Workbook/Note-Guide to accompany

Sandra Y. Etheridge, Ph.D.

Workbook/Note-Guide

to accompany

General, Organic, Biochemistry (a brief survey)

Videos and Downloads

Sandra Y. Etheridge, Ph.D.

All rights reserved. No part of this workbook/note-guide may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from Dr. Sandra Etheridge. Chemistry Professor is a trademark of Sandra Y. Etheridge

© 2011, Chemistry Professor Youngstown, Florida, 32466

Table of Contents

Unit Page 1. The Language of Chemistry 1 Terms 1

Matter and Energy 2 Measurements 5 Significant Figures 9 Problem Solving 12 Temperature 13 Quick Questions 1 14

2. The Nuclear Atom 13 Atomic Theory 13 Isotopes 15 Periodic Table 17 The Mole 21 Radioactivity 23 Quick Questions 2 27 3. Compounds 29 Electron Locations 29 Why Ions? 34

Covalent Compounds 38 Naming Compounds 40 Molecular Weights 45 Quick Questions 3 47 4. States of Matter 48 Changing States 48

Energy in Reactions 52 Gases 53 Liquids 57 Solids 59 Quick Questions 4 61

v

5. Reactions 63 Characteristics of Reactions 63 Equations 64 Balancing Equations 64 Types of Reactions 65 Quantities in Equations 67 Limiting Reagents 68 Quick Questions 5 69 6. Solutions 71 Terms 71 Properties of Solutions 72 Concentration 75 Colligative Properties 77 Dilution of Solutions 78 Electrolytes 80 Quick Questions 6 82 7. Weak Electrolytes 85 Strong and Weak Acids 85 The Meaning of pH 86 The Role of Water 89 Buffers 90 Applications to Physiological Systems 92 Quick Questions 93 8. Saturated Hydrocarbons 96 Basics of Structure 96 The Alkanes 98 Nomenclature 99 Properties and Reactions 103 Cycloalkanes 104 Classifying Carbons 106 Quick Questions 108 9. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 110 Alkenes 110 Alkynes 116 Aromatics 118 Quick Questions 122

vi

10. Alcohols, Phenols, Thiols, & Ethers 124 Alcohols 178 Phenols 179 The Role of Carbon 186 Valence Bond Theory 187 Molecular Orbital Theory 192 Quick Quiz 201 11. Oxidation-Reduction 203 (Lessons 40 – 42)

Definitions 204 Oxidation Numbers 205 The Half-Cell Method 206 The Oxidation Number Method 209 Stoichiometry 210 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 211 Quick Quiz 215 Appendix

vii

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Terms Matter and Energy Measurements Significant Figures Problem Solving Temperature

Fill this in Hypothesis Theory Law Inorganic Compounds Organic Compounds

~ 1 ~

Matter What is matter? What are the States of Matter? Describe each of the states of matter: Solid Liquid Gas Can everything be classified as one of these three states? ___________ What is meant by “amorphous solids”?

Physical and Chemical Changes: Physical Changes:

Describe physical changes and give examples.

What is sublimation?

~ 2 ~

Chemical Changes: Describe chemical changes and give examples

Physical and Chemical Properties:

Physical Properties: Describe these and give some examples:

Chemical Properties: Describe these and give some examples:

Energy Define Energy:

Name and describe two forms of energy:

~ 3 ~

Can energy be changed from one form to another? _______ If “yes” give examples. If “no” explain why not:

What are some units of energy?

English

Length: Weight Volume

How many inches are in 2.86 yards?

How many tsp are in 2.9 pints?

~ 4 ~

Metric

Length: How long is a meter? (Mass) Weight How big is a gram? Volume

How big is a liter?

Prefixes of the Metric System: Length Mass Volume Money

1000

meter gram liter dollar

1/10 1/100 1/1000

How many cm are in 0.0023 km?

~ 5 ~

Conversions you need to know: Write these down

Scientific Notation Convert 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 to scientific notation What sign was used on the exponent? _____ Why? Convert 0.00000562 to scientific notation _____________ What sign was used on the exponent? _____ Why?

How many lbs are in 86 kg?

~ 6 ~

Convert these to scientific notation: 0.00763 0.000064 240000 700000 0.000394

What is accuracy precision Which is better?

~ 7 ~

Rules for Significant Figures: (write these down) What is meant by the term “absolute equalities”? Application to problems Multiplication and Division: The answer should have the same number of significant figures as example: 6.32 x 5.1 Addition and Subtraction: The answer should have the same number of decimal places as example: 6.32 5.1 + 22 =

~ 8 ~

Rounding off (Give the rules) Try these: Round 794.55 to 4 places __________________ Round 3495 to 2 places __________________ Round 3495 to 3 places __________________

~ 9 ~

(List the steps) Rework this problem and give the answer with the correct number of significant figures:

How many lbs are in 86 kg?

How many grams are in 1.05 oz?

~ 10 ~

What is temperature? The temperature scales: Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin water boils ________ ________ _______ water freezes ________ ________ _______ Therefore, 1 unit C = ___________ and K = __________________ 100 units C = __________ and oF = _________________

What is heat? What are the units of heat?

Convert 39.0oC to oF.

~ 11 ~

Quick Questions: Try these without looking at your notes. Answers are in the back of this noteguide. I. Multiple Choice _____ 1. Normal body temperature of 98.6 oF expressed in oC will be: a. 25 oC b. 37 oC c. 93.6 oC d. 100 oC _____ 2. A cantaloupe weighs 1.8 kg. What is its weight in pounds? a. ¼ lb b. 0.82 lb c. 4 lbs d. 112 lbs _____ 3. How many significant figures are in 21.400 g? a. 5 b. 4 c. 3 d. 2 _____ 4. Which two states of matter have constant volume? a. solid and liquid b. gas and liquid c. gas and solid d. all three _____ 5. One cup of coffee is approximately a. 100 mL b. 250 mL c. 500 mL d. 1 liter _____ 6. A computer's specifications indicate it should never operate above 125oF. What is this temperature on the Kelvin scale? a. 325K b. 360K c. 398K d. 498K II. Discussion What is the difference between heat and temperature?

~ 12 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Atomic theory Isotopes The Periodic Table The Mole Radioactive Elements

A Brief History What evidence do we have of the existence of atoms? Briefly describe the contributions of Democritus: What were the contributions of John Dalton?

~ 13 ~

Common Elements and their Symbols: Calcium Carbon Chlorine Copper Gold Helium Hydrogen Iodine Iron Lead Lithium Magnesium Mercury

~ 14 ~

Neon Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Potassium Radon Silver Sodium Sulfur Tin Zinc

Major Components of the Atom List these components and their descriptions Areas of the Atom Sketch the atom and note the locations of the components

~ 15 ~

Atomic Number What is atomic number and what is its importance? Atomic Mass Number What is the atomic mass number and what does it tell us? How can it be used to find the # of neutrons? What are isotopes? Atomic Notation Use magnesium isotopes to show atomic notation and the information it gives. Atomic Mass What is atomic mass?

~ 16 ~

Periodic Law State the Periodic Law

~ 17 ~

Use this periodic table to note the several families and their names: You may find colored pencils helpful.

What are families? How many families are on the table? _________ What are periods? How many periods are present on the table? _________ What are the two rows at the bottom of the table?

~ 18 ~

~ 19 ~

Kinds of Elements Describe the three kinds of elements and their position on the periodic table.

~ 20 ~

What is "the mole"? Why do we need it? Give the mass in grams of 1 mole of each of the following: 1 mole of carbon = _________________________ 1 mole of tin = ____________________________ 1 mole of oxygen = ________________________ 1 mole of any element = ______________________________________________ The Mole Roadmap. Sketch the mole roadmap here

~ 21 ~

How many grams does 2.5 moles of lead weigh?

What is the weight (or mass) of 0.0720 mole of iron?

How many moles are in 45.8 g zinc?

What is the weight (or mass) of 3.66 mole of

~ 22 ~

Why it happens: What is a neutron? How do neutrons help hold protons together in such a tight space? What causes radioactivity? Common Radioactive Emissions: α particle: What is it? Write and balance the equation for the emission of an α particle by U-238. β particle: What is it? Write and balance the equation for the emission of a β particle by U-238 positron:

~ 23 ~

What is it? Give the equation for the loss of a positron by U-238. neutron: What is it? Give the equation for the loss of a neutron by U-238. gamma ray (γ): What is it? Does gamma emission change the identity of the element? Exposure to Radiation. What is required to protect you from radiation exposure due to α particles β particles γ rays

~ 24 ~

What is the relationship between exposure to radiation and distance from the radioactive source? Half-Life: What is half-life? Will it all ever go away?

You have a sample of 92U238 and it undergoes the following emissions: β, γ, then α. What is the final product?

If you start with 32 g iodine-131 which has a half-life of 8 days, how much will remain after 48 days (6 half-lives)?

