Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, P.O. Box 141, GR – 57400 , GREECE

11

EMISSION OF URBAN EMISSION OF URBAN TRANSPORTTRANSPORT

JOHN TRIANDAFYLLISJOHN TRIANDAFYLLISPROFESSORPROFESSOR

IP: ENERGY EFFICIENT AND ECOLOGICAL URBAN TRANSPORT OF IP: ENERGY EFFICIENT AND ECOLOGICAL URBAN TRANSPORT OF THE FUTURETHE FUTURE

3-16 April 2011 3-16 April 2011

Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki,Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, P.O. Box 141, GR – 57400P.O. Box 141, GR – 57400, GREECE, GREECE

e-mail: e-mail: [email protected]@vt.teithe.gr

Alexander Technological Institute Alexander Technological Institute of Thessalonikiof Thessaloniki

22

EMISSION SOURCESEMISSION SOURCES

Emission from urban transport occurs while the Emission from urban transport occurs while the automobile or train or lawnmower or recreational automobile or train or lawnmower or recreational boat or motorcycleboat or motorcycle

1.1. is moving through the traffic [from Combustion products]is moving through the traffic [from Combustion products]2.2. is stationary (parked) [through fuel evaporation and fuel is stationary (parked) [through fuel evaporation and fuel

leaks]leaks] Emission from the inside environment of the vehicleEmission from the inside environment of the vehicle Emission in the city air/ground/water from fuel leaks Emission in the city air/ground/water from fuel leaks

from the fuel storage tanks. from the fuel storage tanks. Emission in the work environment Emission in the work environment

1.1. Related to occupation (traffic police, license examiners, Related to occupation (traffic police, license examiners, operators of heavy equipment, bus drivers, train personnel)operators of heavy equipment, bus drivers, train personnel)

2.2. Related to work area (garages, fuel stations)Related to work area (garages, fuel stations)


33

Emission productsEmission products

Regulated Combustion productsRegulated Combustion productsCO, HC, NOCO, HC, NOxx , Particulate Matter , Particulate Matter

Unregulated Combustion ProductsUnregulated Combustion ProductsCOCO2 2 , O, O33 , PAH, BTEX , PAH, BTEX

Noise [it is not a combustion product but Noise [it is not a combustion product but occurs during combustion]occurs during combustion]

EMISSION STANDARDSEMISSION STANDARDS


44


55


66

CO EMISSION STANDARDCO EMISSION STANDARD


77

HC EMISSION STANDARDHC EMISSION STANDARD


88

PM EMISSION STANDARD PM EMISSION STANDARD


99

CO EMISSION CO EMISSION

A product of incomplete combustion, A product of incomplete combustion, especially in cold weather.especially in cold weather.

In urban areas, the motor vehicle In urban areas, the motor vehicle contribution to CO pollution is over 90%.contribution to CO pollution is over 90%.

It is colorless, odorless and poisonous. It It is colorless, odorless and poisonous. It enters the bloodstream through the lungs enters the bloodstream through the lungs and inhibits the blood’s capacity to carry and inhibits the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen to organs and tissues.oxygen to organs and tissues.


1010



1111

CO EMISSION BY SOURCECO EMISSION BY SOURCE


1212

CO EMISSION BY SOURCECO EMISSION BY SOURCE

On-road mobileOn-road mobile Non-road Non-road mobilemobile


1313


To reduce it:To reduce it: Annual maintenance inspections.Annual maintenance inspections. On-board warning devices about the car’s On-board warning devices about the car’s

emission control systems.emission control systems. Oxygenated fuel during the winter months.Oxygenated fuel during the winter months.


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HC EMISSION HC EMISSION

A product of incomplete combustion and A product of incomplete combustion and fuel evaporation.fuel evaporation.

A key component of smog, ground-level A key component of smog, ground-level ozone is formed by reactions of HC and ozone is formed by reactions of HC and NONOxx in the presence of sunlight. in the presence of sunlight.

Some HC are considered toxic, causing Some HC are considered toxic, causing cancer.cancer.


