariuswas informed thatAlexanderwasalreadyapproaching,hegothisarmyreadyforbattle;injustthesameway,Alexanderwasleadinghismeninbattleformation.Thearmieswereabout60stades1apart,buttheycouldnotyetseeeachother;therewerehillsinfrontofbotharmies.WhenAlexanderhadcoveredabouthalfthedistance,andhisarmywasjustbeginningtocomedownthehills,hecaughtsightoftheenemyforcesandbroughthisownphalanxtoahalt.Onceagain,hesummonedhiscompanions,generals,squadronleadersandthecommandersofalliedandmercenaryforcesandheldacouncilofwartodiscusswhetherheshouldpressontowardstheenemyfromwheretheywerestraightaway,orfollowParmenio’sadvicetosetupacampwheretheywereandreconnoitrethewholearea,incasetherewassomethingsuspiciousoraseriousobstacle,orditchesanywhere,orstakesconcealedintheground;theorganisationoftheenemyforcescouldalsobechecked more carefully. It was decided to follow Parmenio’s advice, and they set up camp where they were,organisedreadyforthecomingbattle.Alexandertookwithhimsomelightarmedtroopsandthecompanioncavalry,andmadeacircuitofthewholeareawhere thepurposeof thewholeexpeditionwouldbedecided.Whenhe returned,he summonedagain the sameleaders, and told them they needed no encouragement fromhim for the battle ahead; for a long time they hadreceived their encouragement from their acts of bravery and the noble deeds so often accomplished already.However, he thought that they should rouse up themen under their command, eachman his own company orsquadron,since inthecomingbattletheywouldnotbefightingoverCoele-SyriaorPhoeniciaorEgypt,asbefore,but the decision was to be made at that very time about who would control the whole of Asia. There was nonecessity for long speeches to encourage towards noble deedsmenwho possessed the right qualities, but theyshouldurgeeachman to consider in timeofdangerhisownplace in thegreat schemeofbattle; they shouldbecompletelysilent,whenthatwascalledforintheadvance,andagainshouldmakeagreatshout,whenshoutingwascalledfor,andtheyshouldmaketheirbattlecryasfearfulaspossible,whenthetimecameforthechargeandthebattlecry;theleadersshouldobeyorderssharplywhentheyreceivedthem,anddeliverthoseorderssharplytotheirsquadrons;andeveryoneofthemshouldrememberthatthewholeenterprisewasatriskiftheydidnotattendtotheirduties,butiftheyputalltheirenergyintowhattheyweredoing,theywouldtogetherachievesuccess.

10

Alexander offered thesebriefwords of encouragement, andwas in turn encouragedbyhis commanders to haveconfidenceinthem;heorderedhisarmytoeatandgetsomerest.SomeauthoritiessaythatParmeniowenttohiminhistent,andadvisedhimtoattackthePersiansatnight,astheywouldnotbeexpectingthisandwouldnotbeinbattleorderandwouldbeinamoreanxiousframeofmindbecauseofthedarkness.But,becauseotherswerealsolisteningtothisconversation,Alexanderrepliedthatstealingthevictorywouldbeshameful,andthatAlexanderoughttowinhisbattlesopenlyandwithouttrickery.Thesenoblewordsofhisshowedconfidenceamiddangersrather than arrogance; inmy opinion, he accurately estimatedwhatwould happen in some suchway as this: atnight,whetherarmieshavebeenpreparedwellorbadlyforbattle,manythingshappencontrarytoexpectation,andconfoundthestrongerside,whileofferinganopportunityforvictorytotheweakersideagainsttheexpectationsofboth. Alexander took many risks during his campaigns, but he realised that fighting at night was dangerous; inaddition,ifDariuswasagainoverwhelmed,butinasecretnocturnalattackbytheMacedonians,hemightdenythathewasweakerandledweakertroops,andfurtherifhisownforcessufferedasetbackunexpectedly,alltheterritoryaroundthemwasfriendlytotheirenemieswhoknewtheareawell,whiletheydidnotknowtheterrainandweresurroundedbyhostileforces,nottheleastelementofwhichweretheprisonersofwar,whowouldjoinintheattackagainst them at night not just if they suffered a defeat, but even if they appeared to be less than completelysuccessful. For these reasons, I praise Alexander, and also for his arrogant preference for open dealingswith hisenemies.

11

DuringthenightDariusandhisarmyremaineddrawnupforbattleastheyhadbeenfromthestart,becausetheydidnothaveasecurecamparoundthemandtheyfearedaswellanightattackbytheenemy.Morethananythingelse,Persianpreparednessforthecrisiswasunderminedbytheirhavingstoodsolonginbattleformationandbythe fearwhich usually is felt before great danger; this was not produced by the immediate crisis of battle, butnaggedatthesoldiers’moraleoveralongperiodoftimeanddominatedtheirthoughts....

[11.3–12omitted]

13Whenthearmieswereveryclosetoeachother,Dariusandhisimmediateentouragewereclearlyvisible;therewerethePersians,whohadgoldenapplesontheirspears,togetherwithIndians,Albanians,the‘transplanted’CariansandtheMardianarchers,alldrawnoppositeAlexanderhimselfandtheroyalsquadron.Alexanderkeptleadinghisforcesa little to the right, and thePersiansmirroredwhathewasdoing,moving their leftwing farbeyond theedgeofAlexander’s army. The Scythian cavalrywere riding alongAlexander’s line, andwere already engaging thosewhoweredrawnupinfrontofAlexander’smen;nonetheless,Alexanderstillkept leadinghismentotherightandhadalmostmadehiswayclearfromtheareatrampledlevelbythePersians.Atthatpoint,DariuswasafraidthatiftheMacedoniansgottothegroundthathadnotbeenlevelled,hischariotswouldbeuseless,soheorderedthosetroopsdrawnupinfrontofhisleft-wingtoridearoundaMacedonianright-wingwhereAlexanderwasleading,topreventthemgoinganyfurthertotheright.Whenthishappened,Alexanderorderedthemercenarycavalry,ledbyMenidas,to attack. The Scythian cavalry and those of the Bactrians who were stationed with them charged at them inresponse,andastherewereconsiderablymoreofthemagainstasmallforce,putthemtoflight.AlexanderorderedthemercenariesandthePaeoniansunderthecommandofAristontocharge,andthebarbariansgaveway.TherestoftheBactriansengagedwiththePaeoniansandthemercenaries,andturnedbacktothebattlethoseoftheirownnumberwhowerefleeing,makingthisafull-scalecavalrybattle.GreaternumbersofAlexander’smenweredying,hardpressedbythenumberofbarbariansandalsobecausetheScythiansandtheirhorseswerebetterprotectedforthe fight. Even so, theMacedonianswithstood their charges, attacked themstrongly, squadronby squadron,andbegantobreaktheirformation.In the meantime, the barbarians sent into battle their scythe-bearing chariots towards Alexander himself, in anattempttodisrupthisphalanx.Theyhadnosuccessinthis,forassoonastheybegantogetclose,theAgrianiansandthe javelin throwers led by Balacrus,whowere drawnup in front of the cavalry of the companions, hurled theirweapons; they grabbedholdof the reins, dragged themenoutof the chariots and stoodaround thehorses andstruckthem.TherewereafewthatgotthroughtheGreekbattleline,for,astheyhadbeenorderedto,theGreeksmovedapartat thosepointswere thechariotsattacked; thiswas thereasonsomegot throughsafelyandpassedthroughthosetheywereattackingwithoutdoinganydamage.ThegroomsofAlexander’sarmyandtheroyalguardsfinishedthemoff.

14WhenDarius engagedwith thewholeof thebattle line,Alexander orderedAretas to attack thoseof thePersiancavalry whowere riding around the right wing to encircled him; he himself led thosewith him for a short timefurthertotheright,butwhenthecavalrywhohadbeensenttohelpagainstthePersianswhowereencirclingtherightwinghadbrokentheirfrontlinetosomeextent,heturnedthroughthegapandmadeawedgeformationwiththecompanioncavalryandthepartofthemainphalanxstationedthere,andthenledthematarunwithafullbattlecry straight at Darius himself. For a short time there was hand-to-hand fighting; but when the cavalry aroundAlexanderandAlexanderhimselfpressedstronglyonthePersians,thrustingthembackandstrikingtheirfaceswiththeirspears,andthedenseMacedonianphalanx,bristlingwithpikes,hadalreadyfullyengagedwiththem,Dariushimself,whohadnowbeenterrifiedforalongtime,couldonlyseedreadfulthingsaroundhimandwasthefirstto turnand flee; thoseof thePersianswhowere riding round the rightwingwerealso thrown intoabject terrorwhenthosewithAretasattackedforcefully.ItwasatthispointthattheroutofthePersiansbecamegeneral,andtheMacedonians,followingafterthem,begantoslaughterthosefleeing.ButthemenwithSimmiaswerenolongerabletokeepupwithAlexanderinthepursuit,astheywerefightingwheretheystood,becauseitwasreportedthattheleftwingof theMacedonianswas in trouble.When their formationwasbroken, someof the IndiansandPersiancavalrymade a dash through the gap as far as the baggage animals of theMacedonians; and the fighting therebecame desperate. The Persians boldly pressed their attack, most of their opponents being unarmed and notexpecting anyone to cut through the double line of the phalanx and attack them. In addition,when the Persiansattacked,theforeignprisonersofwarjoinedintheassaultupontheMacedonians.However,theforcesassignedtosupportthefirstphalanxrealisedwhatwashappening,andchangingtheirformation,justastheyhadbeenordered,felluponthePersians fromtherear,andkilledmanyof themmassedaroundthebaggage, thoughsomeescapedandfled.ThePersiansontherightwinghadnotyetrealisedthatDariushadfled,buthadoutflankedAlexander’sleftwingandattackedthetroopswithParmenio.15

At thispoint in thebattle,whentheMacedonianswere fightingontwofronts for the first time,ParmeniosentamessengertoAlexandersayingthathisforceswerestrugglinginthebattleandwereinneedofassistance.WhenAlexander heard this message, he stopped his pursuit of Darius, and turned with the companion cavalry andcharged at the right wing of the barbarians. First of all, he attacked the enemy cavalry that was fleeing thebattlefield,theParthyaeans,someIndiansandthePersianswhoformedthestrongestandmostnumerouspartoftheenemyarmy.This turnedout tobe thebloodiest cavalryencounter in thewholebattle. Thebarbariansweredrawnup indepthbysquadrons; they turnedandengagedatclosequarterswithAlexander’smen; therewasnolongerany javelinthrowingormanoeuvring,asyouusuallyget incavalryencounters,buteveryonestrainedeverysinewtomakeabreakthroughforhimself,astheonlywayofachievingsafety,andtheyfoughtwithoutholdingback,as if theywereno longer fighting forsomebodyelse’svictory,but for theirveryownsafety.Here fellabout60ofAlexander’s companions, and Hephaestion himself and Coenus andMenidaswerewounded. Alexander defeatedtheseenemiesaswell.

