Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316 AD)

Jalaluddin Feroz Khilji was the governor of Punjab during Slave dyansty. In 1290 he murdered the last ruler of Slave dynasty and captured the throne of Delhi and became the Sultan. In this way he laid the foundation of Khilji dynasty. He proved to be a lenient king and kind hearted ruler. He was murdered by his nephew and son-in-law Alauddin Khilji in 1296 AD.

After murdering Jalaluddin Khilji, Alauddin Khilji usurped the throne and became the Sultan of Delhi in 1296 AD. He was the most famous ruler of this dynasty who ruled from 1296 to 1316 AD. He conquered Malwa, Ranthombhor, Chittor and Gujarat from 1297 to 1305 AD. He was the first Muslim ruler who tried to conquer Deccan. Malik Kafur, Alauddin's General conquered Devagiri in 1307, Warangal in 1309, Madurai in 1311 AD for his master. He died in 1316 AD. Nasiruddin Khushro Shah Khilji was the last ruler of this dynasty and in 1320 AD this dynasty cams to an end.

Ala-Ud-Din (A.D. 1510—A.D. 1530)

He was succeeded by his son Ala-ud-din after his death in A.D. 1510. He was an ambitious ruler who wanted to extend his territory. His support to New Comers and invasion of Ahmadnagar in league with them brought him into conflict with Nizam Shahi king. He was defeated and fled to Khandesh. After the departure of the Nizam Shahi troops he returned to Berar.

Ala-ud-din was soon involved in a struggle which ensued between Amir Ali Barid of Bidar who had invested Mahur one of the two divisions of Berar. Sarza Khan, son of Khudavand Khan, had succeeded him to the throne of Mahur after his father's death. Ala- ud-din responded to the appeal of Sarza Khan, defeated Amir Ali Barid and occupied Mahur.

He appointed Ghalib Khan, another son of Khudavand Khan, as his governor of Mahur. Thus the boundaries of the kingdom of Berar now extended to the borders of Ahmadnagar. There now started struggle with Nizam Shahis which ultimately ended in the annexation of Berar by the former.

Pathri became the bone of contention between the two states. Nizam Shah I was eager to possess this city which happened to be his ancestral home. He offered another place to Imad Shah yielding much more revenue. This proposal was rejected by Imad Shah who fortified the town.

Their relations were further estranged when Imad Shah gave shelter to some fugitives from Ahmadnagar. Burhan Nizam Shah made a surprise attack on Pathri and captured it (A.D. 1518). However, this town was soon recovered by Ala-ud-din in alliance with Ismail Adil Khan. Their combined armies ravaged Berar.

Bahadur Shah of Gujarat intervened on the request of Ala-ud-din, but withdrew after extricating a promise from Burhan Nizam Shah that he would return Pathri and Mahur to Ala-ud-din Imad Shah. Burhan did not fulfil his promise. Ala-ud-din died in A.D. 1530 and was succeeded by his eldest son Darya Imad Shah.

Krishna II was succeeded by his grandson Indra III (915- 927AD)

Krishna II was succeeded by his grandson Indra III (AD 915-AD 927), since his son had predeceased him. The new ruler true to his ancestral tradition invaded Kannauj and occupied it.

His period of reign being only eleven years he did little else. His seccessor was his elder son Amoghavarsha II (AD 927- AD 930). This unfortunate man was, however, deprived of his throne by his treacherous brother Govinda IV. This Govinda ruled but for five years. He was about twenty-five when he came to the throne.

He abandoned himself to a life of vicious pleasures and also became tyrannical and therefore unpopular. His officials and the chieftains of the realm saw the necessity for his removal from goverment and when his uncle Amoghavarsha III at the invitation of the nobles ascended the throne the people and Govinda IV were relieved of each other. Amoghavarsha HI (AD 935-939) was fifty years old when he came to the throne.

He was as ineffective as his predecessor as a ruler but in a different way. He spent his time in religious and pious pursuits. The government, however, was equally neglected by both. But in this case due to his temperament he was not hated by the people; on the other hand his son Krishna came to his aid and fought his wars for him.

Kabir

Nothing definite is known about Kabir's birth or his parents. His date of birth is not certain but it is generally believed to be 1398. According to one legend he was born to a Hindu Brahmin widow who abandoned the child to hide her shame.

He was picked up by Niru, a Muslim weaver who did not have a child. Even as a child, Kabir showed his leanings towards Hindu philosophy. It is said that Ramanand, who lived towards the close of the 14th  century was a great Vaishnava saint.

He was approached by Kabir for being accepted as his disciple, but refused. Ramanand used to go to the Ganges for his early bath. One day Kabir stretched himself on one of the steps on the way.

Since it was misty, Ramanand could not see Kabir and his foot knocked against Kabir's body.

Kabir stood up and prostated before the Master and declared that with the touch of the Master's divine feet; he had already been initiated and accepted as a disciple. Ramanand was moved by this devotion and accepted Kabir.

Kabir decried all narrow parochialism. His remarks were often blunt and biting. He was against idol-worship, casteism, untouchability and the other ill customs "of the Hindus.

He even criticized the hypocritical practices of the Muslims. His compositions have been called Ramainis.

Humayuim

After the death of Babur, the son of Babur, Humayun ascended the throne at Agra in 1530 AD. He had three brothers Kamran, Askari and Hindal. He appointed Kamran, Askari and Hindal the governors of Kabul, Sambhal and Mewat respectively.