1515

HC EMISSION BY SOURCEHC EMISSION BY SOURCE


1616

HC EMISSION BY SOURCEHC EMISSION BY SOURCE



1717

NONOXX EMISSION EMISSION

It is produced when fuel burns at high It is produced when fuel burns at high temperatures.temperatures.

A key component of smog, ground-level ozone A key component of smog, ground-level ozone is formed by reactions of HC and NOis formed by reactions of HC and NOxx in the in the

presence of sunlight. presence of sunlight. They can travel long distances from their They can travel long distances from their

sources.sources. They contribute to the formation of PM through They contribute to the formation of PM through

chemical reactions in the atmosphere.chemical reactions in the atmosphere.Alexander Technological Institute Alexander Technological Institute

of Thessalonikiof Thessaloniki1818

NONOXX EMISSION BY EMISSION BY SOURCESOURCE


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NONOXX EMISSION BY EMISSION BY SOURCESOURCE



2020

PM EMISSION PM EMISSION

Both on-road and non-road mobile sources emit fine Both on-road and non-road mobile sources emit fine particulate matter. particulate matter.

Diesel-powered vehicles and engines contribute more Diesel-powered vehicles and engines contribute more than half the mobile source particulate emissions.than half the mobile source particulate emissions.

They can travel long distances from their sources.They can travel long distances from their sources. Health effects include asthma, difficult or painful Health effects include asthma, difficult or painful

breathing, and chronic bronchitis, especially in children breathing, and chronic bronchitis, especially in children and the elderly. Fine particulate matter associated with and the elderly. Fine particulate matter associated with diesel exhaust is also thought to cause lung cancer.diesel exhaust is also thought to cause lung cancer.


2121

PM EMISSION BY SOURCEPM EMISSION BY SOURCE


2222

PM EMISSION BY SOURCEPM EMISSION BY SOURCE



2323

PM EMISSIONPM EMISSION

There are primary PMThere are primary PM1010 particles emitted particles emitted

directly in the atmosphere and there are directly in the atmosphere and there are secondary PMsecondary PM10 10 particles which are formed as particles which are formed as

a result of photochemical reactions from NOa result of photochemical reactions from NOxx, ,

SOSO22 and NH and NH33. .

In 2007 transport accounted for 30% of PM in In 2007 transport accounted for 30% of PM in Europe. Europe.

There has been in transport a decrease of PM There has been in transport a decrease of PM by 38% from 1990 to 2007.by 38% from 1990 to 2007.


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2727

UNREGULATED EMISSIONSUNREGULATED EMISSIONS CO CO22

All nations are COAll nations are CO22 polluters; some more, polluters; some more,

some less.some less. It is interesting to know that the worst It is interesting to know that the worst

polluters in COpolluters in CO22 quantities do not have quantities do not have

the greatest number of citizens.the greatest number of citizens.


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COCO22 per capita per capita

Rank Countries

Amount of CO2

(thousand metric tonnes of carbon dioxide per 1,000 people)

#1 Qatar 40.6735

#2 United Arab Emirates

28.213

#3 Kuwait 25.0499

#4 Bahrain 20.0253

#5 United States 19.4839

#6 Luxembourg 17.977

#7 Trinidad and Tobago

16.8278

#8 Australia 16.5444

#9 Canada 15.8941

#10 Singapore 13.8137

#27 Greece 8.63801

#80 China 2.65908

Source: World Resources Institute, 2003; as depicted in www.NationMaster.com


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Total COTotal CO2 2 per countryper country

Rank Countries Amount of CO2

(thousand metric tonnes of carbon dioxide)

#1 United States: 5,762,050

#2 China 3,473,600

#3 Russia 1,540,360

#4 Japan 1,224,740

#5 India 1,007,980

#6 Germany 837,425

#7 United Kingdom

558,225

#8 Canada 521,404

#9 Italy 446,596

#10 Mexico 385,075

#27 Greece 92,150.3

Source: World Resources Institute, 2003; as depicted in www.NationMaster.com


Cars account for 20% of total European COCars account for 20% of total European CO22

emission.emission. The 1995 goal was set to 120g/km of COThe 1995 goal was set to 120g/km of CO22

emission by 2012. This corresponds to 4,5 emission by 2012. This corresponds to 4,5 lt/100 km for diesel cars and 5 lt/100 km for lt/100 km for diesel cars and 5 lt/100 km for petrol cars.petrol cars.