AllofthosewhobrokethroughAlexander’smenbegantofleeasfastastheycould;Alexanderwasnowonthepointof engagingwith the rightwing of the enemy. In themeantime, the Thessalian cavalry fought outstandingly andwere the equals of Alexander in the engagement. The Persian right-wing was already beginning to flee whenAlexanderattackedthem,soAlexanderturnedawayandstartedonceagainhispursuitofDarius;hepursuedhimaslongasitwaslight.TheforceswithParmeniopursuedthosetheyhadbeenfightingandfollowedthem.Alexandercrossed theRiver Lycus and set up camp there to allowhismen andhorses a short rest; Parmenio captured thePersiancamp,togetherwiththeirbaggage,elephantsandcamels.AlexanderallowedthecavalrywithhimtorestuntilthemiddleofthenightandthenagainwentonasquicklyashecouldtoArbela,intendingtocatchDariustherewithhismoneyandotherroyalequipment.HearrivedatArbelanextday,havingtravelledinpursuitallof600stades2afterthebattle.HedidnotcaptureDariusatArbela,ashehadkeptfleeingwithoutanyrest;buthedidcapturehistreasureandallhisequipment,andonceagainDarius’chariotwascapturedtogetherwithhisshieldandhisbow.About100ofAlexander’stroopsdied,andmorethan1,000horsesfromwoundsandfromtheirsufferingduringthepursuit;abouthalfofthesecamefromthecompanioncavalry.Thebarbarian dead numbered about 300,000, but many more than this were captured alive, together with theelephants and all the chariotswhich had not been destroyed in the battle. Suchwas the ending of the Battle of

Gaugamela,inthemonthPyanepsionwhenAristophaneswasarchoninAthens;Aristander’sprophecyturnedouttobetruethatAlexander’sbattleandvictorywouldbeinthesamemonthinwhichthemoonsufferedaneclipse.

Keylearning:• Dariuskepthisarmyonbattlealertallnight.Alexanderorderedhisarmytoeatandrest.• ParmenioaskedAlexandertoattackatnightbutAlexanderrefused.• Dariuswasthefirsttofleeduringthebattle.• ParmeniodidneedhelpbutArriandidnotcriticisethis(unlikePlutarch).

BabylonianAstronomicalDiarytabletmentioningtheBattleofGaugamelaTheBattleofGaugamelaandAlexander’sentryintoBabylon(331BC)

Observe3’ “[...lunar]eclipse,initstotality

covered.40thminuteofthenight[totality?...]–broken(ontheoriginal)–Jupiterset;Saturn[...];

4’ [...]duringtotalitythewestwindblew,duringclearingtheeastwind.[...,]fourth?...;duringtheeclipse,deathandplague.” Thatmonth (VI = Elul), on the 11th

(18 September 331 BC), panicoccurred in the camp before theking.[TheHanaeans...]

encamped in front of the king. Onthe24th (1October331BC), in themorning, the king of the world[erectedhis]standard[...].Opposite each other they foughtandaheavydefeatofthetroops[ofthekingheinflicted].The king, his troops deserted himandtotheircities[…][to the l]and of the Gutians theyfled.

38

Thediaryconsistsoftwotablets,whichdonotjoin.Thepartonwhichthehistoricalinformationiswrittenistheleftpartofalargertabletofwhichatleasthalfislost.Thismeansthatonlyhalforevenlessoftheleftpartofthetabletispreserved.Fromtheothertabletonlytheupperhalfoftheobverseispreserved.Thetextisclearlywrittenandreadingdoesnotposemanyproblems.

TheDiaryconcernsmonthVI(=Elul=8thSeptemberto7thOctober)andmonthVII(=Tishri=8thOctoberto6November)331BC

InthispassageDariusIIIisreferredtoas“theking”andAlexanderisreferredtoas“thekingoftheworld”.

Atthebeginningofthistablettheastronomicalphenomenaarerecorded.PanicoccurredbecauseoftheadvanceofthearmyofAlexander.Thisarmymusthavebeenmentionedinthebreak.Macedoniansareoftenreferredtoas“Hanaeans”,awesternnomadictribeandkingdomonthemiddleEuphratesintheMiddleBabylonianperiod.Thisbelongstothearchaizingtendencyofdiariesandchroniclesinrenderinggeographicnames.Thesameholdstruefor“Gutians”(peoplelivingtotheeastoftheTigris)inline18’.

Reverse3’ That month (VII = Tishri), from the

1stuntil[....OnthenthdayGreeks4’ cametoBabylon(saying)asfollows:

“Esagila[willberestored]5’ andtheBabylonianstothetreasury

ofEsagila[theirtithewillgive.”]6’ Onthe11thday(18October331)in

SipparanorderofAl[exandertotheBabylonianswassent]

7’ [asfollow]s:“IntoyourhousesIshallnot enter.” On the 13th day (20October331)[Greeksentered]

8’ [the Sikil]la gate, the outer gate ofEsagilaand[theyprostrated]

9’ [themselves]. The 14th day (21October),theseGreeksabull,[...]

10’ [n]short[ribs,n]fattytissues(oftheintestinesassacrifice)[...sacrificed.]

11’ [Onthenthday]Alexander,thekingoftheworld,enteredBabylon[...]

12’ [...Hor]sesandequipment[...]13’ [...] and the Babylonians and the

people[oftheland...]14’ [...] a parchment letter to [the

Babylonians...]15’ [...]asfollows:[“...]

Lines4’–9’

Therestorationsarespeculative,butweknowfromArrian(Anab.VII.17.2)thatitwasAlexander’splantorebuildEsagila,andweknowthatBabyloniansdidpaytithestothetreasuryofEsagilaforthespecificpurposeofremovingthedebrisofEsagila.Thathighfunctionariesenterthetemple“andprostratethemselves”isarecurringthemeinthediaries.

Line10’Elsewhereitisrecordedthatthe“rationsofthekingforthegoddessIsshara”contain,amongotherthings,10shortribsofthebulland5fattytissuesofthesheep.

Keylearning:• This archaeological source seems to back up Arrian and Plutarch’s versions of the Battle of

Gaugamela.• AlexanderseemstohavebeenacceptedasthelegitimateKingofPersia.

ThePersianGates(January330BC)Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander3.18

Then Alexander sent out with Parmenio the baggage, the Thessalian cavalry, the Greek allies, the foreignmercenariesandallthemoreheavilyarmedsoldiers,sothathecouldleadthemtoPersepolisalongthemainroad.Alexanderhimselfmadea forcedmarchalongtheroadthroughthemountainswiththeMacedonian infantryandthe companion cavalry, plus the light cavalry, the Agrianians and the archers.Butwhen he came to the PersianGates,hediscoveredthatAriobarzanes,thePersiansatrap,hadbuiltawallthereandhadencampedbythewallwithabout40,000infantryand700cavalrytostopAlexanderpassingthrough.Atthatpointhepitchedcamp,andon the next day he drewup his army andmarched up to thewall. But it became clear that itwould be hard tocapturethewallbecauseofthedifficultnatureoftheterrain.Ashismenwere indifficultysincetheywereunderassaultfromenginesofwaronhigherground,Alexanderwentbacktohiscamp.Prisonerstoldhimtheycouldleadhimroundbyanotherroute,sothathecouldgetthroughthepass,thoughhefoundoutthattheroadwasroughand narrow. So he left Craterus in the camp with both his own squadron and that commanded by Meleager,togetherwithsomearchersandabout500cavalry.HetoldCraterusthatwhenhe learnedthatAlexanderhadgotright round andwas getting close to the Persian camp (the trumpetswould signal this clearly), at that point heshouldattackthewall.Alexander went on by night and after travelling about 100 stades3, he took Perdiccas’ men, the shield-bearingguards,thelightestarmedarchersandtheAgrianians,togetherwiththeroyalbrigadeofthecompanioncavalryand,inaddition,onesquadronofcavalrywith fourcompanies.With theseAlexanderwheeledroundtowards thepasswhere theprisoners ledhim.HeorderedAmyntas,PhilotasandCoenus to lead the restof the force towards theplainandtomakeabridgeovertheriverwhichtheyhadtocrosstogettoPersia.Hehimselfcontinuedonatrackthatwasdifficultandrough,forthemostpartataquickpace.Heattackedthefirstbarbarianguardsbeforedaylight,anddestroyedthem,andhedidthesametothesecondgroupheencountered.Themajorityofthethirdgroupfled,though they did not flee into the camp of Ariobarzanes but into the mountains just as they were, terrified byAlexander’s attack.For this reasonhewasable to attack theenemy’s campbeforedawnwithouthis approachbeingobserved.Atthemomentheattackedtheditchoftheircamp,thetrumpetssignalledtothosewithCraterus,andCraterusattacked the forward fortification.Theenemy,beingattacked fromall sides, fledwithout facing theGreeks,buttheywerecompletelytrapped,withAlexanderpressingagainstthemfromonedirectionandCraterus’men running at them from another. Most of them were compelled to turn round and flee back into theirfortifications,whichwere nowunder the control of theMacedonians. ForAlexander expected that thiswas howthingswouldturnout,andhadleftPtolemytherewithabout3,000footsoldiers.SothemajorityofthebarbarianswerecutdownbytheMacedoniansinhand-to-handfighting.Othersdiedintheterribleflightthatoccurred,hurlingthemselvesoverthecliffedge.Ariobarzaneshimselfmanagedtofleetothemountainswithafewhorsemen.Keylearning:

• After the Battle of Gaugamela, Alexander moved to take the capital of the Persian Empire,Persepolis.Thiscontainedahugetreasury.

• Alexander was held up in a narrow mountain pass by Persian forces commanded byAriobarzanes.

• Afterinitiallybeingforcedback,AlexandersplithisforcesandattackedthePersianpositionsatnight.