~ 25 ~

Fission: What is it? What is a critical mass? What is a super critical mass? What are "control rods" and how do they work? Fusion: What is it? Give a sample equation:

~ 26 ~

Quick Questions: Try these without looking at your notes. Answers are in the back of this noteguide. 1. Atomic number and atomic mass number are different because atomic number is the number

of ___ and atomic mass number is the number of ___ in an atom's nucleus

a. protons/neutrons b. neutrons/protons c. protons/electrons

d. protons/protons+neutrons

2. The mass in grams of one mole of an element is that element's

a. atomic number b. atomic mass number c. atomic weight in grams

d. all of these

3. When the following elements (magnesium, chlorine, silicon) are arranged in order from most metallic to least metallic, the order should be

a. Mg, Cl, Si b. Mg, Si, Cl c. Cl, Si, Mg d. Si, Mg, Cl

4. When a radioactive isotope emits a ___, its atomic number increases.

a. alpha particle b. beta particle c. positron d. gamma ray

5. If you start with 10 grams of a radioactive isotope, how much will be available after 3 half- lives?

a. 1.25 g b. 2.50 g c. 3.33 g d. 5.00 g

6. Which form of radiation is the most penetrating?

a. alpha particle b. beta particle c. gamma ray d. positron

7. Which of the following is not an element?

a. calcium b. lime c. bromine d. iron

8. Two atoms that are isotopes of the same element contain

a. the same number of electrons and neutrons b. the same atomic mass

c. the same number of protons d. the same number of neutrons

9. When an alpha particle is emitted from U-238, the substance produced is

~ 27 ~

a. Pa - 234 b. U-237 c. Th - 234 d. some other isotope

10. When a beta particle is emitted from Th-234, the

a. atomic number increases by 1 b. atomic mass number increases by 4

c. number of neutrons decreases by 1 d. number of protons decrease by 1

~ 28 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Electron Locations Why Ions Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds Naming Compounds Molecular Weights

Bohr Model of the Atom Why is this model often called the "solar system model"? Sketch the model and indicate the number of electrons at each level.

~ 29 ~

Schrodinger Model Briefly state/describe the major concepts of this model. Orbitals What are they and what are they NOT? Using the basic Bohr diagram, indicate the orbital numbers and the maximum number of electrons theoretically possible in each:

~ 30 ~

Using this, give electron locations for each of the following: H He Li Be B F Ne Na Si Ca

~ 31 ~

Valence Electrons What are valence electrons? On the following table, indicate the number of valence electrons for each family:

How many valence electrons are in each of the following? Na _____ Ar _____ Al _____ Mg _____ P _____ Li _____ B _____ Cl _____

~ 32 ~

Electron Dot Diagrams: What do the dots represent? Give electron dot diagrams for the following

Na Al Cl Ar Noble Gases: Briefly describe the chemical properties of this family: What are some of their uses and why? Give the electron dot diagrams for each:

Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn He

~ 33 ~

Why Ions Form Why do ions form? How do ions form? Use sodium as an example and explain what may happen with it: What Noble Gas is it like? _________ How is it different from that gas? IS IT Ne? why or why not? Using these 3 elements, indicate the expected charge and how it's formed: Ca Li Al

~ 34 ~

Let's consider some anions: Cl F S N Using the Periodic Table below, indicate the common charge(s) for the Representative Families:

~ 35 ~

Go back to that Periodic Table and label the Transition Elements and Inner Transition Elements. What are their common charges? How Ionic Compounds Form Using a sodium atom and a chlorine atom, explain how an ionic compound could be formed between the two. Do the same for sodium and sulfur: When would you expect ionic compounds to be formed? How would you describe the ionic bond and its strength? How can you predict the formula for an ionic compound? Give the rules for writing formulas for ionic compounds.

~ 36 ~

Write formulas for the following Lithium and Fluorine Aluminum and Chlorine Calcium and Iodine Aluminum and Sulfur What is a polyatomic ion (or radical)?

~ 37 ~

Figure out and write formulas for these: sodium and nitrate sodium and sulfate calcium and nitrate aluminum and sulfate

What are covalent compounds? What kind of bond do they have? Do covalent compounds contain charges, like ions? When do covalent compounds form? What holds the atoms together in the 7 diatomic elements?

~ 38 ~

What is the formula for a compound of phosphorus and chlorine? Construct a compound of carbon and hydrogen: Construct a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen: Construct a compound of oxygen and hydrogen: Construct a compound of carbon and bromine:

~ 39 ~

Naming Binary Compounds What are Binary Compounds Two Non-metals: Give the rule: Give the prefixes: Name these: CO2 SO3 N2O3 PCl5 CO

~ 40 ~

Metal and Non-metal: Give the rule for naming:

Name these: CaO NaCl CaCl2 SnF2 PBr4 Al2S3

~ 41 ~

Ternary Compounds: What are ternary compounds? Give the rule for naming: Name these: (Your table is on the previous page) Na2SO4 KNO3 NaHCO3 MgCO3 Zn(NO3)2 Naming Acids How do you recognize an acid? What are the two types of acids and give an example of each: Binary Acids: Give the rule for naming these.

~ 42 ~

Name these acids: HBr HF H2S HCl H2O Ternary Acids: Give the rules for naming these Name these acids: HNO3 H2SO4 H2CO3 HNO2 H2SO3 H3BO3

~ 43 ~

Some Common Household Compounds Formula Common Name NaCl __________________________________ NaOH __________________________________ HCl __________________________________ HC2H3O2 __________________________________ NaHCO3 __________________________________ H2SO4 __________________________________ CO2(s) __________________________________ CaCO3 __________________________________

~ 44 ~

Atomic, Formula, & Molecular Weights How do you figure the weight of a compound? Show by determining the "molecular weight" of NaCl How would you figure the molecular weight of H2O? Expand the mole roadmap:

What is the weight (or mass) of 0.0720 mole of water?

What is the weight of 4.80 moles of CaCl2

~ 45 ~

How many moles are in 3.2 g NaOH?

How many molecules are in 1.2 mg water?

~ 46 ~

Quick Questions: Try these without looking at your notes. Answers are in the back of this noteguide. _____ 1. Which of the following is a cation? a. Na b. Br c. Ca2+ d. O2- _____ 2. Which ion has the same number of electrons as the noble gas Argon? a. F- b. Na+ c. both d. neither _____ 3. How many electrons are in the third energy level of a calcium atom? a. 8 b. 18 c. 2 d. none of these _____ 4. When drawing the electron dot structure for aluminum, how many dots should be used? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. more than 3 _____ 5. When the lithium atom changes to produce a lithium ion, how many electrons would be in the second energy level? a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3 _____6. Which symbol is representative of a halide ion? a. Ne b. Na+ c. I- d. NO3

- _____7. A correct chemical name for Ca(NO3)2 is a. calcium nitrate b. calcium dinitrate c. both d. neither _____8. The correct chemical formula for lye is a. CaO b. NaOH c. HNO3 d. NaHSO4 _____ 9. The number of moles of potassium chloride in 1.020 mg potassium chloride is a. 1.4 x 10-5 mol b. 0.014 mol c. 13.7 moles d. 73.1 moles _____10. How many atoms of lead are in 0.047 g lead? a. 1.4 x 1020 atoms b. 6.02 x 1023 atoms c. 2.65 x 1027 atoms d. none of these

~ 47 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Changing States Energy in Reactions Gases Liquids Solids

Terms Give brief definitions for the following: Fusion Vaporization Sublimation Deposition

Properties of Water Show a water molecule with the bonding and polarity it possesses.

~ 48 ~

Explain "hydrogen bonding" and show how it bonds water molecules to each other. What are some of the characteristics this creates for water? Phase Change Diagram: Terms. Give brief definitions for Specific heat Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization

~ 49 ~

Change of State Diagram: Remember: Sp. ht. of ice and steam = ______________________ Sp. ht. of water = ______________________ Heat of fusion = ______________________ Heat of vaporization = _______________________

↑

temperature

applied heat →

~ 50 ~

Calculate the heat needed to raise the temperature of 35 g ice from -20.0oC to steam at 140oC.

How much heat is given off when 42 g steam at 105oC cools and condenses to water at 21oC?

~ 51 ~

Give brief definitions for the following: Spontaneous Process: Endothermic Process: Exothermic Process:

An iron horseshoe weighing 248 g has been heated to 200.0oC and then dropped into a bucket of water at 21.0oC The final temperature is 23.1oC. How much water was in the bucket? The specific heat of iron is 0.107 cal/goC.

~ 52 ~

Properties of Gases: Briefly list the properties of gases: Boyle's Law: What is the relationship between pressure and volume? What devices do we use to measure pressure? How does a barometer work? How does a manometer work?

~ 53 ~

What is standard pressure? Charles Law What is the relationship between volume and temperature? What is standard temperature? What is STP and what purpose does it have? Gay Lussac's Law What is the relationship between temperature and pressure? Remember: The volume is ____________________

~ 54 ~

Thought Questions: You have 2.0 L He at 1.0 atm in a flexible container at 21oC... What happens to the volume if you increase pressure? ______ What happens to pressure if you increase volume? ________ What happens to volume if you increase temperature? ________ You have 2.0 L He at 1.0 atm in a rigid container at 21oC... What happens to volume if you increase the pressure? ________ What happens to pressure if you increase the temperature? ______ What happens to pressure if you decrease the temperature? _____ Graham's Law of Diffusion? How fast a gas moves depends on what? The heavier a gas molecule the ___________ it moves. What is the difference between diffusion and effusion? When nitrogen, helium and oxygen are in a container, what is the order of their effusion from fastest to slowest? What would happen to the speed these gases would diffuse if the temperature were decreased, and why?