In December 2007 the goal was set to a new In December 2007 the goal was set to a new car fleet average of 130g/km by 2012. car fleet average of 130g/km by 2012.

Alexander Technological Institute Alexander Technological Institute

of Thessalonikiof Thessaloniki3232


Limit value curve:Limit value curve: The limit value curve implies that heavier The limit value curve implies that heavier

cars are allowed higher emissions than cars are allowed higher emissions than lighter cars while preserving the overall fleet lighter cars while preserving the overall fleet average.average.

Manufacturers will be given a target based Manufacturers will be given a target based on the sales-weighted average mass of their on the sales-weighted average mass of their vehicles.vehicles.


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Final deal in December 2008:Final deal in December 2008: Phasing-in of requirements: in 2012 65% of each Phasing-in of requirements: in 2012 65% of each

manufacturer's new cars must comply on average with the manufacturer's new cars must comply on average with the value of 120g/km. This will rise to 75% in 2013, 80% in 2014, value of 120g/km. This will rise to 75% in 2013, 80% in 2014, and 100% in 2015. and 100% in 2015.

The goal of 130g/km will be achieved by better tires or use of The goal of 130g/km will be achieved by better tires or use of biofuels.biofuels.

Long-term target: a target of 95g/km is specified for the year Long-term target: a target of 95g/km is specified for the year 2020. The modalities for reaching this target and the aspects 2020. The modalities for reaching this target and the aspects of its implementation will have to be defined in a review to be of its implementation will have to be defined in a review to be completed no later than the beginning of 2013.completed no later than the beginning of 2013.


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UNREGULATED EMISSIONS UNREGULATED EMISSIONS Ozone - OOzone - O33

Ozone in the upper atmosphere occurs Ozone in the upper atmosphere occurs naturally and protects life on earth by filtering naturally and protects life on earth by filtering ultraviolet radiation from the sun.ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Ozone at ground level is a noxious pollutant. It Ozone at ground level is a noxious pollutant. It is the major component of smog.is the major component of smog.

It is responsible for the choking, coughing, and It is responsible for the choking, coughing, and stinging eyes associated with smog.stinging eyes associated with smog.

It causes respiratory diseases. It causes respiratory diseases. It inhibits plant growth.It inhibits plant growth.


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Ozone is formed in the atmosphere Ozone is formed in the atmosphere through a complex set of chemical through a complex set of chemical reactions involving sunlight and ozone reactions involving sunlight and ozone precursors (HC, NOprecursors (HC, NOxx, CH, CH44 and NMVOC). and NMVOC).

Very high levels of OVery high levels of O33 occur on hot occur on hot

summer days.summer days.


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Ozone levels can be reduced by:Ozone levels can be reduced by: Improved emission control systems in cars.Improved emission control systems in cars. Use of lower volatility gasoline.Use of lower volatility gasoline. Improved annual state inspections of cars. Improved annual state inspections of cars.

Problem: few very “dirty cars”.Problem: few very “dirty cars”. Reduce driving.Reduce driving.


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UNREGULATED UNREGULATED EMISSIONS - PAHEMISSIONS - PAH

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are potent pollutants and occur in oil, coal potent pollutants and occur in oil, coal and tar deposits, and are produced as and tar deposits, and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning (fossil fuel or byproducts of fuel burning (fossil fuel or biomass). Also, they are found in cooked biomass). Also, they are found in cooked foods (barbecuing meat or smoked fish).foods (barbecuing meat or smoked fish).

Some are carcinogenic, mutagenic and Some are carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic.teratogenic.