TheBurningofPersepolis,330BC

Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander3.18Alexanderthenledhismenquicklytotheriver,andtherehefoundthebridgealreadybuiltoverit,soheeasilywentacrosswithhisarmy.ThenfromthereataquickpacehemarchedtoPersepolis,arrivingbeforetheguardscouldplunderthetreasury.HealsotookthemoneyatPasargadaeinthetreasuryofCyrustheFirst.HeappointedPhrasaortes,sonofRheomithres,satrapoverthePersians.HeburntdownthePersianpalace,eventhoughParmenioadvisedhimtokeepitsafe.ThereweremanyreasonsforthisbutespeciallybecauseParmeniothoughtitwasnotagoodideaforAlexandertodestroywhatalreadybelongedtohim;becauseofthisthemenofAsiawouldnotcomeovertohissidesinceitappearedhehaddecidednottokeepcontrolofAsia,butonlytoconquerandthendepart.ButAlexanderclaimedthathewantedtotakevengeanceonthePersiansforwhattheydidduringtheinvasionofGreecewhentheyrazedAthenstothegroundandburntdownthetemplesandforalltheotherproblemstheyhadcausedtheGreeks.Butinmyopinion,AlexanderdidnotactsensiblyindoingthisandwhathappenedwasnotaneffectivepunishmentonthoseancientPersians.Keylearning:

• Arrian claims thatAlexander destroyed the palace at Persepolis (against Parmenio’s advice) inrevenge for what the Persians had done to Greece 150 years earlier. Arrian thought thatAlexander‘didnotactsensibly’.

Plutarch,LifeofAlexander38

Afterthat,ashewasabouttomarchagainstDarius,Alexanderhappenedtobetakingpartinamerrydrinkingpartywithhiscompanions;womenalsocametomeettheirloversandsharedthewineandpartying.ThemostfamousofthewomenwasanAtheniancalledThaïswhowasthemistressofPtolemy,whobecameKingofEgyptafterwards.PartlytopraiseAlexandergracefullyandpartlytoamusehim,asthedrinkingwenton,shebegantospeakinawaythatsuitedthenatureofthecountryshecamefrom,butwasnotasuitablethingforhertobesaying.Shesaidthatshewasbeingpaidbackthatday,forallthehardshipcausedtoherbywanderingaboutAsiafollowinghisarmy,byrelaxingluxuriouslyinthiswayinthesplendidPersianpalace.ButshesaidthatitwouldbeanevengreaterpleasuretogoforfuntosetfiretothehouseoftheXerxeswhohadburnedAthens.ShewantedtolightthefireherselfwithAlexander watching, so that it would be said that the women following Alexander’s army had given a greaterpunishmenttothePersiansonbehalfofGreecethanallthefamouscommandersonseaandland.Assoonasshehadsaidthis,therewasloudclapping,andthepeoplewiththekingeagerlyencouragedhim,sothathegaveintotheirwishes,andjumpingtohisfeet,withagarlandonhisheadandatorchinhishand,heledtheway.Thepartyfollowedandsurroundedthepalacewithshoutsanddancing.TherestoftheMacedonianswhoheardaboutitranthere joyfullywith torchesbecause theyhoped thatburninganddestroying thepalacewasa sign thatAlexanderwantedtogohomeanddidnotplantoliveamongthebarbarians.Somewriterssaythatthis isthewaythedeedwasdone,butotherssayitwasplannedbeforehand.However,itisagreedthatAlexanderquicklythoughtbetterofitandorderedthefiretobeputout.Keylearning:

• UnlikeArrian,PlutarchthoughtthatAlexanderwasdrunkwhenhedestroyedthepalace.• Plutarch states that Alexanderwas persuaded by Thais – themistress of Alexander’s general,

Ptolemy.• TheMacedoniansoldiersthoughtthatthismeanttheywerefinallygoinghome.• AccordingtoPlutarch,Alexanderregrettedhisactions.

DeathofCleitus(328BC)Plutarch,LifeofAlexander50–5150NotmuchlateroccurredtheeventswhichledtothedeathofCleitus,whichatfirstglanceseemsmuchmoresavagethantheincidentinvolvingPhilotas;yet ifweconsiderboththereasonandthemomentwhenitoccurred,weseethatitwasnotdonedeliberatelybutthroughsomemisfortuneoftheking,whoseangeranddrunkennessprovidedapretextfortheevilgeniusofCleitus.Thisishowitcameabout.TherecamesomemenbringingGreekfruitfromthecoast.AlexanderadmiredtheripenessandthebeautyofthisfruitandsentforCleitus,ashewishedtoshowhimwhathehadbeengivenandtoshareitwithhim.Cleitushappenedtobeofferingsacrifice,buthestoppedtheriteand came: three of the sheepwhich had been prepared to sacrifice followed him.When the king learnt this, hespokewiththeseersAristanderandCleomantistheSpartan;whentheysaidthatthiswasabadsign,heorderedasacrificetobemadeasquicklyaspossibleonCleitus’sbehalf.ForAlexanderhimselfhadseensomethingstrangeinhissleeptwodaysbefore:hedreamthesawCleitussittingwiththesonsofParmeniowhoweredressedinblack,andtheywerealldead.Cleitusdidn’tcompletehissacrifice,butcameimmediatelytodinner,althoughthekinghadofferedasacrificetotheDioscuri.Heavydrinkinghadalreadystartedwhensomesongsweresung,composedbyacertainPranichus (or, as somesay,Pierio), intended to shameand ridicule somegeneralswhohad recentlybeendefeatedbythebarbarians.Theoldermentherewereannoyedandabusedthepoetandthesinger,butAlexanderandthosesittingwithhimenjoyedlisteningtothemandtoldhimtocarryon.BythistimeCleituswasdrunk,andbeing by nature rough in temper and stubborn he became very angry, saying that it was not right that theMacedoniansshouldbeinsultedinthepresenceofbarbariansandenemies,whentheywerebetterthanthosewhowerelaughing,eventhoughtheyhadhadsomebadluck.WhenAlexanderclaimedthatCleituswasmakingexcusesforhimselfwhenhecalledcowardicemisfortune,Cleitusstoodupandsaid,“Yetthiscowardiceofminehasalreadysaved you, sonof aGod though youare,when you turned your back on the swordof Spithridates, and youhavebecomesopowerfulthroughthebloodandwoundsofMacedoniansthatyoudenyPhilipwasyourfatherandmakeyourselfthesonofAmmon.”51

Annoyedbythis,Alexandersaid,“Youwretch,doyouthinkyoucangetawaywithsayingthatsortofthingaboutmeallthetimeandsplittingtheMacedoniansintofactions?”“Evennow,Alexander,wedon’tgetawaywithit,”hesaid,“sincewepay suchahighcost forour suffering,andwecallhappy thosewhoalreadyhavediedbefore they sawMacedoniansbeatenwithPersiansticksorhavingtoaskPersiansbeforeweapproachourking.”Cleitusspokeoutboldly likethis,andthosewithAlexanderwereontheir feetandabusinghim;theoldermentriedtoquiet thingsdown.Alexander turnedtoXenodochusofCardiaandArtemiusofColophon,andsaid,“Don’t theGreeksseemtoyou towalk amongst theMacedonians like demigods amongstwild beasts?” Cleituswould not give up, and toldAlexandertosaywhateverhewantedopenly,ornottoinvitetodinnermenwhowerefreeandwhoexercisedfreespeech;heshouldlivewithbarbariansandslaveswhowouldofferobeisancebeforehisPersianbeltandhiswhitetunic. Alexander could no longer control his anger, but pickeduponeof the apples on the table and threw it atCleitusandbegantolookforhissword;oneofhisbodyguards,Aristophanes,tookitawaybeforehecouldfindit.Therestofthemstillaroundhimaskedhimtostop,butheleaptupandshoutedoutinMacedonian,callingforhisarmourbearers(thiswasasignofgreattumult),andheorderedhistrumpetertosendasignalandthenstruckhimwithhisfistswhenhedidnotdosostraightaway.Thismanwaslatergivenmuchcreditashewasresponsiblefornotdisturbingthewholecamp.WhenCleituswouldnotgiveupthequarrel,hisfriendswithdifficultythrusthimoutofthehall.Cleitustriedtoenteragainthroughadifferentdoor,declaimingverycontemptuouslyandboldlythislineofEuripides fromhisplayAndromache:“Alas,whatevil customsreign inGreece!”ThenAlexander, takingaspearfromoneofhisguards,cameface-to-facewithCleitusashedrewbackthecurtaininfrontofthedoor,andranhimthrough.Hefellwithagroanandabellow,andatonceAlexander’sangervanished.Whenhereturnedtohissensesand seeing his friends standing around him speechless, he dragged the spear out of the dead body and tried toimpalehimselfintheneck,butwaspreventedbyhisbodyguards,whorestrainedhimandcarriedhimbyforceintohisbedroom.

Keylearning:

• PlutarchthoughtthatCleitus’murderwasnotAlexander’sfault.AlexanderandCleituswerebothdrunk.Cleituswas‘roughintemper’.

• VariousomenspredictedCleitus’deathe.g.theincompletesacrificeandthedream.• CleituswasangrywithAlexanderandcriticisedhiminpublic.• AlexanderranCleitusthroughwithaspear.

Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander4.8–4.98I will now take this opportunity, even though these events occurred a little later, to explain what happenedconcerning thedeathofCleitus, sonofDropides,andthemisfortunewhichaffectedAlexander.TheMacedoniansheldonedaysacredtoDionysusandAlexander’ssacrificedtoDionysusonthatdayeveryyear.VariousauthoritiessaythatonthisoccasionAlexanderwasneglectfulofDionysus,butdidoffersacrificetotheDioscuri,anideawhichcameintohismindfornoparticularreason.Thedrinkingafterthesacrificewentonforalongtime(Alexanderhadbeguntoorganisehisdrinkingpartiesinadifferentandsomewhatbarbarianmanner),butduringadrinkingboutonthatoccasiontherewassometalkabouttheDioscuri,inparticularthatTyndareus’roleinfatheringthemhadbeentakenawayandthehonourgiventoZeusinstead.Someofthosewhowerethere(thesortofmenindeedwhohavealwaysdamagedandwillneverstopdamagingtheinterestsofthekingstheyserve)bywayofflatteringAlexander,suggestedthatCastorandPolluxcouldnotbecomparedwithAlexanderandwhatAlexanderhadachieved.Intheirdrinking, others even made comparisons with Heracles; they said that envy always prevented the living fromreceivingthehonourtheydeservedfromtheircontemporaries.Cleitushadclearlybeenannoyedfora longtimebythewayAlexanderhadchangedhisbehaviourtoamannermoreappropriateforbarbariansandalsobytheconversationsofthosewhowereflatteringhim;now,stimulatedbythewine,herefusedtoallowthemtoinsultdivinebeingsortodoafavourforAlexanderwhichinrealitywasnosuchthing,bybelittlingtheachievementsoftheancientheroes.HesaidthatnoteventhedeedsofAlexanderweresogreatandwonderfulastheyclaimedthemtobe;hehadnotachievedbyhimself,butforthemostparttheywere theachievementsof theMacedonians.Whathe said really hurtAlexander. I donot approveofhiswordseither,as I think it sufficient,atsuchadrink-soddenparty, foreachmantostaysilentabouthisownviewswhileavoiding themistakesmadebyother flatterers.Whensomeof them,again trying topleaseAlexander, suggestedwithoutany justification that theachievementsofPhilipwereneither greatnorwonderful,Cleituswasno longerabletorestrainhimself,showingrespectforwhatPhiliphadachieved,butbelittlingAlexanderandallhehaddone;hewasnowverydrunkandhereproachedAlexanderagreatdeal,becauseafterallhislifehadbeensavedbyCleitushimself,duringthecavalrybattleattheGranicusagainstthePersians.Moreover,heraisedhisrighthandinsolentlyatAlexanderandsaid,“Thisisthehand,Alexander,thatsavedyouatthattime.”AlexandercouldnolongerendureCleitus’ drunkenness and insolence, and leapt up in anger towards him, but was held back by those whoweredrinkingwithhim.CleitusdidnotstopinsultingAlexander,andthenAlexandershoutedoutasummonsfortheroyalguard;whennooneobeyedhim,hesaidthathewasinthesamepositionasDarius,whenhewasarrestedbyBessusandhisfollowers,andallhehadleftwasthetitleofking.Hiscompanionswerenolongerabletorestrainhim,andheleapttohisfeet;somesaythathegrabbedaspearfromoneofhisbodyguardsandstruckCleituswiththisandkilledhim,whileothers reported thatheusedapike taken fromoneof theguards.Aristobulusdoesnot recordwhatthereasonwasforthisdrinkingbout,butheplacedtheblameonCleitusalone,sincewhenAlexanderwasangryandleaptuptowardshimtokillhim,hewastakenoutsidethroughthedoorsbeyondthewallandtheditchofthecitadel,wheretheseeventsweretakingplace,byPtolemy,thesonofLagus,oneofthebodyguards;hewasnotable to resist turning back again, and came face-to-face with Alexander, as he was shouting out “Cleitus”, andreplied,“HereIam,Alexander”;hewasthenstruckwithapikeanddied.