~ 55 ~

Avogadro's Law Briefly state Avogadro's Law: Does size or mass of the molecules make a difference? Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures Briefly state Dalton's Law The Mole Expand the mole roadmap in atm: in torr: in inches

Calculate the pressure of nitrogen if a mixture of 2 moles nitrogen and 3 moles helium has a total pressure of 1.4 atm.

~ 56 ~

Viscosity What is viscosity? What happens to viscosity when something is heated? Density What is density? What is the mathematical expression for density? Give the units for mass _________ & volume ______________

Find the density of an alcohol if 21 g of the alcohol has a volume of 27 mL.

What mass of lead with a density of 11.2 g/mL would occupy 150. mL?

~ 57 ~

Specific Gravity Describe specific gravity. With units, it's _________________ Without units, it's ________________________ Why will something float in water? Can another liquid float on water? Explain: Can any liquid sink in water? Explain: Vapor Pressure Briefly describe what vapor pressure is.

When does boiling occur? At higher altitudes, what happens to the atmospheric pressure? What impact does that have on boiling point?

Tempt oC

Pressure mm Hg

0 4.6 10 9.2 20 17.5 40 55.3 60 149.4 80 355.1 100 760.0 120 1489.1

~ 58 ~

Give an overview of the relationship between boiling point and atmospheric pressure. Surface Tension You should pause the video and try the surface tension exercise. Write your observations here:

Properties of Solids Briefly describe the properties of solids: Types of Solids: Describe each of these types. Crystalline

~ 59 ~

Amorphous How can you tell the difference between crystalline and amorphous solids? What happens to size when solids are heated? What happens to size when solids are cooled? The strange properties of water: Describe and explain the strange behavior of water as it is cooled and frozen: Do all solids behave this way? In general, a solid will __________ when placed in its liquid form

~ 60 ~

Quick Questions: Try these without looking at your notes. Answers are in the back of this Noteguide. I. Multiple Choice: Select the single, best answer. _____ 1. Which of the following defines "heat of fusion"? a. The amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance 1 oC. b. The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water 1oC. c. The heat absorbed or released when a substance melts or freezes. d. The heat absorbed or released when a substance boils or condenses. _____ 2. Metal aerosol cans should not be heated (incinerated) because at high temperatures a rigid container may have its pressure increase to the point that it may explode. This is best explained by a. Boyle's Law b. Charles' Law c. Gay-Lussac's Law d. Avogadro's Law _____ 3. What is the specific gravity of a urine sample with a volume of 50.85 mL and a mass of 51.26 g? a. 0.9920 b. 1.008 c. 50.85 d. 51.26 _____ 4. Standard temperature and pressure, STP, is a. 0oC and 1 atm b. 25oC and 760 mm c. 37oC and 2 atm d. 100oC and 760 mm _____ 5. A pressurized tank contains nitrogen at 1.3 atm, oxygen at 0.7 atm, and helium at 0.1 atm. The pressure guage should read a. 0.5 atm b. 0.91 atm c. 1.3 atm d. 2.1 atm _____ 6. In the Andes Mountains, the atmospheric pressure is _?_ and water will boil at _?_. a. less than 1 atm, less than 100oC b. less than 1 atm, more than 100oC c. more than 1 atm, less than 100oC d. more than 1 atm, more than 100oC _____ 7. Amorphous solids are also a. crystalline solids b. ionic solids c. super-cooled liquids d. metallic solids

~ 61 ~

II. Fill in the blank _______________ 1. If the temperature of a gas is increased, the volume will _?_. _______________ 2. The process by which a solid converts directly to a gas is called _?_. _______________ 3. Evangelista Torricelli invented the device called the _?_. _______________ 4. Then density of a substance compared to the density of water is called _?_. _______________ 5. The volume of a gas at constant temperature will increase if the pressure is decreased is an example of _?_ Law. _______________ 6. A reaction is occurring in a container you are holding. Your hand becomes very cold. The type reaction occurring is _?_. III. Short answer & problems 1. Explain why gases are easily compressed by liquids and solids are not. 2. Why does ice float? 3. When oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are mixed in the same container, which will diffuse faster and why? 4. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 20.0 g ice at -10oC to water at 45oC?

~ 62 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Characteristics of Reactions Equations Balancing Equations Types of Reactions Quantities in Equations Problem Solving Limiting Reagents

Indicators of Reactions What characteristics or changes make us think a reaction has occurred? Are the identities of atoms destroyed in a chemical reaction? _________ When are the identities of atoms changed?

~ 63 ~

Equation format Label the parts of this equation:

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2↑ List the additional symbols and their meanings:

Rules for Balancing Equations List the rules here:

~ 64 ~

Balance these:

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2↑ N2 + O2 → N2O3 CaCl2 + AgNO3 → AgCl↓ + Ca(NO3)2 C8H18 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Synthesis or Simple Combination What is the format? Give some examples Decomposition What is the format? Give some examples:

~ 65 ~

Single Replacement: K Ba What is the format? Mg Al Fe Sn Give the rule for the reaction of a metal and acid. Pb H Cu Ag Complete these equations Au

Al + HCl → Pb + H2SO4 → Ag + HCl → Cu + H2SO4 → Double Replacement What is the format? What does an acid and a base produce? What is this called? ______________________________

HCl + NaOH → Ba(OH)2 + HCl →

~ 66 ~

Combustion Define/describe a combustion reaction:

CH4 + O2 →

C3H8 + O2 →

C6H12O6 + O2 →

Consider this equation: What is it telling us?

C4H10O + 6 O2 → 4 CO2 + 5 H2O What if we had 2 moles of C4H10O, how many moles of CO2 would we get? Show how this is determined: What is the ratio and how is it determined?

~ 67 ~

If we needed 8 moles of water, how much oxygen should we have used? Show: If we used 3 moles of oxygen, how much C4H10O could react? Show 3 Cu + 8 HNO3 → 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O

With 20 tires and 14 headlight covers, how many vans could be built?

What is the limiting factor and why? Using the following equation, if you have 3 moles of N2 and 3 moles of H2, which is the limiting reagent? Show how it's worked N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3

Calculate the moles of nitric acid needed to react with 4.1 moles of copper.

How many grams of nitric acid would that be?

~ 68 ~

Quick Questions: I. Multiple Choice: _____ 1. Which of the following elements is expected to react with an acid? a. magnesium b. silver c. both d. neither _____ 2. The following equation is an example of a _?_ reaction. 2 Na + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2↑ a. synthesis b. simple replacement c. decomposition d. a&b _____ 3. How many moles of O2 are needed if 5.5 moles of C5H10 are burned? 2 C5H + 15 O2 → 10 CO2 + 10 H2O a. 41.3 b. 82.5 c. 11 d. 5.5 _____ 4. The symbol to indicate a substance is dissolved in water is _?_ a. ↓ b. aq c. H2O d. → _____ 5. In the course of a reaction, the material totally consumed is the a. product b. excess reagent c. reactant d. limiting reagent II. Balance the following equations. Do not rewrite the equations. 1. Ca(OH)2 + HCl → CaCl2 + 2 H2O 2. C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O 3. Al + Cl2 → AlCl3

~ 69 ~

4. Na + O2 → Na2O III. Problems and Equations: 1. Write and balance the neutralization reaction that occurs when sodium hydroxide reacts with sulfuric acid. 2. How many moles of SO3 woul;d be produced when 1.2 moles of oxygen is consumed in the following UNBALANCED equation? S + O2 → SO3 How many grams is that?

~ 70 ~

~ 71 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Terms

Properties of Solutions

Concentrations

Colligative Properties

Dilution of Solutions

Electrolytes

Briefly define or describe each of the following:

Solution

Solute

Solvent

Saturated Solution

Unsaturated Solution

Supersaturated Solution

Colloid

Suspension

Emulsion

~ 72 ~

Characteristics of Solutions

Briefly describe a solution:

Compare solutions, colloids, and suspensions with respect to

Size of solute particle

Stability

Describe suspensions using oil and water as the example:

Describe colloids and give examples

Describe emulsions and give an example.

What is an emulsifying agent?

~ 73 ~

Kinds of Solutions

How many kinds of solutions are there? ________

What are they?

Factors that affect dissolving: list these:

Henry's Law:

What causes soda to lose its fizz?

What does Henry's Law say?

How does Henry's Law apply to the body? (Put the oxygens in the heme structure)

~ 74 ~

Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

Explain osmosis: Make sure to note what is moving across the membrane.

Define osmosis:

Why does water flow from the pure water side to the solution or from the

weaker solution to the stronger solution?

What happens when you place a cell in a strong salt solution? Why?

What is a hypertonic solution?

What is a hypotonic solution?

What is the relationship between strength of solutions on both sides of the membrane and strength of the osmotic pressure?

~ 75 ~

%w/w This is a percent __________________________solution

What weight of sugar is needed to make 250 g of a 10.% w/w sugar solution?

How would you make this solution?

%w/v

This is a percent _________________________solution.

What weight of sugar is neede to make 250 mL of a 10% (w/v) sugar solution?

How would you make this solution?

%v/v

This is a percent __________________________solution and is usually used for

making solutions composed of _______________________________.

What volume of alcohol and water is needed to make 300 mL of a 70% rubbing alcohol solution?