4444


Because of their affinity to mix with oil as Because of their affinity to mix with oil as opposed to water, they are found opposed to water, they are found primarily in soil and sediment and not in primarily in soil and sediment and not in water or air. However, they may be part water or air. However, they may be part of suspended PM in air.of suspended PM in air.

They are also formed by incomplete They are also formed by incomplete combustion of wood, coal, diesel, fat, combustion of wood, coal, diesel, fat, tobacco and incense.tobacco and incense.


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The most potent carcinogens have been The most potent carcinogens have been shown to be benz[a]anthracene, shown to be benz[a]anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene and dibenz[a,h]anthracene. benzo[a]pyrene and dibenz[a,h]anthracene.

The semi-volatile property of PAHs makes The semi-volatile property of PAHs makes them highly mobile throughout the them highly mobile throughout the environment via deposition and re- environment via deposition and re- volatilisation between air, soil and water volatilisation between air, soil and water bodies. bodies.


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UNREGULATED UNREGULATED EMISSIONS - BTEXEMISSIONS - BTEX

BTEX stands for Benzene, Toluene, BTEX stands for Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylenes. They are Ethylbenzene and Xylenes. They are found in gasoline. found in gasoline.

They affect the central nervous system.They affect the central nervous system. They can contaminate the soil and They can contaminate the soil and

groundwater near fuel storage areas by groundwater near fuel storage areas by leaking.leaking.


4848


BTEX can be emitted to the air when gasoline BTEX can be emitted to the air when gasoline evaporates or passes through the engine as evaporates or passes through the engine as unburned fuel.unburned fuel.

High octane gasoline contains a larger amount High octane gasoline contains a larger amount of BTEX.of BTEX.

Other Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) Other Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) that are products of incomplete combustion:that are products of incomplete combustion: Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, diesel PM and Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, diesel PM and

1,3-butadiene.1,3-butadiene.


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To reduce BTEX emission:To reduce BTEX emission: Lower gasoline volatility.Lower gasoline volatility. Reformulated gasoline.Reformulated gasoline. Lower sulfur content in diesel.Lower sulfur content in diesel. More efficient catalytic converters.More efficient catalytic converters. Annual state inspection of cars.Annual state inspection of cars. Use of alternative fuels:Use of alternative fuels:

Alchohols, natural gas, propane, biofuels, Alchohols, natural gas, propane, biofuels, electricity. electricity.


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5151

CAR EXHAUST CAR EXHAUST MEASUREMENTSMEASUREMENTS

A number of central locations were chosen in A number of central locations were chosen in Thessaloniki where cars were randomly stopped with Thessaloniki where cars were randomly stopped with the help of a traffic police officer to undergo a the help of a traffic police officer to undergo a tailpipe gas analysis test at idle and at 2000 RPM.tailpipe gas analysis test at idle and at 2000 RPM.

A portable gas analyzer has been used enabling the A portable gas analyzer has been used enabling the measurements of CO, HC, COmeasurements of CO, HC, CO2 2 and Oand O22 concentrations, concentrations, as well as the as well as the λλ ratio value. The tests have been ratio value. The tests have been spread daily to cover the time period 08:00 to 20:00 spread daily to cover the time period 08:00 to 20:00 in a uniform manner in all locations selected. in a uniform manner in all locations selected.

In Fall, Winter, Spring and Summer, measurements In Fall, Winter, Spring and Summer, measurements were taken in each season for 15 consecutive days.were taken in each season for 15 consecutive days.