9Formypart, IfirmlyplacetheblameonCleitus forhis insolencetowardshisking;IfeelpityforAlexanderforhismisfortune,becauseatthattimeheshowedthathewascontrolledbytwovices,angeranddrunkenness–asensibleman shouldnot bemasteredby either of them.But I praiseAlexander forwhathappenedafterwards, becausestraightawayheaccepted thathehaddonesomething terrible. Somehistoriansclaim thatAlexanderplaced the

pikeagainstawallandtriedtothrowhimselfontoit,asitwasnotrightforhimtocontinuelivingafterhehadkilledhisfriendundertheinfluenceofwine.However,themajorityofwritersdonotsaythis,butclaimedthathewenttohis bed and lay there mourning, and calling out Cleitus’ name and also that of his sister, Lanice, daughter ofDropides,whohadnursedhim:hownoblyhehadrepaidhernursingwhenhehadgrowntomanhood,asshehadseenherchildrendiefightingonhisbehalf,andherbrotherkilledbyhisownhand.Hewouldnotstopcallinghimselfthe killer of his friends, and he refrained fromdrinking and eating for three daysand took no care at all of hisphysicalneeds.Inthissituation,someoftheprophetsbegantalkingabouttheangerofDionysus,becauseAlexanderhadnotperformedthesacrificetohim.Alexanderwaspersuadedwithdifficultybyhisfriendstotakesomefoodandtolookafterhisbodilyneeds,tosomeextent.HeperformedthesacrificetoDionysus,sincehewasnotunwillingtobelievethatthisterribleeventwasduetotheangerofagodratherthantohisowndepravity.IstronglyapproveofAlexander’s behaviour at this time, since he did not offer justification for the crime he committed, nor did hebecomestillworsebydefendingandchampioninghismistake,butheacceptedthat,beingjustaman,hehaddonewrong.SomesaythatAnaxarchusthesophistwassummonedandcametoAlexandertoconsolehim;hefoundhimlyingonthebedgroaning,andsaidwitha laugh,“DoyounotknowthatthewisemenofoldplacedJusticebythethroneofZeusforthisveryreason,becausewhateverisdeterminedbyZeus,isdonewithJustice?Injustthesameway,theactsofagreatkingmustbeconsideredjust,firstlybythekinghimself,andthenbyallothermen.”Bysayingthis,heconsoledAlexanderatthattime,but, inmyopinion,hecausedagreatproblemforAlexander, fargreaterthantheonehewasfacingatthattime(ifinfacthegavethisopinionasaphilosopher,thatthereisnoneedforakingtothinkseriouslyabouthisactionsanddowhatisjust,butratherheshouldconsider‘just’whateverakingdoesinwhateverway).Keylearning:

• CleituswasangryaboutAlexanderbeingcomparedtoheroessuchasHerakles.CleitusdidnotlikehowAlexanderhadchangedhishabitstofitinwiththe‘barbarians’(orientalism).

• CleituswasdrunkandinsultedAlexanderinpublic.AlexanderkilledCletius.ArrianplacestheblameforthisonCleitus.

• AlexanderregrettedhisactionsandaphilosophercalledAnaxarchuscametocomforthim.AnaxarchussaidthatAlexanderwasjustifiedinkillingCleitus.ThismayhavemadeAlexandermoreautocratic(actinglikeatyrant).

Callisthenesrefusaltoperformproskynesis4

andPersianinfluencesonAlexanderArrian,AnabasisofAlexander4.9–4.129

...ThereisastronglyheldbeliefthatAlexanderwantedpeopletoperformobeisancebeforehim,basedontheideathathis fatherwas ZeusAmmon rather thanPhilip, andhewas already verymuch takenby the customsof thePersiansandtheMedes,asshownbyhischangeofclothingandthedifferentwayhewasattendedatcourt.Therewere plenty of flatterers prepared to support this, the most important being two sophists in his entourage,AnaxarchusandAgisofArgos,anepicpoet.

10

CallisthenesofOlynthus,apupilofAristotleandamansomewhatroughinmanner,didnotapproveofthisidea.Imyselfagreewithhimaboutthis, though, ifhisremarkshavebeenaccuratelyreported, Idonotaccepthisclaimthat Alexander and his deeds depended on his skill as a historian, and that he had not come to gain fame fromAlexander, but rather tomake him famous amongstmen. Another claim hemadewas that Alexander’s share indivinitywas not dependent on the liesOlympias told about his birth, but rather onwhat hewould record in hishistoryonAlexander’sbehalfandpublishtomankind....... The following story is told about how heopposed Alexander over obeisance. Alexander had agreedwith thesophistsandthemostdistinguishedPersiansandtheMedesinhisentouragethattheywouldbringupthisissueata

drinkingbout.AnaxarchusstartedtheballrollingbysayingthatitwouldbemuchmorejusttoconsiderAlexanderagod thanDionysus andHeracles, not because of the scale and nature ofwhat Alexander had done, but becauseDionysuswasaThebanandhadnorelationshiptotheMacedonians,andHeracleswasfromArgos,withnolinktoMacedon except for the family of Alexander; for Alexander was descended from Heracles.Macedonians wouldmoreproperlyofferdivinehonourstotheirownking.FortherewasnoquestionthatwhenAlexanderdepartedthislifetheMacedonianswouldhonourhimasagod;itwouldbesomuchmorejusttohonourhiminthiswaywhilehewasalivethanafterhisdeath,whenhewouldgainnothingfromit.11WhenAnaxarchushadsaidsomethingalongthese lines, thosewhowere inontheplotcommendedwhathehadsaidandwereinfactwillingtobegindoingobeisance,butthemajorityofMacedonianswereannoyedbyhiswordsandkeptquiet, thoughCallisthenesresponded,“Inmyopinion,Alexander isworthyofallhonoursappropriate formen;butmenhavemarkedoutwhichhonoursaresuitableformenandwhichforgodsinmanyways.Forexample,we build temples and set up statues and sanctuaries for the gods and offer sacrifices to them and libations, andhymnsarecomposedforthegods,whilepanegyricsarewrittenformen;nottheleastsignificantdifferenceconcernsthecustomofobeisance.Menreceiveakisswhensomeonegreets them,but thegods,because I suppose theysitaboveusanditisnotrighttotouchthem,arehonouredforthisreasonwithobeisance;dancesarealsoheldforthegodsandpaeansaresung in theirpraise.There isnothingwonderfulaboutthis,sinceevenamongthegodssomehonoursareprescribedforonebutnotanother,and,byZeus,therearefurtherhonoursprescribedforheroes,whicharedifferentfromthoseofferedtothegods.Soitisnotrighttothrowallofthisintoconfusionandmakemenlookmore important than they are through excess of honours,while casting the gods down, in so far aswe have thepowertodoso,toalowerlevelnotfittingforthem,bygivingequalhonourstomen.Ifsomeordinarypersonweretotakeuponhimself royalhonours throughanunjustvoteorelection,Alexanderwouldnotputupwith it.Thegodswould havemuchbetter reason to be angrywith all thosemenwho tookondivine honours or allowedothers tobestowthem.Alexanderbothisandappearstobethebravestofbravemen,andthemostkinglyofkings,andthebestpossiblecommanderofallcommanders.You,Anaxarchus,shouldhaveofferedanexplanationlikethis,ifanyoneshould, and should have prevented those who argued against you, because you spend time with Alexander onaccountofyourwisdomandthetrainingyouoffer.Itwasnotappropriateforyoutostartadiscussionofthissort,asyoushouldrememberthatyouarenotadvisingorattendingthecourtofCambysesorXerxes,butthesonofPhilip,descended fromHeraclesandAeacus,whoseancestorscame fromArgos toMacedoniaandhavecontinued rulingtheMacedoniansnot through forcebut through custom.Divinehonourswerenotofferedby theGreekseven toHeracleshimself,whilehewasstillalive,andinfactnotevenafterhisdeathuntiltheGodinDelphideclaredthatheshouldbehonoured likeagod. Ifwemust think inabarbarianway,becausewearehaving thisconversation inabarbariancountry,Iaskyou,Alexander,torememberGreece,forwhomyoumadethiswholecampaign,tobringAsiaunderGreekcontrol.Andconsiderthis,whenyoureturnhome,willyoucompeltheGreeks,whoarethemostfreementhereare,toperformobeisancebeforeyou,orwillyouleavetheGreeksalone,andonlyforcethisdisgraceontheMacedonians;orwillyoumakeabroaddistinctionregardingthehonoursduetoyou,thatyouwillbehonouredbyGreeksandMacedoniansinaGreekandhumanway,andbybarbariansaloneinabarbarianway?ButifitissaidthatCyrus,thesonofCambyses,wasthefirsttoacceptobeisanceandthatthishumiliatingpracticehasbecomeacustom for the Persians and theMedes because of him, you should remember that the Scythians, poormen butindependent,broughtCyrusbackdowntoearth,andlaterDariusaswell,andtheAtheniansandtheSpartansdidthesameforXerxes,whileClearchusandXenophontogetherwiththeirTenThousandbroughtArtaxerxestohissenses,andthenAlexander,withoutreceivingtheobeisance,didthesameforDarius.”