How would you make this solution?

~ 76 ~

molarity

What is molarity?

Give the mathematical expression for molarity

Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 10.0 g NaOH in 400 L of solution. Work this out

What is the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 10.6 g

Ca(NO3)2 in 500 mL solution?

~ 77 ~

What are colligative properties?

Why do the same number of moles of sugar and NaCl have different colligative properties?

What about CaCl2 and Na2SO4?

Briefly describe the difference between colligative properties of things that are

covalent and polar covalently bonded when compared to things that are ionic.

What is osmolarity?

Find the Osmolarity of these two solutions: a 0.3 M sugar solution and a 0.3 M

NaCl solution.

Which is more effective at raising the bp or lowering the mp when in solution?

WHY?

~ 78 ~

Isotonic Solutions:

What are isotonic solutions?

Remember these terms:

Isotonic

Hypotonic

Hypertonic

What changes when we dilute a solution?

What does NOT change when we dilute a solution?

Give the formula used to calculate the volume and concentration of solution

when dilution occurs:

Calculate the final concentration when 20 cc of 15% glucose solution are diluted to 100 cc.

~ 79 ~

What volume of WATER is needed to dilute 20 mL of a 15% glucose solution

to 3.0%?

What is the final concentration of a solution if 4.6 pints of 3 tbsp/pint

are diluted to 10.0 pints? What is the final concentration of a solution if 4.6 pints of 3 tbsp/pint are diluted to 10.0 pints?

What volume of solution could be made if you begin with 25.0 mL of 2.4 M solution and dilute it to 0.6 M?

What volume of 0.15 M HCl could be prepared from 20.0 mL of 6.0

M HCl? Describe what you would do, as well as the calculations you would make.

~ 80 ~

What are electrolytes? Give some examples:

Equivalents

What is the concept of equivalents based on?

mEq

Explain the concept of mEq:

How many mEq are in 1.2 moles Ca2+?

What is the mass of an equivalent of Na+?

What is the mass of an equivalent of Ca2+?

~ 81 ~

What would be the serum concentration (mEq/L) if you dissolve 1.0 g Cl- in 1.0 L of solution?

How many milligrams of Mg2+ are in 1.0 liter of blood if the normal concentration of Mg2+ in blood is 3.0 mEq/L?

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Quick Questions:

I. Multiple Choice:

_____ 1. Oxygen is dissolved in water to make a solution. If the temperature of this solution is increased, the amount of oxygen dissolved will

a. increase b. decrease c. remain the same

_____ 2. The "bends" is a condition in which nitrogen gas that has been dissolved

in the blood is released. It is caused by a scuba diver rising too quickly to the surface of the water. The reason is the solubility of a gas

decreases as the pressure decreases. This is an example of

a. Boyle's Law b. Charles" Law c. Henry's Law d. Gay-Lussac's Law

_____ 3. Milk of Magnesia is a heterogeneous mixture of magnesium hydroxide and water. The instruction on the bottle say to "Shake well before

using." Milk of Magnesia would be classified as a

a. solution b. suspension c. colloid d. solvent

_____ 4. Arrange the terms solution, suspension, and colloid in order of increasing size of the dispersed particles.

a. solution<suspension<colloid b. solution<colloid<suspension

c. suspension<solution<colloid d. colloid<solution<suspension _____ 5. The concentration of Ca2+ is the blood is found to be 1.21 mm/L. What

is this concentration in mEq/L?

a. 0.605 mEq/L b. 1.21 mEq/L c. 2.42 mEq/L d. 4.84 mEq/L

_____ 6. Any substance that is an electrolyte must

a. be insoluble in water b. be a crystalline solid c. be a gas dissolved in water d. dissolve in water forming ions

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II. Short Answer:

1. Name four things you can do to speed up dissolving.

2. Define these terms:

crenation

hypotonic

hypertonic

hemolysis

3. What changes when we dilute a solution?

III. Problems:

1. What weight of NaHCO3 should be dissolved in 300 mL solution to make a 0.400 M solution?

~ 84 ~

2. If 150 mL of 1.4 M solution needs to be diluted to 1.0 M, what volume of water should be added?

3. What weight of solute would be needed to make

a. 350 mL of a 5.0%w/v sugar solution?

b. 400 g of a 5.0 %w/w sugar solution?

c. 400 mL of a 15%v/v solution of alcohol in water?

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Strong and Weak Acids The Meaning of pH The Role of Water Buffers Applications to Physiological Systems

How do we recognize acids? Strong Acids: What are the characteristics of strong acids ? Give an example of how a strong acid should be written: What is H3O+ called? __________________________________ List the strong acids you are supposed to know: Why are these acids considered strong?

~ 85 ~

Weak Acids: How do weak acids differ from strong acids? In other words, what makes an acid be weak? Write the equation showing the behavior of a weak acid: What do the arrows pointing in both directions mean?

Pay particular attention to the way we write the expression pH. The first letter is lower case and the second letter is upper case. pH scale

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

~ 86 ~

What is the definition of pH? What does the [ ] mean? What is the pH of a 0.0025 M HCl solution? Finding Concentration from pH The pH of a solution is 4.3. Find the [H+]

Find the pH of a 0.0032 M HNO3 solution

Find the pH of a 0.032 M HNO3 solution.

Find the [H+] if the pH is 4.6

~ 87 ~

pH of Weak Acids We must consider to what extent a weak acid ionizes. To determine this, we need to know how much the acid breaks up. What do we use to determine this? What is Ka?

What is the [H+] in an acid solution having a pH of 2.9?

Find the pH of a 0.15 M acetic acid solution. Ka for acetic acid is 1.8 x 10-5

HC2H3O2 H+ + C2H3O2-

~ 88 ~

pH is used ONLY for ______________________________ Explain why: (You may need to play the section more than once to get the information you need). At neutral, [H+] = [OH-] = ______________ and the pH = _____

Find the pH of a 0.12 M HCN solution. Ka for HCN is 4 x 10-10

HCN H+ + CN-

~ 89 ~

How is equilibrium similar to a seesaw (teeter-totter)? Use this equilibrium to explain how it happens: What happens if you add more H+? What happens if you add more CO2? This produces a state called ________________________ What happens when you add more HCO3

-? What happens when you remove some H+? This produces a state called ________________________ What does a buffer do? What does a buffer usually consist of?

CO2 + H2O HCO3- + H+

~ 90 ~

From the equation view, explain how a buffer works. You may need a lot of space. Use this equilibrium:

HC2H3O2 C2H3O2- + H+

~ 91 ~

pH values you should know: Blood _____________ Saliva __________________________ Stomach (gastric juice) __________________________ The body has 3 major buffer systems to maintain pH. They are: Let's consider the bicarbonate system: If the [CO2] is increased, the equilibrium shift to the __________, the acidity (increases, decreases) and the pH (increases, decreases. On the other hand, if the acidity is increases due to adding an acid, for example, in which direction will the equilibrium shift? ______________________ When this happens what will the person do to compensate?

CO2 + H2O

HCO3- + H+

CO2 + H2O

HCO3- + H+

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Quick Questions: I. Multiple Choice: _____ 1. Consider the following reaction at equilibrium: PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g) If we add more Cl2(g), it will a. increase [PCl5] b. increase [PCl3] c. decrease [PCl5] d. have no effect _____ 2. In a solution in which [H+] is greater than the [OH-], the solution will have a a. pH greater than 7.0 and be basic b. pH less than 7.0 and be basic c. pH greater than 7.0 and be acidic d. pH less than 7.0 and be acidic _____ 3. The carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer is important in maintaining the proper pH of human blood. H2O + CO2 HCO3

- + H+ Diarrhea can lead to the loss of HCO3

-. This would shift the above equilibrium to the _?_ and result in a/an _?_ in blood pH. a. left/decrease b. right/decrease c. left/increase d. right/increase _____ 4. When a reaction is at equilibrium a. it has no products b. it occurs quickly, using up all the reactants c. the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction d. it produces the same amount of product as reactant _____ 5. The pH of the blood needs to be maintained very close to a. neutral b. 7.4 c. slightly acidic d. 5.8 - 7.1

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_____ 6. Which of the following statements is true? a. pH is used for dilute solutions in water b. A buffer can reduce the effect of adding small quantities of H+ or OH- to a solution c. both are true d. neither is true _____ 7. Carrot juice has a pH of 5.1 while asparagus juice has a pH of 5.6. Which of the following statements is true? a. Carrot juice is acidic and asparagus juice is basic. b. Asparagus juice is acidic and carrot juice is basic. c. They are both acidic d. They are both basic II. Short answer: Consider the following equilibrium: CO2(g) + H2O HCO3

- + H+

Which way will the equilibrium shift when _______________a. more H+ is added? _______________b. CO2 is removed? _______________c. OH- is added? Using the same equilibrium, what will happen to pH when _______________d. CO2(g) is removed? _______________e. HCO3

- is added?

~ 94 ~

III. Problem: Show your set-up Calculate the pH of a solution that is 0.080 M HC2H3O2 if the Ka is 1.8 x 10-

5.

~ 95 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Basics of Structure The Alkanes Nomenclature Properties and Reactions Cycloalkanes Classifying Carbons

What's different about organic compounds? If you don't have models, use marshmallows and toothpicks or gummy bear type candies and toothpicks. Draw the structures as best you can for 2 different ways 4 carbons can be arranged. Draw the structures AND place the hydrogens for two C4H10 molecules.