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CAR EXHAUST MEASUREMENTSCAR EXHAUST MEASUREMENTSRESULTSRESULTS

VEHICLE CATEGORY

VALIDMEASUREMENTS

EXCESSIVEHC

AT IDLE

EXCESSIVE HC

AT 2500 RPM

EXCESSIVE CO

AT IDLE

EXCESSIVECO

AT 2500 RPM

Α

217 (100%) 30 (13.8%) 25 (11.5%) 37 (17.1%) 41 (18.8%)

Β

345 (100%) 24 (6.9%) 54 (15.6%) 62 (17.9%) 62 (17.9%)

C

4415 (100%) 795 (18.1%) 1012 (22.9%) 283 (6.4%) 553 (12.5%)

VEHICLE CATEGORY A cars older than 1/10/86 – non catalyticVEHICLE CATEGORY B cars after 1/10/86 – non catalyticVEHICLE CATEGORY C cars fitted with a 3-way catalyst

Table 2. Number and percentage (in parentheses) of cars exceeding legal emission levels


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CAR EXHAUST MEASUREMENTSCAR EXHAUST MEASUREMENTSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

More More non-catalyticnon-catalytic cars do not conform with the CO limits as cars do not conform with the CO limits as compared to the catalytic ones - see Table 2.compared to the catalytic ones - see Table 2.

More More catalyticcatalytic cars do not conform with the HC limits as cars do not conform with the HC limits as compared to the non-catalytic ones - see Table 2.compared to the non-catalytic ones - see Table 2.

A small number of gross polluting cars are responsible for most A small number of gross polluting cars are responsible for most of the tailpipe emissions. of the tailpipe emissions.

In every 40 catalytic cars there is one that emits CO as much as In every 40 catalytic cars there is one that emits CO as much as the 39 cars together. In every 6 non-catalytic cars there is one the 39 cars together. In every 6 non-catalytic cars there is one that emits CO as much as the five cars together.that emits CO as much as the five cars together.


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BTEX MEASUREMENTSBTEX MEASUREMENTS

BTEX (Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and XylenesXylenes) measurements were made using passive samples for a continuous period of seven days, three times in 2005 and 2006.

Measurements were made to measure air quality in the streets of Thessaloniki. The passive filters were placed 2,5-3 meters above the ground.

Passive filters were also placed inside several private cars to measure the air quality inside these cars.


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BTEX RESULTSBTEX RESULTS20052005

Sindos Lagada Street

Egnatia/ Aristotelous

Papanastasiou/ Nea Egnatia

Nomarchia Building

Tsimiski/Gounari

Benzene 2.1 8.0 4.9 10.3 5.3 8.1

Toluene 8.3 27.4 17.1 36.5 17.4 29.3

Ethylbenzene 1.5 5.4 3.3 7.2 3.4 6.0

m/p-Xylene 4.5 17.1 10.2 22.5 10.7 18.8

o-Xylene 1.3 5.9 3.6 8.0 3.8 6.6

Alpha-Pinene <DL 0.4 <DL <DL 2.3 <DL

1,2,4-TMB 2.3 8.2 5.1 11.1 5.0 9.1

D-Limonene <DL <DL <DL <DL <DL <DL

Table 6: BTEX in atmospheric air at different streets in Thessaloniki in June 2005

DL= Detection Limit


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Car 1Karagiannis

Car 2Prassas

Car 3 Triandafyllis

Car 4Grammatikis I

Car 5Grammatikis II

Office Triandafyllis

Benzene 18.7 31.6 42.1 11.8 30.1 12.9

Toluene 63.3 84.1 203.1 76.1 171.3 74.3

Ethylbenzene

33.7 11.2 26.3 25.8 90.4 20.2

m/p-Xylene 14.4 35.3 74.8 67.8 235.8 53.2

o-Xylene 16.6 12.2 27.5 13.0 37.8 18.3

Alpha-Pinene

<DL 7.1 <DL 3.3 0.6 3.4

1,2,4-TMB 71.6 12.2 33.9 14.6 34.5 45.4

D-Limonene

14.5 0.9 <DL 6.7 0.8 <DL

Table 7: Measurements of BTEX inside private cars in June 2005


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Sindos Nomarchia Str. Karamanlis

(former Nea Egnatia)

Hexane 1.7 2.0 3.6

Benzene 2.8 4.7 10.3

1-Butanol 0.5 0.8 1.9

Toluene 10.1 17.1 36.2

Ethylbenzene 1.9 3.2 7.0

m/p-Xylene 6.1 11.2 24.7

o-Xylene 1.6 3.5 7.8

alpha-Pinene < DL < DL < DL

1,2,4-TMB 2.5 5.4 11.2

D-Limonene < DL 0.5 < DL

Table 10: BTEX in atmospheric air at different streets in Thessaloniki (June 2006)


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Aristotelous Square Tsimiski Str.