12By saying this, Callisthenes annoyed Alexander a great deal, but the Macedonians tended to agree with him.Alexandernotedtheirreaction,sohetoldtheMacedoniansnottoconcernthemselvesanyfurtheraboutobeisance.Whensilencefell,theoldestofthePersiansstoodupandinturnofferedobeisancebeforeAlexander.WhenoneofthePersiansseemedtomakehisobeisanceinanawkwardfashion,Leonnatus,oneofthecompanions,pokedfunathisabjectposture.Alexanderwasangrywithhimatthetime,thoughthisdidnotlastforlong.Thefollowingstoryisalsotold.Alexandersentroundagoldenlovingcup,firsttothosewithwhomtherehadbeenanagreementaboutobeisance;thefirsttoreceiveitdrankfromthecupandthenstoodupandperformedobeisanceandwaskissedbyAlexander,andthiswasdoneinturnbyallofthem.WhenitwasCallisthenes’turntodrink,hestoodupanddrank

fromthecupandapproachedAlexander,wantingtokisshimwithoutperformingobeisance.Atthetime,AlexanderhappenedtobespeakingtoHephaestion,andsodidnotnoticewhetherCallistheneshadperformedtheceremonyof obeisance. As Callisthenes approached Alexander to kiss him, Demetrius, the son of Pythonax, one of thecompanions, toldAlexanderthathehadnotperformedobeisance.Alexanderdidnotallowhimtoembracehim,andCallisthenessaid“Iwillleaveyou,deprivedofonekiss.”...

Keylearning:• AnaxarchusmadeaspeechstatingthatobeisanceshouldbeperformedtoAlexanderasagod.

Alexanderwould,nodoubt,beworshippedafterhisdeath,sowhynotworshiphimnow?• CallisthenesarguedthatthiswaswrongandthatnotevengreatheroessuchasHerakleshad

receivedobeisance.• TheMacedoniansagreedwithCallisthenesandAlexanderabandonedhispolicytoforceGreeks

andMacedonianstoperformobeisance.

SilvertetradrachmmintedbyLysimachusshowingAlexanderwithhornsZeusAmmonandAthena

(obverse)HeadofAlexandertheGreat,diademedandwearingaram'shorn;dottedborder.

(reverse)AthenaNikephoros(Athenaofvictory)seated;Nikeinoutstretchedrighthandcrowning,inscriptionwithwreath;spearrestingbehind;leftarmrestingonshield;toleft,cultimage;atbottom,crescent.InscriptionΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣΛΥΣΙΜΑΧΟΥ=ofKingLysimachus

Meaning=ThiscoindepictsAlexanderasdivineandvictorious.TheconquestsofAlexandertheGreatchangedtheworldforever.FollowingAlexander'sdeathin323BChisgeneralsdividedhisvastempirebetweenthemselvesandbegantosquabbleoverhislegacy.Intheperiodofturmoilthatfollowed,theimageofthedeifiedAlexanderplayedanimportantpart,ashissuccessorstriedtocastthemselvesashisheir.Variousmonarchsusedcoindesignsinthiscontext.

SilvertetradrachmmintedbyPtolemyIshowingAlexanderwithelephantscalpheaddress

(obverse)HeadofAlexandertheGreat,wearingelephant'sscalpandaegis,withhornofZeusAmmon,dottedborder.

(reverse)AthenaAlkidemos(Athenadefenderofthepeople)standing,holdingshieldandspear,right;front,eagle,right;dottedborder.InscriptionΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ=OfAlexander

Meaning=Alexanderisvictorious–theelephantlinkstothedefeatofPorus,Alexanderisdivine-theram’shornandeaglelinktoZeusasdoestheaegiswhichwasaprotectivegoatskincloakwornbyZeus.

ThesiegeoftheAornusRock(326BC)Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander4.28–3028

WhenthoseinBazirafoundoutaboutthis,theyabandonedhopeabouttheirownsituation;theyleftthecityaboutthe middle of the night and fled to the rock. The rest of the barbarians were doing the same thing: everyoneabandoned their cities and began to flee to the rock called Aornus which is in their territory. For this rock is asignificantfeatureinthisarea,andthestorygoesthatnotevenHeraclesthesonofZeuswasabletocaptureit.Whether in fact theThebanHeraclesmade itas faras India, Iamnotable toconfirmwithanycertainty; I ratherthinkthathedidnot,formenoftenexaggeratethedifficultyofalldifficulttasksbyclaimingthatnotevenHeracleswasabletocompletethem.Withregardtothisrock,IthinkthatHeraclesismentionedtoaddtotheglamourofthestory.Itissaidthattherockisabout200stades5aroundthebase,andabout11stades6inheightatitslowestpoint;andthereisonlyonewayup,cutbyhandfromtherockanddifficult.Atthetopthereisplentyofcleanwater,asaspring comesupon the summit fromwhichdrinkablewater flows; there iswoodlandandgood land forplantingcrops,enoughforathousandmentowork.

When Alexander heard about this, he was overcome with a strong desire to capture this mountain as well,especiallybecauseofthestoryaboutHeraclesandtherock.HemadeOraandMassagafortstocontroltheterritory,andfortifiedthecityofBazira.TheforceswithHephaestionandPerdiccasfortifiedanothercitycalledOrobatisforhim,andthey leftagarrisonthereandmadetheirwaytotheRiver Indus.Whentheyarrivedthere, theyatoncestartedtobuildabridgeacrosstheriverasAlexanderhadtoldthemto.AlexanderappointedNicanor,oneof thecompanions,satrapoverthelandonthesouthernsideoftheIndus.ThenheledhisforcestowardstheIndus,andhemade terms with Peucelaotis, a city not far from the river; he left a garrison of Macedonians there, under thecommandofPhilip.AlexanderthensubduedothersmallsettlementsalongtheIndus,accompaniedbyCophaeusandAssageteswhoweretherulersof thearea.WhenhereachedthecityofEmbolima,which issituatedcloseto theAornusRock,heleftCraterustherewithpartofthearmy.HetoldhimtocollectasmuchcornaspossibleintothecitytogetherwitheverythingelseneededforalongstaysothattheMacedonians,usingthecityastheirbase,couldweardownthosewhowereholdingtherockbyalongsiege,ifitwerenotcapturedbydirectassault.Alexandertookthearchersand theAgrianiansandCoenus’ troops;he selectedboth thosewith the lightestandheaviestarmourfrom the rest of the phalanx. Then with these forces and about 200 of the companion cavalry and 100 horse-bowmenhemadefortherock.Onthisdayhesetupcampwherehethoughtbest,andthenonthenextdayhewentforwardalittletowardstherockandsetupcampagain.29

Inthemeantimesomelocalmencametohim,andsurrendered,promisingtoleadhimtowheretherockcouldmosteasilybeattacked; they claimed itwouldnotbedifficult forhim to capture theplace.Alexander sentwiththemhisbodyguardPtolemy,thesonofLagus,whowasputinchargeoftheAgrianiansandtheotherlight-armedtroops and men selected from the shield-bearing guards. He ordered Ptolemy, when his men had captured theposition,tosecureitwithastronggarrisonandtosignaltohimthatthepositionwasundercontrol.Ptolemywenton a track thatwas rough and hard to travel, but hemanaged to secure the positionwithout being seen by thebarbarians.When he had fortified the position with a stockade and ditch all round, he set up a beacon on themountain from where it was likely to be visible to Alexander. The flame was seen at once, and the next dayAlexander led his army out. As the barbarians defended themselves effectively, he [Alexander] achieved nothingfurtherbecauseofthedifficultterrain.WhenthebarbariansrealisedthatAlexanderdidnotachieveanythinginhisassault, they turned back and attacked Ptolemy’s men. There was a fierce battle between them and theMacedonians: the Indians tried to destroy the stockade, while Ptolemy worked hard to guard his position. Thebarbariansgottheworstofitintheclosefighting,andasnightcameontheyretreated.

AlexanderselectedoneoftheIndiandeserterswhowascompletelytrustworthyandknewtheareawell,andsenthim to Ptolemywith a letter during thenight. In this he told Ptolemy that as soon as he attacked the rock frombelow,heshouldcomedownfromthemountaintoattackthebarbariansandnottrytokeephisfortifiedpositionunderguard;inthiswaytheIndians,underattackfrombothsides,wouldbeconfusedaboutwhattodo.AtdawnAlexandersetofffromhiscampandledhisarmytothetrackbywhichPtolemyhadgoneupwithoutbeingseen.Hisintention was that if he forced his way up by this route and joined his forces with Ptolemy’s men, the task ofcapturingtherockwouldnolongerbedifficult.Andthatishowthingsturnedout.

Until themiddleof thedaytherewasa fiercebattlebetweenthe IndiansandtheMacedonians:Alexander’smenwerestrivingtoreachthetrack,whiletheIndianswerefiringtheirweaponsdownonthosewhowereattemptingtoascend.ButtheMacedoniansdidnotceasetheirefforts,pressingononeafteranother,whilethosewhohadbeenatthe front rested; with great difficulty in the afternoon they gained control of the pass and joined forces withPtolemy’smen.Nowthat thewholearmywasbrought together theypressedonagainagainst therock itself.Buttheywerestillnotabletomaketheirwayuptherock,andonthatdaythiswastheendofthefighting.Just before dawnAlexander ordered each of hismen to cut 100 stakes; once this had been done, he piled up amoundofearthagainsttherockstartingfromthehilltopwherehehadsetupcamp.Hisplanwasfromtheretofirearrowsandmissilesfrommachinesagainsttherock’sdefenders.Allthoseinhisarmyjoinedwithhiminpilingupthemound. Alexander himself watched his men, and praised those who completed their task with enthusiasm, butpunishedthosewhofailedtodosoinsuchanurgentsituation.30Onthefirstdayhisarmypiledupamoundaboutastade7inlength.OnthenextdayacombinationofslingersfiringfromthatpartofthemoundthatwasalreadycompletedandmachineshurlingmissilesdrovebacktheattacksoftheIndians against those whowere continuing to extend themound. This work continued for three days without a