~ 96 ~

What are these structures called? _______________________ How many bonds does each carbon have? ________ Draw these two structures an easier way: Draw two structures for the 5 carbon and for the 7 carbon molecules shown.

~ 97 ~

_________________ is the basic, general formula for alkanes. The formula for a 3 carbon alkane is ________, a 7 carbon __________ Give names for the first 10 alkanes: What is the structure for methane? How many structures can ethane have? _____. Show: How many structures are possible for propane? ________ How many structures are possible for butane? _______ Show these structures

~ 98 ~

Why is CH3CHCH2CH2CH3 an isomer of hexane? CH3 Give the rules for naming compounds: Names and structures of the common branches:

~ 99 ~

1. Develop the name for CH3CHCH2CHCH3 CH3 CH3 What is the parent chain? ______________________ How do you say "two methyls"? ___________________ Where are the methyl groups attached? ______________________________ Give the name of the compound: 2. Try this one: 3. How about this one? Name it. Pay attention to the parent chain:

~ 100 ~

4. Here's one that's a little more interesting. Give its name. It is an isomer of ________________________. Why don't we use the term "isopropyl" when naming this one? Why can we use the term "isopropyl in this case?

5. Try this one:

~ 101 ~

Try naming this one. You may need to stop the video and think about it. Let's reverse the process. Give structures that fit each of these names: 2,3-dimethylpentane 2-methyl-3-ethylpentane What's wrong with this name: 2-ethyl-3-methylpentane. Give the structure Give the correct name.

~ 102 ~

Properties of Alkanes: Give the properties: What are some of the common alkanes?

~ 103 ~

Reactions of Alkanes What is the predominant reaction of alkanes? Write and balance an equation for the combustion of butane:

Cycloalkanes are similar to alkanes except for 2 things: 1. 2. What did you come up with as the smallest ring structure possible? What exists at each of the angles?

~ 104 ~

Give the line drawings for each of the following: cyclopropane cyclobutane cyclopentane cyclohexane What about rings larger than cyclohexane? Name these:

~ 105 ~

Name these, also

Define: Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

~ 106 ~

Classify the carbons in this structure:

~ 107 ~

Quick Questions: I. Multiple Choice: _____ 1. The basic formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2. The basic formula for cycloalkanes is a. the same b. CnH2n c. CnH2n-2 d. CnHn _____2. Alkanes tend to be a. soluble in water b. lighter than water c. non-flammable b. b & c _____ 3. When the following are placed in order from lowest boiling point to highest boiling point, the order should be: 1. ethane 2. 2-methylpropane 3. pentane a. 1<2<3 b. 1<3<2 c. 3<2<1 d. none of these _____ 4. The major constituent of natural gas is a. butane b. propane c. ethane d. methane II. Give the structure for each of the following: 1. 2,3-dimethyl butane 2. isopropylcyclohexane 3. octane 4. sec-butyl cyclopentane

~ 108 ~

III. Give appropriate names for each of these: 1. 2. 3. 4.

~ 109 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Alkenes Alkynes Aromatics

Structure The functional group that characterizes alkenes is the __________________. Draw this basic structure: List the characteristics of this structure The formula for this homologous series is ______________________

~ 110 ~

Draw the structure formed when one of the H is replaced with a methyl group. Is the molecule still flat? Write the compound in the condensed form. Redraw the molecule indicating its polarity. Does polarity impact physical properties? Properties

List the physical properties of the alkenes

~ 111 ~

Nomenclature (IUPAC) List the rules: Name these: CH3CH=CH2

CH3CH=CHCH3

CH3CH2CH=CH2 CH3CHCH2CH=CH2 CH3 Name these cyclics

~ 112 ~

Geometric Isomers Draw the two possible structures of 2-butene and label cis and trans Give the structure for trans-2-pentene Draw the structure for trans-1,2-dimethylcyclopentane: Reactions Why are alkanes so much more reactive than alkanes? Where do the typical reactions of alkenes occur? What kind of reactions are these?

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1. Hydrogenation What does this involve? Write an example 2. Halogenation What does this involve? Write a sample equation and name the product. 3. Hydrohalogenation What does this involve? Give an example and name the product What is Markovnikov's rule? To what does it refer?

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Practice Reactions: Complete these

~ 115 ~

Structure What is the functional group that identifies alkynes? _________________ Describe the geometry about this functional group. Properties Are the physical properties impacted much by this triple bond? _______ Draw and label the polar areas about the triple bond. List the general physical properties of alkynes: Nomenclature IUPAC Give the specific rules/additional for naming alkynes

~ 116 ~

Name these using the IUPAC method: CH3C≡CH HC≡CH CH3C≡CCHCH3 CH3 Can we have cis/trans with alkynes? _________________ Do ring structures generally have a triple bond? ________ Give the fundamental rules for common nomenclature of alkynes: Name these using the common method: CH3C≡CH CH3C≡CCH3 (CH3)2CHC≡CH (CH3)2CHC≡CCH3 Reactions Why are alkynes so much more reactive than alkenes?

~ 117 ~

Two Addition Reactions 1. Hydrogenation Give a sample equation for hydrogenation of alkynes 2. Halogenation Give a sample equation of halogenation of alkynes Name the product: How does the amount of hydrogen and halogenation that will react with alkynes compare to the amount that reacts with alkenes?

What structural feature do we use to identify an aromatic? Describe the structure of benzene:

~ 118 ~

Nomenclature of aromatics Name these: When 2 groups are attached, describe the naming. Show the numbers, too. Name these

~ 119 ~

Give structures for o-nitrophenol 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) Properties

~ 120 ~

List the properties of these aromatics and what they depend upon: Do they undergo addition reactions like alkenes?

~ 121 ~

Quick Questions: I. Multiple Choice: _____ 1. A hydrocarbon with a double bond is a/an a. alkane b. alkene c. alkyne d. aromatic _____ 2. Which of these compounds must be an alkyne? a. C3H8 b. C3H4 c. CH3CH=CHCH3 d. 1-pentene _____ 3. If a compound has double or triple bonds, it is considered a. substituted b. saturated c. unsaturated d. aromatic _____ 4. The IUPAC name for CH3CH2CH=CH2 is a. butene b. 2-pentene c. methyl propane d. 1-butene _____ 5. The molecular formula for benzene is a. C6H4 b. C6H5 c. C6H6 d. CnHn _____ 6. Which of the following is an alkane? a. gasoline b. petroleum jelly c. both of these neither of these _____ 7. What is meant by an unsaturated compound? a. It has every available bond filled with hydrogen. b. Each carbon atom is bonded to four separate atoms. c. The compound may have one or more double or triple bonds. d. The compound cannot undergo hydrogenation. _____ 8. Which of the following compounds has the fewest hydrogen atoms? a. cyclohexane b. 2-hexene c. 2-hexyne d. benzene

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_____ 9. Aromatics are compounds that a. have a distinct odor b. contain a benzene ring c. both of these d. neither of these _____10. The common name for 2-butyne is a. n-butyne b. methyl acetylene c. dimethyl acetylene d. methylpropyne II. Give structures for 1. 2,4-dichloro-2-pentene 2. cis-2-butene 3. 1,3-dichloro-4-bromobenzene 4. p-dichlorobenzene (mothballs) III. Short Answer: 1. Complete these reactions: (CH3)2C=CHCH3 + HBr → 2. CH3C≡CCH2CH3 + 2 Br2 → 3. List the physical properties of alkanes.

~ 123 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Alcohols Phenols Thiols Ethers

Important Terms Explain R groups and give examples Describe and give an important example of azeotropes. What is a halide? Give examples. Structure and Properties Show the basic structure for alcohols and compare to water structure:

~ 124 ~

Identify the following structure classifications and give example(s) of each: Primary Secondary Tertiary List the properties of alcohols: Using ethyl alcohol, explain why alcohols have higher boiling points than alkanes:

~ 125 ~

Using ethyl alcohol, explain who alcohols are so soluble in water and tend to form azeotropes: What is meant by proof? Nomenclature IUPAC Give the IUPAC nomenclature rules for alcohols: Name these: CH3OH CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CHOHCH3 (You may want to draw this one out)

~ 126 ~

Common Give the common nomenclature rules for alcohols: Name these by the common method: Archaic: Give the archaic names for these alcohols: CH3OH CH3CH2OH CH3CHOHCH3 (You may want to give an expanded structure for this one)

~ 127 ~

Multiple OH Groups Give name(s) and characteristics for CH2OHCH2OH What is it used for? Give name(s) and characteristics for CH2OHCHOHCH2OH What is it used for? How do the boiling points of these two alcohols compare to those having only one OH group and WHY? Reactions Many alcohols readily under a reaction called _______________________ Primary Alcohols Give the equation for the oxidation of ethyl alcohol Describe some of the uses of this reaction :

~ 128 ~

Secondary Alcohols Secondary alcohols oxidize to produce __________________________ Example: Tertiary Alcohols Do tertiary (3o) alcohols undergo oxidation? Exercises: try these

~ 129 ~

Give the basic structure for phenols: Are they alcohols? Nomenclature: Give names for these: Properties: The properties of phenols are very similar to ______________, with one important exception which is _______________. Discuss their pH and its importance/use:

~ 130 ~

Describe/explain their solubility in water Describe/explain their boiling points

Structure: What are thiols? What is another name? Give examples of thiols: Properties: Odor: Do they undergo hydrogen bonding? Describe their boiling points and solubility when compared to alcohols.