Hexane 2.1 3.2

Benzene 4.4 8.6

1-Butanol 0.8 1.5

Toluene 16.5 31.1

Ethylbenzene 2.9 5.8

m/p-Xylene 10.1 20.5

o-Xylene 3.1 6.4

alpha-Pinene < DL < DL

1,2,4-TMB 4.9 9.4

D-Limonene 0.5 < DL

Table 10: BTEX in atmospheric air at different streets in Thessaloniki (June 2006)


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Car 1 – Karagiannis

D.

Car 2 – Karagianni

M.

Car 3 – Gogos Car 4 – Christidis

Hexane 16.2 2.8 4.1 44.4

Benzene 38.8 6.5 11.5 73.4

1-Butanol 4.2 1.0 1.0 6.2

Toluene 135.6 31.5 52.0 280.5

Ethylbenzene 21.9 5.5 7.1 37.0

m/p-Xylene 77.5 19.5 26.9 147.1

o-Xylene 24.4 6.0 7.9 39.0

Alpha-Pinene < DL < DL 1.1 3.6

1,2,4-TMB 28.2 11.2 10.7 44.6

D-Limonene 3.9 1.2 5.1 8.9

Table 11: Measurements of BTEX inside private cars (June 2006)


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Car 5 – Raouzaios

Car 6 – Chatzigeorgiou

Car 7 – Gidaris

Office Triandafyllis

Hexane 6.1 15.4 19.4 45.0

Benzene 16.7 37.4 33.2 61.5

1-Butanol 1.6 4.6 8.7 18.4

Toluene 69.5 228.3 95.6 292.2

Ethylbenzene 10.1 32.5 14.8 65.7

m/p-Xylene 33.3 130.0 45.9 195.1

o-Xylene 9.3 35.8 14.2 61.7

Alpha-Pinene 1.1 < DL 1.4 < DL

1,2,4-TMB 12.5 40.4 14.0 147.1

D-Limonene 2.6 3.3 9.7 < DL

Table 11: Measurements of BTEX inside private cars (June 2006)


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BTEX MEASUREMENTSBTEX MEASUREMENTSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

Benzene concentrations in the various Benzene concentrations in the various streets ranged from 2 – 10,3 streets ranged from 2 – 10,3 μμg/mg/m33 (June (June 2005 and June 2006). In many locations the 2005 and June 2006). In many locations the levels of benzene exceeded the established levels of benzene exceeded the established limit value (5 limit value (5 μμg/mg/m33 annual mean) set by the annual mean) set by the European Commission to be met by 2010.European Commission to be met by 2010.

The ratio toluene/benzene was very similar The ratio toluene/benzene was very similar in all locations (between 3 and 3,9) which in all locations (between 3 and 3,9) which indicated traffic emissions as the main indicated traffic emissions as the main source.source.


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BTEX MEASUREMENTSBTEX MEASUREMENTSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

Very high concentrations of air pollutants were Very high concentrations of air pollutants were measured inside of almost all the private cars. In measured inside of almost all the private cars. In particular, fuel originated compounds (aromatic, particular, fuel originated compounds (aromatic, aliphatic compounds) were present in high aliphatic compounds) were present in high concentrations which can hardly be connected concentrations which can hardly be connected with the overall traffic emissions. This indicated with the overall traffic emissions. This indicated strong pollutant sources inside the cars (fuel leaks, strong pollutant sources inside the cars (fuel leaks, smoking). smoking).

Exposure to multiple air pollutants in Exposure to multiple air pollutants in concentrations as they have been measured in concentrations as they have been measured in some cars might constitute a health risk for the car some cars might constitute a health risk for the car owners. owners.


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Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, P.O. Box 141, GR – 57400 , GREECE

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