break,andonthe fourthdaya fewMacedonians forcedtheirwayupandseizedasmallhillwhichwasaboutthesameheightastherock.Alexander,withouttakingabreakfromthetask,pressedonwiththemound,ashewantedto join his mound to the hill which theMacedonians already held for him. The Indians were frightened by theextraordinarydaringoftheMacedonianswhohadforcedtheirwayontothehill.Astheysawthatthemoundwasnowlinkedtoit,theyceasedfromfightinganylongerandsentheraldstoAlexander,claimingtheywerepreparedtosurrendertherockifhewouldmakeatruce.Buttheyhaddecidedtospendthedaydelayingtheagreementofthetruceandthenduringthenighttoscattereachtotheirownhomes.WhenAlexanderrealisedthis,heallowedthemtimetostarttheirwithdrawalandtoremovetheguardaroundtherock.Hewaiteduntiltheybegantoretreat,butthentakingabout700ofthebodyguardsandshield-bearinginfantryhewashimselfthefirsttoclimbuptothepartoftherocktheIndianshaddeserted.TheMacedonianscameupafterhimatvariouspoints,pullingeachotherupwherenecessary, and thenat anagreed signal they turnedon thedepartingbarbarians and killedmanyof themwhiletheyfled.Othersretreatedinblindpanicanddiedbyhurlingthemselvesoffthecliffs.InthiswayAlexandergainedpossessionoftherockwhichHeracleshadnotbeenabletoconquer.Heperformedasacrificeontherock,thenorganisedagarrison,puttingSisicottusinchargeofit,amanwhohaddesertedfromtheIndianstojoinBessusinBactria, and then,whenAlexandergainedcontrolof the country,hehad joinedhis armyandbeencompletelytrustworthy.AlexanderthensetoutfromtherockandattackedthelandoftheAssacenians.ForhewastoldthatthebrotherofAssacenushadfled intothemountains inthatareawithhiselephantsandmanyofthe localbarbarians.WhenhecametothecityofDyrtahedidnotencounteranyofthosewholivedthereintheterritorynearthecity.ThenextdayhesentoutNearchusandAntiochuswhowereinchargeoftheshield-bearingguards.HeputNearchusinchargeofthelightarmedAgrianiansandAntiochusinchargeofhisowncontingentandtwoothersaswell.Theyweresentouttocheckoutthesurroundingareaandtoseeiftheycouldcatchsomeofthebarbarianstofindoutaboutthestateof localarea.Alexanderwasparticularlyanxioustofindoutaboutelephants.HesetoffhimselffortheRiverIndus,andthearmywentaheadtomakearoadforhim,asthispartofthecountrywasotherwisedifficulttocross.Therehecapturedafewbarbarians,fromwhomhelearnedthattheIndiansofthatareahadfledtoAbisares,butthattheyhadlefttheirelephantstofeedbytheRiverIndus.Hetoldthesementoleadhimtowheretheseelephantswere. Many Indians are hunters of elephants, and Alexander kept them with him and treated them withconsiderablerespect;thenhehuntedtheelephantswiththem.Twooftheelephantsdiedinthehuntafterhurlingthemselvesoveracliff,buttherestwerecapturedandweredrawnupwiththearmyunderthecontrolofdrivers.Whentheycameacrosssomehigh-qualitytimberbytheriverside,thiswascutdownforAlexanderbythearmy,andshipsweremade,whichwerethentakendowntothebridgeovertheRiverIndus;HephaestionandPerdiccashadbuiltthissometimebeforeonAlexander’sinstructions.

Keylearning:• TheRockofAornoswasafortressthattheGreekheroHerakleshadfailedtotake.• Alexanderwantedtocapturethesitesohecouldclaimtohaveout-doneHerakles.

Revolts&themassmarriagesatSusa(324BC)Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander7.4AtthispointAlexandersentAtropatestohissatrapyafterhereachedSusa.HearrestedandkilledAbulitesandhissonOzathres,becausetheyhadadministeredtheSusiansbadly.ManyoffenceshadbeencommittedbythosewhowereinchargeofthecountrieswhichAlexanderhadconquered.Theserelatedtotemples,gravesandthesubjectsthemselves,because the kinghadbeenundertaking theexpedition to India, and it didnot seemcredible thathewouldreturnfromsuchagreatnumberofnationsandelephants!TheythoughtthathewouldbekilledbeyondtheIndus, Hydaspes, Acesines and Hyphasis. The disasters which happened to him in Gedrosia did yet more toencouragethesatrapstodespiseanyideaofhisreturnhome.Notonlythis,butAlexanderissaidtohavebecomequickeringivingcredencetoaccusationsatthistime,asiftheyweretobebelievedallthetime,andtogivegreat

punishmentseventothosewhowereconvictedofsmalloffences,becausehethoughttheymightcarryoutgreatoffencesbasedonthesamethoughts.Keylearning:

• AlexanderhadleftimportantPersiansinchargeofcitieshehadconqueredwhileheinvadedIndia.

• ManyofthesePersiansdidnotthinkthatAlexanderwouldsurvivesotheyhadabusedtheirpositionsofpower.

He also held weddings at Susa for himself and his companions. He himself married Barsine, the eldest of thedaughters ofDarius, and anotherwoman in addition toher,Parysatis, the youngest of thedaughters ofOchus,according to Aristobulus. He was already married to Roxanne, the daughter of Oxyartes from Bactria. ToHephaestion he gave Drypetis, another daughter of Darius and the sister of his own wife. For he wantedHephaestion’s children tobe cousins tohisown.ToCraterushegaveAmastrine thedaugherofOxyartes,Darius’brother; toPerdiccas, adaughterofAtropates, satrapofMedia. Ptolemy,hisbodyguard, andEumenes, the royalsecretary,marriedthedaughtersofArtabazus,ArtacamaandArtonisrespectively.NearchusmarriedthedaughterofBarsineandMentor;SeleucusthedaughterofSpitamenesfromBactria,andlikewisetheotherCompanions–abouteightyinall–marriedthemostnobledaughtersofthePersiansandtheMedes.ThesemarriageswereconductedaccordingtoPersiancustom.Throneswereputoutforthebridegroomsinturn,andaftertheyhaddrunk,thebridescameandsatnexttotheirbridegroom.Thebridegroomstookthemwiththeirrighthandandkissedthem.Thekingledthewayanddidthisfirst.Allofthesemarriagestookplaceatthesametime.TheseparticularactionsmorethananyothershowedAlexandertobeoneofthepeopleanda loverofhiscompanions.Aftertheyhadreceivedtheirbrides,eachbridegroomledherhome.Alexandergavethemalldowries.HeorderedalltheMacedonianswhohadmarriedAsianwomentoregistertheirnames;thereweremorethan10,000.Alexandergavethesepeoplegiftsontheirweddingsaswell.Keylearning:

• AlexandermarriedtwoPersianwives–onewasthedaughterofDariusandtheotherwasthedaughterofDarius’rival,Ochus.

• Alexanderalsoensuredthathistrustedgenerals,companioncavalryand10,000soldiersalsotookPersianwives.

DeathofHephaestion(324BC)Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander7.14

AtEcbatana,Alexanderofferedasacrifice,justashewasaccustomedtodoafteranysuccess,andheldathleticandmusicalcontests,andtherewerealsodrinkingboutswithhiscompanions.Atthistime,Hephaestionfell ill;ontheseventhdayofhisillness,theysaythatthestadiumwasfull,astherewasanathleticcompetitionforboysonthatday;whenAlexanderwastoldthatHephaestionwasinabadway,hequicklylefttogotohim,buthewasnolongerlivingby the timehearrived.WritershavegivenverydifferentaccountsofAlexander’sgrieving; theyallagreedthathisgriefwasverygreat,buttherearedifferentversionsofwhatheactuallydid,dependentonthegoodwillorenvyeachfelttowardsHephaestionorAlexanderhimself.ForthosewhorecordedhisrecklessexcessesseemtometoconsiderthatwhateverAlexanderdidorsaidinhisgreatgriefforthefriendclosesttohimofallmeneitheraddstohisgloryorbringshameuponhim,onthegroundsthatsuchbehaviourwasnotfittingforakingorforAlexander.

Somesaythatforthegreaterpartofthatdayheflunghimselfdownbesidethebodyofhisfriendgroaninganddidnotwish to be separated from him, until hewas forcibly removed by his companions; in other accounts, he lay

besidethebodyalldayandallnight;otherwriterssayhehungthedoctorGlaucias,eitherbecauseof thewrongdrugbeinggivenorbecausehesawHephaestiondrinkingheavilyandallowedhimtocontinue.IthinkitislikelythatAlexandercuthishairoverthebody,especiallybecausehehadbeeneagertoemulateAchilleseversinceboyhood.SomeaccountsaddthatAlexanderhimselfforsometimedrovethechariotonwhichthebodywascarried,thoughthisdoesnotseemcredibletome.ThereareotherswhowritethatheorderedtheTempleofAsclepius(Greekgodofhealing)atEcbatanatobeutterlydestroyed,abarbarianact innowayappropriateforAlexander,butmoreinkeepingwiththearroganceofXerxesindivinemattersandthechainswhichitissaidhehurledintotheHellesponttopunishit.Thereisanotherstorywritteninthehistorywhichseemstomequiteplausible,that,asAlexanderwasridingtoBabylon,hewasmetontheroadbymanyembassiesfromGreece,amongstthemsomefromEpidaurus;theygotfromAlexanderwhattheyaskedforandhegavetothemanofferingtotaketoAsclepius,saying,“Asclepiushasnottreatedmefairly,ashedidnotsaveformethecompanionwhowasasdeartomeasmyownlife.”Accordingtomosthistorians,Alexanderordered thatHephaestion shouldalways receive ritesappropriate forahero, andsomesaythathesenttotheoracleofAmmontoaskthegodwhetherheallowedHephaestiontoreceivesacrificesasagod,butthatpermissionwasnotgranted.Thesedetailscanbefoundinalltheaccounts,thatAlexanderdidnottastefoodortakeanycareofhisbodyfortwodaysafterthedeathofHephaestion,butlaygroaningorinagrief-filledsilence.Heorderedafuneralpyrecosting10,000talentstobepreparedforhiminBabylon,andsomeclaimthecostwasevengreater.Itwasannouncedthatthere should be publicmourning throughout the whole barbarian land.Many of Alexander’s companions out ofrespectforhimdedicatedthemselvesandtheirweaponstoHephaestion.Eumeneswasthefirsttodothis,amanwhohadrecentlyquarrelledwithHephaestion;hedidthissothatAlexanderwouldnotthinkhewashappyatthedeath of Hephaestion. Alexander never appointed anyone else in place of Hephaestion as commander of thecompanion cavalry, so that the nameofHephaestionmight continue to be attached to the battalion; itwas stillcalledHephaestion’s and the standardmadeonhis instructionswas still carriedbefore it.Alexander intended toholdathleticandmusicalcontests,whichweretobemuchmoreremarkableinthenumberofcontestantsandinthemoneylavishedonthemthananypreviouscontests;heprepares3,000competitorsintotal.Alittlelater,itissaid,thesemencompetedatthetombofAlexander.