~ 131 ~

Structure Give the basic structure showing the geometry of ethers. How are ethers like water? How are they different? Properties: Can they form hydrogen bonds with each other? How does this affect their boiling points? Can they form hydrogen bonds with water? How does this affect their solubility in water? Can they form hydrogen bonds with alcohols? How does this affect their solubility in alcohols? Are ethers still important in anesthesia?

~ 132 ~

Nomenclature Symmetrical Ethers What are symmetrical ethers? Name these: What are unsymmetrical ethers? Name these:

~ 133 ~

Reactions: Describe the type reactions ethers undergo.

~ 134 ~

Quick Questions: I. Multiple Choice: _____ 1. Isopropyl alcohol has an archaic name of a. grain alcohol b. wood alcohol c. rubbing alcohol d. phenol _____ 2. Which of the following has the highest boiling point? a. propanol b. propane c. propene d. propyne _____ 3. The molecule responsible for the hot taste of chili peppers is capsaicin. Capsaicin is a phenol because it has a. a double bond b. a –CH2OH as part of its structure c. a trans orientation about its double bond d. an –OH attached to a benzene ring _____ 4. Some of the worse smelling compounds known come from the group of compounds known as the a. phenols b. thiols c. alcohols d. ethers _____ 5. This compound, is a -OH a. cyclopentanol b. cyclohexanol c. phenol d. cyclobenzenol _____ 6. The alcohol, CH3CHOHCH2CH3 is classified as a. primary b. secondary c. tertiary d. aromatic _____ 7. The compound CH3CH2SH is a/an a. alcohol b. ether c. thio d. phenol

~ 135 ~

_____8. When CH3CH2CH2OH is allowed to react with KMnO4, the product expected is a/an a. acid b. aldehyde c. ketone d. ether _____ 9. The name for (CH3)2CH-O-CH3 is a. methylpropyl ether b. ethylmethyl ether c. isopropylmethyl ether d. dimethyl ether II. Short Answer: 1. What is an azeotrope and give an example 2. Why do alcohols have higher boiling points than alkanes? 3. What is CH2OHCH2OH used for and why is it dangerous? 4. Compare the boiling points of these two alcohols: CH2OHCHOHCH2OH and CH3CH2CH2OH Explain your answer

~ 136 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Carbonyls Carboxylic Acids Derivatives of Acids Amines

Structure The functional group that characterizes carbonyls is the ________________. Give three structures or classes of compounds that have this carbonyl group: Draw out and describe the carbonyl area for an aldehyde. (Make sure you can identify all four bonds around the carbonyl carbon.) Nomenclature – IUPAC Give the rules for nomenclature

~ 137 ~

Name these by the IUPAC method: CH3CHO CH3CH2CHO CH3CH2CHCHO CH3 Nomenclature – Common: Just learn these. You may find flashcards helpful. HCHO CH3CHO CH3CH2CH2CHO Numbering: Where does this numbering with Greek letters begin? Show the numbering on CH3CH2CH2CHO Now, name this: CH3CHCH2CHO Br Properties Describe and explain the boiling points of aldehydes when compared to alkanes and alcohols.

~ 138 ~

Describe and explain the solubilities of aldehydes in water Are they soluble in non-polar solvents? To what extent? Odors Describe the odors of some aldehydes: Reactions: 1. Oxidation. Give equations for the oxidation of aldehydes. What kind of compound is produced? 2. Tollens. Give equations for the reaction of aldehydes with Tollens reagent. Why is this sometimes called the "Silver Mirror Test"? 3. Benedicts. Give a general equation for the reaction of aldehydes with Benedicts reagent. What use does this reaction/test have in medicine?

~ 139 ~

Structure Describe the structure of a ketone How are the structures of aldehydes and ketones different? Nomenclature – IUPAC Give the rule for naming: Give IUPAC names for these:

~ 140 ~

Nomenclature – common What is the rule for naming by common nomenclature? Name these: Give the structure for urea Give the structure for the flavor of butter

~ 141 ~

Properties Describe the polarity in the ketone molecule What does this mean for boiling points compared to alkanes and alcohols? Describe and explain the solubility of ketones in water and alcohols. Summarize the solubility of aldehydes and ketones: Reactions Summarize the oxidation reactions (or lack thereof) of Ketones Give the structure formed when one molecule of alcohol reacts with an aldehyde or ketone. Give the structure formed when a second molecule of alcohol reacts with an that same aldehyde or ketone

~ 142 ~

It is important that you be able to recognize acetals and hemiacetals. Which is which? CH3CHOHCH2CH3 ____________________ OCH3 CH3CHOCH2CH3 ____________________ OH Special carbonyls (You need to know) Formaldehyde formula: What are the problems with it? What is Formalin? Acetaldehyde Formula: Odor: Problems? Acetone Formula Uses Problems?

~ 143 ~

Methylethyl ketone Formula: Uses: Problems?

Structure of Acids Draw the structure of the acid and give its condensed structure. Nomenclature - IUPAC Give the rule for IUPAC nomenclature of acids Name these: CH3COOH CH3CH2CH2COOH (CH3)2CHCH2COOH

~ 144 ~

Nomenclature – Common You must learn these names: HCOOH CH3COOH CH3CH2COOH CH3CH2CH2COOH CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH CH3(CH2)16COOH Show how numbering is done in common nomenclature using CH3CH2CH2COOH Name these: CH3CH2CHCOOH NH2 CH3CH2CHCH2COOH OH A few additional acids to learn. Name these: CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

~ 145 ~

How can you determine whether an unsaturated fatty acid is an omega 3, 6, or 9? What is meant by "essential fatty acid"? Which fatty acids are essential? Three more acid names/structures to learn: Properties of Acids List the properties of carboxylic acids Why are the boiling point very high?

~ 146 ~

Discuss solubility in water: Discuss the strength of carboxylic acids as acids: Saponification What is a soap? What is a fatty acid? Give the equation for the making of soap: Explain how soap works:

~ 147 ~

Structure: Draw the ester example and show the condensed method for writing it: Write these in the condensed form: Nomenclature: Give the rule for naming esters. Show the acid and the alcohol parts. Name these:

~ 148 ~

Recall the structure for salicylic acid and give the aspirin structure and name. Why does aspirin upset some folks' stomachs? Properties of Esters: What do esters generally smell like? Give a couple of examples: What would you speculate about the boiling point of esters? Were you right? What would you speculate about the solubility of esters in water? Were you right?

~ 149 ~

Reaction to produce an ester: What is esterification? Give an example: Try this one: CH3COOH + CH3OH → Try these: The reaction between glycerol and stearic acid is very important. Write the reaction here and tell what is produced:

~ 150 ~

Saponification of esters Complete this reaction: CH3COOCH2CH3 + NaOH → Complete the esterification reaction producing soap: Explain how soap works.

~ 151 ~

Structure Give the structure of an amide Write it in the condensed form and note the amide portion. We will not take up nomenclature, properties, reactions, or uses of amides, but we do expect you to know the structure.

Structure Using ammonia and R groups, show the structure of a primary, secondary, and tertiary amine. Show how the condensed structure may be written.

~ 152 ~

Classify these as primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary Nomenclature – Common Give the rule for naming amines using common nomenclature: Give examples. Name these:

~ 153 ~

Try these: Two heterocyclics you should know are:

~ 154 ~

Properties Boiling Points Why do amines have higher boiling points than alkanes? How does this hydrogen bonding compare to that in alcohols? Compare volatility of amines to alcohols. Odor What do amines smell like in many cases? Solubility in water Describe the solubility in water. Action as Weak Bases Use equations to explain the behavior of amines as weak bases Physiological Bahavior There is a group within the amines called the _____________________ whose physiological behavior is broad and important.

~ 155 ~

The Alkaloids Why do they have this name? What are alkaloids? What are their properties? Name and describe these:

~ 156 ~

Quick Questions: I. Multiple Choice: _____ 1. Which of the following can participate in hydrogen bonding? a. alcohols b. carboxylic acids c. primary amines d. all of these _____ 2. Which of these will produce acidic solution(s) in water? a. phenols b. 2o amines c. carboxylic acids d. both a & c _____ 3. The ester ethyl butanoate (CH3CH2CH2COOCH2CH3) can be formed from the reaction of a. ethyl alcohol with butanoic acid b. butanol with acetic acid c. both of these d. neither of these _____ 4. Which two names are correct for this compound: CH3COOH? a. acetic acid/methanoic acid b. acetic acid/ethanoic acid c. formic acid/ethanoic acid d. formic acid/methanoic acid _____ 5. When compared to other organic compounds of similar weight, carboxylic acids have a. lower melting poins b. higher boiling points c. fewer hydrogen bonds d. no polar areas _____ 6. A correct name for this compound: CH3CH2CH2NHCH(CH3)2 is a. n-propyl-isopropyl amine b. diisopropyl ammonium ion c. isopropyl-n-butyl amine d. n-propyl-sec-butyl amine _____ 7. Of the following classes of compounds, which is the most acidic in water? a. alcohols b. amines c. carboxylic acids d. aldehydes

~ 157 ~

II. Give structures for each of the following 1. Salicylic acid 2. Isopropyl sec-butyl methyl amine 3. n-Propylacetate 4. Oleic acid III. Complete the following reactions 1. CH3CH2CH2COOH + HOCH(CH3)2 → 2. CH3CH2CHO + Cu2+/NH4OH → Cu2O + ________________________ IV. Brief Answers: 1. List at least 3 physical properties of amines 2. Compare the boiling points of esters and carboxylic acids and explain your reasoning.