Keylearning:• AlexanderwasdevastatedwhenhisclosefriendHephaestiondiedunexpectedly.• ArriandetailssomeofthewaysthatAlexandermournedHephaestion’sdeath.

DeathofAlexander(323BC)Plutarch,LifeofAlexander73–7773

As Alexanderwas travelling to Babylon, Nearchus came to accompany him, after he had sailed to the Euphratesthroughthegreatsea,andhetoldthekingthatsomeChaldaeanshadmethimwhoadvisedthatAlexandershouldkeepaway fromBabylon.Alexanderwasnotconcernedabout this,andcarriedonhisway;whenhecameto thewallsofBabylon,hesawmanyravensflyingaroundandstrikingeachother,someofwhichfellathisfeet.LaterhewasinformedthatApollodorus,thegeneralinchargeofBabylon,performedthesacrificetofindoutabouttheking’sfuture,andsohesummonedPythagorastheseer.Pythagorasdidnotdenythatthiswashappening,soAlexanderaskedhimwhatthesacrificeshowed.Whenhewastoldthattheliverofthevictimhadnolobes,hesaid,“Alas,thisisapowerfulsign.”HedidnotharmPythagoras.HewasannoyedthathehadnotfollowedNearchus’advice,andhespent most of his time in his tent outside Babylon or sailing on the Euphrates.Many omens troubled him: forexample,atameasssetuponthelargestandmostnoblelion inhiscollectionandkickedittodeath.Onanother

occasion,whenhestrippedforexerciseandwasplayingball,whenitwasnecessarytogetdressedagain,theyoungmenwhowere playing ball with him saw aman sitting silently on his throne,wearing his crown and his royalrobes.Whenthismanwasaskedwhohewas,foralongtimehedidnotspeak.Whenhecametohissenses,hesaidthathewascalledDionysius,andwasborninMessenia;hehadbeenbroughttoBabylonfromthecoastbecauseofsomeaccusationmadeagainsthim,andhadbeenalongtimeinchains;justrecentlythegodSerapishadvisitedhimandloosenedhischains,andsenthimtothisplace,tellinghimtotaketherobeandthecrownandsitsilentlyonthethrone.74

Whenheheardthis,Alexanderdidawaywiththeman,justastheseerstoldhimto;buthebecamelow-spiritedandnowhadlittleexpectationofdivinesupportandwassuspiciousofhisfriends.HewasfearfulofAntipaterandhissons;oneofthem,Iolas,washischiefcup-bearer,whileCassanderhadjustrecentlyarrivedinBabylon.Cassanderhadseensomebarbariansperformingobeisance,andashehadbeenbroughtupasaGreekandhadnever seensuchathingbefore,helaughedoutloudratherrashly.Alexanderwasfurious,andgrabbinghimbyhishairwithbothhandshebangedhisheadagainstthewall.Onanotheroccasion,whenCassanderwantedtosaysomethingagainstthosewhoweremakingaccusationsagainstAntipater,Alexanderstoppedhimandsaid,“Whatdoyoumean?Wouldmen come on such a long journey if they did not have real grievances, but were bringing false charges?”WhenCassandersaidthatthisverythingwasasignthatthechargeswerefalse,becausetheywerealongwayfromanyproof,Alexanderburstoutlaughingandreplied,“ThesearethefamousargumentsofthefollowersofAristotlewhichcanbeusedoneithersideofaquestion;youwillsufferforit,ifitappearsyouhavewrongedthesemeninanyway.”ThosewhoweretheresaythataterribleanddeeplyingrainedfearoverwhelmedthespiritofCassander,tosuchanextent that,manyyears later,whenhewasnowKingof theMacedoniansand incontrolofGreece,whilehewaswalkingaroundinDelphiandlookingatstatues,hesuddenlycaughtsightofastatueofAlexanderandatoncehewasstruckwithashudderingandsufferedphysicaldistress,andwithdifficultyrecoveredhimself,ashehadbecomefaintatthesight.

75Alexander, sincehehadbecome troubledaboutdivinemattersand fearful inhismind,now treatedeverythingunusualorstrange,howeverinsignificant,asaportentoromen.Theroyalpalacewasfullofpeoplesacrificingandpurifyingandmakingpredictionsofthefuture.Itistruethatdisbeliefindivinemattersandcontemptforthemisaterriblething,butterriblealsoissuperstition,which,justaswateralwaysflowsdowntothelowestpoint,nowfilledAlexander’sfearfulmindwithfoolishness.Inspiteofthis,whensomeanswersfromthegodswerebroughttohimabout Hephaestion, he put aside his grief, and again took part in sacrifices and drinking parties. He gave amagnificentbanquetforNearchusandthosewhohadsailedwithhim,thenhewashed,ashewasaccustomedtodobeforegoingtosleep;butMediusinvitedhimout,sohewentoutdrinkingwithhim.Afterdrinkingthroughallofthenextday,hebegantosufferfromafever;thisdidnothappenwhenhedrankfromacupbelongingtoHeracles,nordidhegetasuddenpaininhisbackasifhehadbeenstruckbyaspear,assomeauthorsthinktheymustwrite,as if theywere inventing the tragicandmoving finaleofagreatevent.Aristobulus says thathegotamaddeningfever,andwhenhewasverythirstyhedrankwine;afterthis,hebecamedeliriousanddiedonthe30thdayofthemonthDaesius.76

The following details aboutAlexander’s illness are recorded in the court journals.On the 18th day of themonthDaesius,Alexander slept in thebathhousebecausehehada fever.On thenextday,hewashedandwent tohisbedroom,wherehespentthedayplayingdicewithMedius.Thenhewashedlateandperformedhissacrificestothegods;heateand suffereda fever through thenight.On the20thday,hewashedagain,andperformedhisusualsacrifices;thenhelayinabathhouse,andspenttimewithNearchusandhiscompanions,listeningtowhattheyhadtosayaboutthevoyageandthegreatsea.Thenextdayhedidthesame,butwasmoreinflamed,andhesufferedbadlyduringthenight;thefollowingday,heranaveryhighfever.Hewascarriedoutandspentthedaybesidethegreatbath;hespokewithhiscommandersaboutthepoststhatneededfillinginthearmy,andhowtheymightfillthese postswith reliablemen. On the 24th day of themonth, his feverwas again very high and hewas carriedoutsidetooffersacrifice.Hetoldthemostimportantofhiscommanderstowaitinthecourtyard,andtheyspentthenight thereoutside.Hewascarriedtohispalaceontheothersideof theriveronthe25thday,wherehesleptalittle,butthefeverdidnotlessen.Whenhiscommanderscametohisbedside,hewasunabletospeak,andhewasthesamethenextday;becauseofthistheMacedoniansthoughtthathehaddied,andtheycameshoutingtothedoors of the palace, and they began to threaten his companions until they overwhelmed them. The doorswerethrownopenforthem,andalltheMacedonians,onebyone,withouttheirweapons,filedpasthisbed.Onthisday,

companionsofPythoandSeleucusweresenttotheTempleofSerapistoaskiftheyshouldbringAlexanderthere;thegodrepliedthattheyshouldleavehimwherehewas.Onthe28thday,towardsevening,hedied.

77

Mostofthisisword-for-wordasitiswritteninthecourtjournals.AtthetimeofAlexander’sdeath,noonehadanysuspicionofpoison,but it is reported that fiveyears laterOlympias,after receiving information,putanumberofmentodeathandscatteredtheashesofIolas,onthegroundsthathehadadministeredthepoison.ThosewhoclaimthatAristotleadvisedAntipatertoarrangeAlexander’sdeathandthatthepoisonwasprovidedentirelythroughhiseffortsprovideasproofofthisacertainHagnothemis,whoclaimedtohavehearditfromKingAntigonus;accordingtothisstory,thedrugwasicycoldwaterfromaparticularcliffinNonacris,whichwasgathereduplikealightdewandcarriedinanass’hoof;noothercontainerwouldholdthewater,butitwouldcutthroughthembecauseofitscoldnessandpungency.Themajorityofhistoriansconsiderthisstoryaboutthepoisontobecompletelymadeup;strongsupport for theirview isgivenby the fact thatduring thestrongdisagreementsbetween thecommandersovermanydaysafterAlexander’sdeathhisbodylayunattendedinastiflinghotplace,andshowednosignofsuchadrug,butremainedpureandundefiled.RoxannehappentobepregnantatthistimeandwashonouredbytheMacedoniansbecauseofthis.ShewasjealousofStateiraanddeceivedherthroughalettersheforged;whenStateiracametowhereRoxannewaswaitingforher,shekilledbothherandhersisterandthrewthedeadbodies intoawell;Perdiccasknewwhatshewasdoingandhelped her. Perdiccas held the greatest authority in the immediate aftermath of Alexander’s death, and tookArrhidaeusaroundwithhimasa tokenof the royalpower;hewasAlexander’sbrother, thoughhismotherwasacommonwomanofnoreputation,andhewaslackinginintelligencebecauseofadiseasewhichafflictedhim;thisdidnotaffecthim throughnatureorof itsownaccord,as it is reported thatwhenhewasa childhedisplayedapleasingandanoblecharacter.LaterhewasruinedbydrugsgiventohimbyOlympiaswhichruinedhismind.Keylearning:

• PlutarchshowsthatbeforeAlexander’sdeaththerewereagreatnumberofomensandsigns.• Alexanderbecameincreasinglysuspiciousandfearful.• AlexanderwasespeciallyconcernedthatAntipaterandhissonsmighttrytoharmhim.• Plutarchusedtheofficial‘courtjournals’todescribehowAlexanderdied.Plutarchdidnot

believethatAlexanderhadbeenpoisoned.Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander7.24–2624

Alexander’sowndeathwasalreadynear.Aristobulusclaimsthatthefollowingincidentwasaportentofwhatwastocome. Alexander was allocating to the Macedonian squadrons the forces who had arrived with Peucestas fromPersiaandfromtheoceanwithPhiloxenusandMenander;hewasthirstyandwentawayfromhisseat,leavingtheroyalthroneempty.Therewerecouchesoneithersideofthethronewhichhiscompanionsweresittingon.Thensomeoneofnoimportance(somesayaprisonerunderarrestbutunbound)sawthatthethroneandcoucheswereempty, with eunuchs standing around the throne; the companions stood upwith the king as he left; the fellowpassed through the eunuchs,went up to the throne and sat down. The eunuchs did not remove him from thethronebecauseof a Persian custom,but they tore their clothes andbeat their breasts and faces as if somethingterriblehadoccurred.WhenthiswasreportedtoAlexander,heorderedthemanwhohadsatonthethronetobetorturedontherack,ashewantedtofindoutifhehaddonethisincollusionwithothersaspartofaplot.Allhesaidwasthatithadcomeintohismindtodothis;becauseofthis,theseerswereallthemorepreparedtosaythatthisdid not bodewell for Alexander. Soon after this, Alexanderwasmaking his usual sacrifices to the gods for goodfortuneandsomeotherritessuggestedbyprophecy;thenheheldthebanquetwithhisfriendsanddranklateintothe night. It is recorded that he gave the army sacrificial victims and wine, contingent-by-contingent. Somehistorians say thathewanted to leave thedrinkingpartyandgo tohisbed,butMedius,oneof themost trustedcompanionsatthattime,methimandaskedhimtocontinuedrinkingwithhim,forthepartywouldbeanenjoyableone.

25

Thecourtjournalshavethefollowingaccount:hedrankandpartiedwithMedius,thenhegotup,washedandwentto sleep; then thenextdayagainhedinedwithMediusandonceagaindrank far into thenight.Thenhe left thedrinkingboutandwashed,andafterbathing,heatealittleandsleptwherehewas,becausealreadyhewasrunningafever.Thenextdayhewascarriedoutonthecouchtoperformthesacrificesheusuallydideveryday,andwhenhehaddonethat,helaydowninthemen’squartersuntildark.Thenhegaveinstructionstohiscommandersaboutthejourneyandthevoyage;theinfantryweretogetreadytodepartafterthreedays,whilethosewhoweresailingwithhimhadtobereadyafterfour.Fromtherehewascarriedonhiscouchtotheriver,andhesailedacrosstheriveronaboattoagarden,andtherehebathedagainandrested.Thenextday,hebathedagainandsacrificedasusual;hewenttohiscoveredbed,andlaydowntalkingwithMedius.Hetoldhisofficerstomeethimatdawn.Whenhe had done this, he ate a little and was again carried to his covered bed and was in a fever the whole nightcontinuously. Thenextdayhebathed, andafterbathing, he sacrificed.He gave instructions toNearchus and theothercommandersabouthowthevoyagewouldbeorganisedintwodays’time.Onthenextdayhewashedagainandmadetheappropriatesacrifices;afterhemadethesacrificeshenolongerhadanyrelieffromhisfever.Butevenso,hesummonedhiscommandersandorderedthemtomakesurethatallwaspreparedforthevoyage.Hewashedintheevening,andafterhewashedhewasalreadyinapoorstate.Onthenextdayhewascarriedouttothe house near the swimming pool, and made the appropriate sacrifices; although he was ill, nevertheless hesummonedthemostimportantoftheofficersandagaingaveinstructionsaboutthevoyage.Onthefollowingday,he was carried out with some difficulty to the sacrifices, and hemade the sacrifices, and still continued to giveinstructionstohiscommandersaboutthevoyage.Thenextdayalthoughhewasinapoorstatehestillperformedtheappropriatesacrifices.Hetoldhisgeneralstowaitinthecourtyard,andotherseniorofficersoutsidethedoors.Hewas now very ill indeed andwas carried from the garden to the palace.When his commanders came in, herecognisedthem,buthesaidnothingmoreandwasspeechless.Heranahighfeverduringthenightandduringthenextday,andthroughthedayandnightthatfollowed.

26

All this can be found written in the court journals, as can the following: his soldiers wanted to see him, somebecausetheywantedtoseehimwhilestillalive,whileothers,becausetherewerereportsthathewasalreadydead,suspected that his death was being kept secret by his bodyguards. The majority were eager to see Alexanderbecauseoftheirgriefandtheirlongingfortheking.Theysaythathewasunabletospeak,asthearmywentpast,buthegreetedeachofthem,raisinghisheadwithdifficultyandmakingeyecontactwiththem.ThecourtjournalssaythatPithon,Attalus,DemophonandPeucestas,togetherwithCleomenes,MenidasandSeleucusspentthenightintheTempleofSarapis,toaskthegodwhetheritwouldbemoreagreeableandbetterforAlexandertobebroughttothesanctuaryofthegodandtoaskforhelpandtobecaredforbythegod.Theanswerreturnedbythegodwasthat he should not be brought into the sanctuary, but it would be better for him to stay where he was. Thecompanionsannouncedthisreply,andsoonafterwardsAlexanderdied,asthis,afterall,wasnowwhatwas‘better’.AristobulusandPtolemyhavewrittennomorethanthis.Somehistorianshavealsorecordedthathiscompanionsaskedhimtowhomhelefthiskingdom,andhereplied,“Tothebestman”;otherssaythatinadditionhesaidthattherewouldbegreatfuneralgamesoverhisdeadbody.Keylearning:

• ArriandescribeshowAlexanderwasstruckdownwithafeverafteradrinkingparty.• Despitebeingseriouslyill,Alexandercontinuedplanninghisnextcampaignandfulfilledhis

religiousduties.• TheMacedoniansoldiersweredesperatetoseeAlexanderonelasttime.

Arrian,AnabasisofAlexander7.28–3028Alexanderdied in the114thOlympiad,whenHegesiaswasarchon inAthens.ByAristobulus’ reckoning,hewas32years 8months old.Hewas King ofMacedonia for 12 years and 8months.Hewas a very handsomeman,mostcapableofhardwork,verykeen in judgement;hewasoutstanding inbravery,andhis loveofhonourand inhiscapacityforrisk,andhewasmostattentivetoreligiousmatters.Heshowedgreatself-controloverthepleasuresof

thebody, and as for thepleasures of themind, hewas insatiableonly for glory.Hewas very quick to seewhatneededtobedone insituationsthatwerestilluncertain,andhewasverysuccessful in judgingwhatwas likelytohappenfromthefactsavailabletohim.Hewasveryexperiencedinorganising,armingandequippinghistroops,andhewasoutstanding in raising thespiritsofhis troops,and filling themwithconfidentexpectation,anddispellingtheirterrorindangerouscircumstancesthroughhisownlackoffear.Whenitwasclearwhatneededtobedone,hedid it with the greatest boldness, and whenever he had to secure an objective before any of the enemy evensuspected what would happen, he was very skilful at taking the initiative and acting first. Arrangements oragreementsmadewithhimwereabsolutelysecure,andhewasverysuccessfulatavoidingthetricksofthosewhotried to deceive him.Hemade very little use ofmoney for his ownpleasure, butnever held backwhenhelpinganyoneelse.

Keylearning:• InthisextractArriandiscussesallofAlexander’spositiveattributes.

29IfAlexandermademistakes throughhasteoranger,or ifhewas ledon toact inabarbarianand ratherarrogantmanner,formypart, Idonotconsidertheseseriousfaults, ifoneconsidersreasonablyAlexander’syouthandhiscontinualsuccessandthenatureofsuchmenasassociate,andwillalwaysassociate,withkingstopleasethem,notforthebestofmotives,butforevil.Iknowthattheremorseheshowedwhenhehaddonewrongbecauseofthenobilityofhisnaturewasunparalleledamongstthekingsofold.Themajorityofmen,eveniftheyacknowledgethattheyhavedonewrong,thinktheycanhidetheirmistakebymakingoutthatwhattheydidwaswelldone;butinthistheyaremistaken. Inmyopinion,theonlyremedyforwrongdoingistoagreethatonehasdonewrongandtobeclearlyrepentantforit;thesufferingsofthosewhohavebeenharmedwouldnotseemsobad,ifthemanwhohasharmedthemadmitsthathehasnotactedwell,andforthewrongdoeralsothereissomereasonableexpectationforthefuturethathewillnotbehavebadly inasimilarwayagain, ifhehasshownremorseforwhathehasdonewronginthepast.ThatAlexanderkeptclaimingdivineoriginforhimselfdoesnotseemtomeaseriousfault,andperhapsitwasadevicedirectedathissubjectstogaingreaterrespect.Alexanderdoesnotseemtometobealessdistinguished king than Minos or Aeacus or Rhadamanthys, whose birth was attributed to Zeus by men of oldwithoutanyinsolence;sotoowithTheseus,sonofPoseidonandIon,sonofApollo.AsforAlexander’sadoptionofPersian dress, this seems to me a device aimed at the barbarians to make sure that the king did not appearcompletelyforeigntothem,andalsoattheMacedonians,togivehimsomerelieffromMacedoniansharpnessandinsolence.Forthesamereasoninfact,inmyopinion,hemixedthecreamofthePersianforcesintohisMacedonianbattalions,and thePersiannobleman intohisbestdivisions.AsAristobulussays,hisdrinkingboutswerenot longbecauseofthewine,asAlexanderdranklittlewine,butbecauseofhisfriendshipwithhiscompanions.

30If any writer wants to reproach Alexander, he should not do so by bringing together all those actions of his heconsiders reproachable, but rather he should review everything that Alexander did altogether, and then let himconsiderwhatsortofamanheishimself,andwhatsortofsuccesshehasachieved,beforehereproachesamanlikeAlexander who reached the peak of human success, undisputed king of both continents, whose name reachedeverycorneroftheworld;sincethewriter ishimselfameanerpersonwhohaspursuedtrivialgoalsandnotevenachievedthese.Inmyopinion,therewasnoraceofmen,nocityinthosetimes,notevenasinglemanthenameofAlexanderhadnotreached.SoIdonotbelievethatamanwithoutequalinalltheworldwouldhavebeenbornwithout the involvementof thegods.Oracles are said tohave shown this at the timeofAlexander’s death, andvisionsanddreamscametodifferentpeople;sotoothehonourpaidtoAlexanderbymenuptothepresentdayandthe greater than humanmemory of him; even now after somany years further oracles in his honour have beengrantedtotheMacedonianpeople.IhavemyselfcriticisedinthishistorysomeofAlexander’sactions,butI’mnotashamedofmyadmirationofAlexanderhimself.Ihavecriticisedsomeactionsbecauseofthetruthinmyopinion,

andatthesametimetoemphasisethebenefitformen;IstartedonthishistoryforthatreasonandIalsohavebeenhelpedbygod.

Keylearning:• ArrianrefutesthemajorcriticismsoftenusedagainstAlexander.

1. Alexander’sarrogance:Alexanderwasyoung,successfulandsurroundedbyflatterers.2. Alexanderkilledhisfriends-healwaysshowedremorseandwastrulysorry.3. Alexanderclaimedtobedivine-otherhistoricalfigureshaddonethisbeforehimanditwasa

tricksohissubjectswouldrespecthim.4. AlexanderadoptedPersiancustoms–hedidthissothatthePersianswouldnotviewhimasa

foreigner

This Source Bookwas created by PeterWright of Blackpool Sixth as part of the Classics for All AncientHistoryGCSEResourceProject.