~ 158 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Classifying Carbohydrates Stereochemistry Cyclic Structures Reducing Sugars Polysaccharides Tooth Decay

Structure Describe the structure of a carbohydrate Where does the term carbohydrate come from? Classify these structures

~ 159 ~

What are enantiomers? Describe a chiral carbon: Give the properties of enantiomers: Locate the chiral carbon(s) in each of the following and note the number of possible forms of each.

~ 160 ~

Here are 4 of the 16 forms of the aldohexose: Give their names: Important Structures: Give the structure for Glucose, aka _________________________ Give the structure for D- glyceradehyde and L- glyceraldehyde: Why are they important? Because this D-glyceraldehyde rotates light to the right, it is said to be... and L-glyceraldehydr rotates light to the left and is said to be ...

~ 161 ~

Using these two structures, explain how the naming works: Here are ribose and deoxyribose. Indicate whether they are D or L This is fructose, aka _________________. Describe it:

~ 162 ~

Explain what is meant by D and L and d and l. Note how they are used: Why is this stereochemistry important?

Draw the cyclic structure of glucose. Redraw the structure in a simpler form and mark the hemiacetal group in the glucose structure.

~ 163 ~

Recall the Tollens' and Benedicts' tests here: If something such as a sugar has a ___________________ structure, it will give a positive Tollens' or Benedicts. Show the reaction between glucose and Benedicts reagent: Sugars that give these positive tests are called _______________________. Is glucose a reducing sugar? _______________ Is fructose a reducing sugar? _________. What does fructose change to before it acts as a reducing sugar? Can sugars, themselves, be reduced? ___________ Show the reaction of D-glucose with H2/Pt and name the product. Keep this straight: When sugars reduce Benedicts reagent, the sugar is OXIDIZED. When sugars reacts with H2, the sugar is REDUCED.

~ 164 ~

What are polysaccharides? List three important disaccharides you must know. Note which are reducing sugars and which is NOT a reducing sugar. What sugar is the cause of Lactose Intollerance? Explain. Other Polysaccharides: Cellulose: Describe cellulose. Why can't we digest it?

~ 165 ~

Starch: Describe starch: Amylose: Describe it's linkages and its structure. What is the only monosaccharide formed when amylose breaks down (undergoes hydrolysis in the mouth and/or stomach) What is the only disaccharide formed under those same circumstances? Amylopectin: Describe it. It undergoes the same reactions as amylose.

~ 166 ~

Glycogen: Give a very general description for glycogen.

Describe the role of sucrose in tooth decay, how dextran is formed, what happens to fructose, and the formation of dental plaque.

~ 167 ~

Quick Questions: I. Multiple Choice: _____ 1. Two molecules are found to be enantiomers. The property they do NOT share is a. the temperature at which they boil. b. The temperature at which they melt. c. The degree to which they dissolve in water. d. the direction in which they rotate polarized light. _____ 2. What is the classification of this monosaccharide? a. aldotetrose b. aldohexose c. ketohexose d. ketopentose _____ 3. When describing the stereochemistry of the compound in #2, it can be said with certainty that the compound is a. D(d) b. D(l) c. L, only d. D, only _____ 4. Starch contains two polymers of glucose, They are a. amylose and fructose b. amylopectin and glycogen c. amylose and amylopectin d. glucose and fructose

~ 168 ~

_____ 5. An example of a hemiacetal is a. CH3CHOCH2CH3 b. CH3CHOCH2CH3 OCH3 OH c. CH3CH2OOCCH2OH d. HOCH2CH2))CCH3 II. Give structures for 1. D-glyceraldehyde 2. D-fructose . 3. Dextrose 4. an aldotetrose III. Short answer: 1. How can you tell if a sugar is D or L? 2. How can you tell if a sugar is d or l? 3. What is meant by a reducing sugar? 4. What monosaccharides make up the following: lactose sucrose

~ 169 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Structure of Amino Acids Amino Acids as Buffers Structure of Proteins Types of Proteins Denaturation of Proteins

General Structure Draw the basic structure of an amino acid: In what portion do the amino acid structures differ from each other? Note the four different groups attached to the α-C. What does this tell you? All amino acids have a ____________________, except ______________. What is unique about the spatial orientations of naturally occurring amino acids? Why is this important? Give structures of glycine and serine with their short-hand names

~ 170 ~

Use glycine to show the comparison between the molecular and zwitterion forms: What is meant by essential amino acids? How many are there? What disorder results if the body cannot synthesize ________________ from ______________________?

Give the equations for the reaction of amino acids in acidic and basic solutions (use alanine as your example): How does this help maintain the pH in the physiological system? What is the isoelectric point or isoelectric pH? Why is that important?

~ 171 ~

Use alanine and serine to show how reaction among amino acids can occur. What is the structure that links the amino acids called? (2 names) Give the equation for the reverse of this process through hydrolysis. What does the term hydrolysis mean? Practice dehydrating amino acids to form a peptide using H2NCHCOOH + H2NCHCOOH → CH3 CH2SH Now, repeat the process, but use the alanine and serine as zwitterions: Show the hydrolysis process for H2NCHCONHCHCOOH CH2C6H5 CH2OH Now, repeat, but use the zwitterion form:

~ 172 ~

Disulfide Link What is a disulfide link and what amino acid(s) does it tie together? What role does it play in the structure of proteins? What is a protein? Four Ways to Describe Protein Structure List and describe the four ways used to describe protein structure: What are Prion Proteins? Why are they dangerous?

~ 173 ~

Classifying Proteins Give two ways of classifying proteins and describe each: Denaturation of Proteins What destroys proteins? How can you denature proteins?

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Quick Questions: I. Multiple Choice: _____ 1. All amino acids, except glycine, a. are left-handed b. have a chiral carbon c. contain nitrogen d. are right-handed _____ 2. Amino acids that cannot be synthesized in the body but must be obtained from the diet are said to be a. essential b. polar c. complete d. incomplete _____ 3. When two proteins form a loose structural relationship, the structural level or type is said to be a. primary b. secondary c. tertiary d. quarternary _____ 4. When the biological activity of a protein is destroyed, the protein is a. hydrophobic b. denatured c. misfolded d. dehydrated _____ 5. The process of breaking up a polypeptide or protein by adding acid and water is called a. oxidation b. reduction c. hydrolysis d. dehydration II. Complete the reaction: H2NCHCOOH + H2NCHCOOH + H+/H2O → CH3 CH2SH H2NCHCONHCHCOOH + H+ + H2O → CH2C6H5 CH2OH

~ 175 ~

III. List four ways in which proteins can be denatured: IV. How does you answer in III relate to destruction of bacteria?

~ 176 ~

During this unit, we will discuss the following:

Introduction to Lipids Fatty Acids Esters of Fatty Acids, etc. Steroids Lipoproteins Biodiesel

General Structure Is there a general structure for lipids? How do we define them? What is their function in the human body?

Describe fatty acids

~ 177 ~

How does the number of carbons impact the melting point? How does the number of double bonds impact the melting point? Why does the cis orientation lower the melting point of these fatty acids? What causes trans fats? Which are the two essential fatty acids? You know what is meant by essential, but WHY are these essential?

~ 178 ~

Glycerides What are glycerides Show the reaction for the following in aqueous acid:

What is a triglyceride? Describe fats:

~ 179 ~

What are these structures? Waxes: What are waxes? Why are they not soluble in water?

~ 180 ~

Draw and number the basic steroid structure: Give the structure for Cholesterol Draw the structure for Testosterone Nandralone has a very similar structure to Testosterone which may account for its behavior in a similar manner.

~ 181 ~

What are lipoproteins? Describe VLDL and their role in the body Describe LDL and their role in the body Describe HDL and their role in the body

~ 182 ~

What is it? What are its properties? How is it produced? Complete the following reaction:

~ 183 ~

Quick Questions: I. Multiple Choice: _____ 1. Lipids are a. soluble in water b. found as wax coatings on leaves c. both of these d. neither of these _____ 2. Compared to saturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids have a. longer carbon chains b. shorter carbon chains c. higher melting points d. lower melting points _____ 3. Triglycerides are lipids composed of a. a long-chain alcohol and a long-chain fatty acid b. glycerol and fatty acids of varying lengths c. glycerol, fatty acids, phosphates, and an amino alcohol. d. all of these _____4. Liquid vegetable oils are converted to solid fats by a process called a. hydrolysis b. hydration c. hydrogenation d. oxidation _____ 5. When a fat undergoes saponification, it produces a. fatty acids and glycerol b. glycerol and salts of fatty acids c. salts of fatty acids d. glycerol _____ 6. Which of the following lipids will NOT hydrolyze to produce one or more fatty acids? a. waxes b. phospholipids c. steroids d. triglycerides _____ 7. Which of the following is a steroid? a. cholesterol b. lecithin c. triacylglycerol d. wax

~ 184 ~

II. Short answer: 1. What is a lipid? 2. What is the geometry about the double bond of oleic acid? 3. What are trans fats and how are they formed? 4. Testosterone has the followoing groups attached to the basic structure: =O on 3, a double bond on 4, CH3 on positions 18 & 19, and at position 20 is an OH group. Draw the structure of Testosterone.

~ 185 ~

APPENDIX

Periodic Table 187 Activity Series 188 Common Oxidation Numbers 189 20 Natural Amino Acids 190 Table of Vapor Pressures 193 Answers to Quick Quizzes 194

217

219

ACTIVITY SERIES OF THE ELEMENTS

K Ba Sr Ca Na Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe Cd Co Ni Sn Pb H Sb As Bi Cu Ag Pd Hg Pt Au

220

Table of Common Oxidation Numbers 1+ elements 2+ elements 3+ elements 4+ elements H+ Mg++ Al+++ Pb++++ (plumbic) Li+ Ca++ Bi+++ Sn++++ (stannic) Na+ S++ Cr+++ (chromic) K+ Ba++ Fe+++ (ferric) Cs+ Zn++ Mn+++ (manganic) 5+ elements Ag+ Cd++ Co+++ (cobaltic) Cu+ (cuprous) Cr++ (chromous) Ni+++ (nickelic) As+++++ (arsenic) Hg2

++ (mercurous) Mg++ (manganous) As+++ (arsenous) Fe++ (ferrous) Co++ (cobaltous) Ni++ (nickelous) 1+ radicals* Sn++ (stannous) Pb+ (plumbous) H3O+

(hydronium) Cu++ (cupric) NH4

+ (ammonium) Hg+ (mercuric) 1- elements 2- elements 3- elements H- (hydride) O= N≡

F- S= P≡

Cl- Br- I- 1- radicals* 1- radicals (cont) 2- radicals* 3- radicals* C2H3O2

- (acetate) HSO4- (bisulfate) SO4

= (sulfate) BO3≡ (borate)

CN- (cyanide) HSO3- (bisulfite) SO3

= (sulfite) PO4≡

(phosphate) NO3

- (nitrate) HS- (bisulfide) S2O3= (thiosulfate) PO3

≡ (phosphite) NO2

- (nitrite) HCO3- (bicarbonate) CO3

= (carbonate) AsO4≡

(arsenate) OH- (hydroxide) HC2O4

- (binoxolate) C2O4= (oxalate) AsO3

≡ (arsenite) SCN- (thiocyanate) O2

= (peroxide) ClO- (hypochlorite) SiO3

= (silicate) ClO2

- (chlorite) CrO4= (chromate)

ClO3- (chlorate) Cr2O7

= (dichromate) ClO4

- (perchlorate) BrO3

- (bromate) BrO4

- (perbromate) MnO4

- (permanganate) * The term “radicals” is an older term for polyatomic ions.

221

20 Natural Amino Acids

Name Symbol Abbreviation Structure glycine G Gly H2N-CH2-COOH alanine A Ala H2N-CH-COOH CH3 valine V Val H2N-CH-COOH CH(CH3)2 leucine L Leu H2N-CH-COOH CH2CH(CH3)2 isoleucine I Ile H2N-CH-COOH CH3CHCH2CH3 phenylalanine F Phe H2N-CH-COOH CH2C6H5 proline P Pro H2N-CH-COOH H2C CH2 CH2 serine S Ser H2N-CH-COOH CH2OH threonine T Thr H2N-CH-COOH HOCHCH3 (continued on next page) 222

Name Symbol Abbreviation Structure tyrosine Y Tyr H2N-CH-COOH CH2C6H4OH cysteine C Cys H2N-CH-COOH CH2SH methionine M Met H2N-CH-COOH CH2CH2-S-CH3 asparagine N Asn H2N-CH-COOH CH2CONH2 Glutamine Q Gln H2N -CH-COOH CH2CH2CONH2 tryptophan W Trp H2N-CH-COOH aspartic acid D Asp H2N-CH-COOH CH2COOH (continued on next page) 223

Name Symbol Abbreviation Structure glutamic acid E Glu H2N-CH-COOH CH2CH2COOH lysine K Lys H2N-CH-COOH CH2 (CH2)3NH2 arginine R Arg H2N-CH-COOH CH2(CH2)2NHC=NH NH2 histidine H His H2N-CH-COOH CH2 224

Table of Vapor Pressures

Tempt oC

Pressure mm Hg or Torr

-10 2.1 0 4.6 10 9.2 20 17.5 30 31.8 40 55.3 50 92.5 60 149.4 70 233.7 80 355.1 90 525.8 100 760.0 110 1074.6 120 1489.1

225

Answers to Quick Questions

Unit 1 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (a) 4 (a) 5 (b) 6 (a) II. Heat is a measure of energy, but temperature is a measure of relative hotness and coldness Unit 2 1 (d) 2 (c) 3 (b) 4 (b) 5 (a) 6.(c) 7 (v) 8 (c) 9 (c) 10 (a) Unit 3 1 (c) 2 (d) 3 (a) 4 (c) 5 (a) 6 (c) 7 (a) 8 (b) 9 (a) 10 (a) Unit 4 1 (c) 2 (c) 3 (b) 4 (a) 5 (d) 6 (a) 7 (c) II. 1. increase 2. sublimation 3. barometer 4. specific gravity 5. Boyle's 6. endothermic III. 1. The molecules in gases are very far apart while the molecules in liquids and solids are very close together. 2. Ice is less dense than water. 3. Oxygen 4. 2,600 calories Unit 5 1 (a) 2 (b) c (a) 4 (b) 5 (d) II. 1. 1,2,1,2 2. 2,13,8,10 3. 2,3,2 4. 4,1,2 III. 1. 2 NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2 H2O 2. 0.80 mol 64 g 226

Unit 6 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (b) 4 (b) 5 (d) 6 (d) II. 1. stir, heat, increase solvent grind solute 2. crenation: cell shrivels because water leaves cell hypotonic: solution having lower osmotic pressure than cell hypertonic: solution having higher osmotic pressure than cell hemolysis: swelling and bursting of cells in a hypotonic solution III. 1. 10 g 2. 60 mL 3. (a) 17.5 g (b) 20 g (c) 60 mL Unit 7 1. (a) 2 (d) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (b) 6 (c) 7 (c) II. a. left b. left c. right d. raises e. raises III. 2.pH = 2.92 Unit 8 1 (b) 2 (b) 3 (a) 4 (d) II. III. 1. 2-methyl-4-isopropylheptane 2. 2,5-dimethylhexane 3. 1,2-dimethylcyclopropane 4. cyclohexylcyclopentane

227

Unit 9. 1 (b) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5 (c) 6 (c) 7 (c) 8 (d) 9 (b) 10 (c) II. III. 1. (CH3)2CBrCH2CH3 2. CH3CBr2CBr2CH3 3. insoluble in water, soluble in non-polar solvents not very reactive, very flammable, less dense than water Unit 10. 1 (c) 2 (a) 3 (d) 4 (b) 5 (c) 6 (b) 7 (c) 8 (a) 9 (c) II. 1. an azeotrope is a constant boiling mixture. An example is 95% ethyl alcohol + 5% water 2. Alcohols have hydrogen bonding but alkanes do not. 3. That compound is antifreeze. It is dangerous because small children and animals love its sweet taste and it is so very poisonous. 4. CH2OHCHOHCH2OH has a much higher boiling point than CH3CH2CH2CH2OH because it has twice as many OH groups that are capable of hydrogen bonding, hence the molecules are bound much more tightly together, thus requiring more energy to break the bonds.

228

Unit 11

1 (d) 2(d) 3 (a) 4 (b) 5 (b)

6 (a) 7 (c)

II.

III.

1. CH3CH2CH2COOCH(CH3)2

2. CH3CH2COOH

IV.

1. smell fishy, higher boiling point than alkanes, produce a base when dissolved in water, soluble in polar solvents, physiologically active.

2. Acids have a higher boiling point than esters because carboxylic acids hydrogen bond with each other easily.

229

Unit 12

1 (d) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (c) 5 (b)

II.

III. 1. Compare its structure to glyceraldehyde

2. Put it in a polarimeter

3. A sugar that reacts with Benedicts reagent

4. lactose = galactose + glucose

sucrose = fructose + glucose

Unit 13

1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (d) 4 (b) 5 (c)

II.

1. H2NCHCOONHCHCOOH

CH3 CH2SH

2. H2NCHCOOH + H2NCHCOOH

CH2C6H5 CH2OH

230

Unit 13 (cont)

III. heating, beating, detergent, alcohol, acids, bases, heavy metal ions

IV. Because bacteria contain proteins, the above methods can be used to denature, hence destroy, bacteria

Unit 14

1 (b) 2 (d) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (b)

6 (c) 7 (a)

II. 1. A water insoluble substance extracted from a natural source (plant or animal).

2. cis 3. trans fats are unsaturated fatty acids with trans orientations about the double bond. They are formed during hardening/hydrogenation of unsaturated fats.

4.

231