Humayun was surrounded by difficulties on all sides. In 1532 AD, Humayun defeated Mahmood Lodi in the battle of Daurah. He defeated Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in 1538 AD. Shershah, 'the Afghan Sardar attacked the Mughal army at Chausa, near Buxar in 1539 AD, and defeated Humayun in this battle. Again in 1540 AD, Humayun met Shershah in the battle of Kannauj or Bilgram and was badly defeated and fled away from the country. Shershah became the ruler of India. Humayun wandered here and there for shelter but could not stay at one place.

During this period his son Akbar was born in 1542 AD. After the death of Shershah in 1545 AD, his successors could not keep his kingdom intact. Humayun realized this situation and invaded India in 1555 AD with the help of his loyal chief Bairam Khan and captured Delhi and Agra. In this way the Mughal rule was established again in India after a gap of 15 years. He died in 1556.

Shershah Suri

Shershah Suri was one of the greatest ruler of India. His original name was Farid. He was born in Hoshyarpur district in Punjab. He was taken to Sasaram by his father Hasan Khan who held a Jagir there.

In 1522 AD, Shershah got into the service of Mohammad Shah Noohani an independent ruler of Bihar. Noohani conferred on him the title of Sher Khan. After the death of Mohammad Shah Noohani. Shershah became the independent ruler of Bihar.

He luckily captured the fortress of Chunar. In the battle of Chausa near Buxar in 1539 AD, Mughals were defeated by Sher Khan. In May 1540 AD, the Mughals and the Afghans met again opposite Kannauj.

This battle is also known as the battle of Bilgram. Humayun was severely defeated and from this time he had to live a life of wanderer for about 15 years. Shershah ruled for a very short span of time and died of an explosion of gun powder in 1545 AD at Kalinjar.

Ashoka — 'The Great'

Indian history reveals the heroic deeds of great men. One bright star of Indian history was the first emperor to follow the principles of Ahimsa, Love and Peace. My hero is none other than the Emperor Ashoka-The Great.

The grandson of Chandragupta and the son of Bindusar, Ashoka was brought up in Patliputra. In 273 BC he ascended the throne of the Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta, with a desire to expand his kingdom and unite India under his only rule. He began his conquests winning each war like a brave soldier.

The Kalinga war in 261 BC changed him completely. Seeing the great loss of lives and wealth he pledged never to wage war in future. The main factor that changed his heart was the self-immolation of a dancing woman from Kalinga who died fighting for him.

He devoted the rest of his life to the promotion of peace. He inspired people to be truthful, loving and dutiful. Though he adopted Buddhism and made it the state religion, he believed in religious tolerance. He also sent the priests to the neighboring kingdoms for the spread of Buddhism. The numerous inscriptions found on the rocks and pillars tell us about his religious edicts.

He worked for the welfare of his subjects. He made new laws, appointed ministers and made justice common for all the sections of the society. All the social services were provided to the people.

The improvement of roads and construction of shelter homes for the travelers led to the development of trade. In order to prevent cruelty to animals he banned animal slaughter throughout his kingdom. He devoted his life to the service to humanity and their well-being.

Art and sculpture also flourished under his rule. Even today, the Stupas at Gaya, Sarnath and Sanchi reflect his fine taste of architecture. The Ashok Chakra and the Lions of the iron pillar hold their importance in our national flag and stamps. These two symbols always remind us of Ashoka's greatness.

Ashoka was a man of high learning. He had a strong character. He maintained friendly relations with the neighboring kingdoms. He was the most respected Emperor who won the hearts of all his subjects. He really was "The Great".

LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI

Lai Bahadur Shastri was born on 2nd October, 1904 at Mughal Sarai town in Uttar Pradesh. His father Sharda Prasad was a man of very limited means.

He was hardly two years old when he lost his father. After his father's death, his mother left for her parent's house. After receiving primary education at Mughal Sarai, he went to his uncle at Varanasi and joined Harish Chander High School.

Thereafter he joined Kashi Vidya Peeth at Varanasi and passed his examinations in the first division.

He offered Satyagraha and was sentenced to imprisonment at different times. In all he had to spend almost eight long years in internment.

As prime minister he had to face a multitude of problems. In fact, he assumed the office of Prime Minister immediately after the death of Jawahar Lai Nehru.

During Indo-Pak war, Lai Bahadur Shastri showed rare quality of courage and determination. His speeches during the war aspired the people of India.

They were galvanized. He gave a slogan J ai Jawan Jai Kissan". The slogan instilled in the forces a triumphant spirit.

He died on 11th Jan, 1966. The tragic news of his death at Tashkant spread-like a wild fire. Now Vijayghat stands memorial to this heroic man.

Lai Bahadur Shastri was truly a great man who gave less importance to himself and more to institutions.

Sarojini Naidu

Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949), the 'Nightingale of India,' is remembered as a leading woman nationalist leader of India's political struggle for independence. Born in 1879 as Sarojini Chattopadhyay and one of the brightest students in school, she blossomed into a writer of passionate verses on a variety of themes. Her works on poetry are The Golden Threshold, published in 1905; The Feather of the Dawn; The Bird of Time, published in 1912, and The Broken Wing, published in 1917.

After finishing studies at the Madras Presidency, she went to pursue further studies at King's College in London after obtaining a scholarship. It was only after her marriage to Dr. Govindarajulu Naidu in 1893 that she became determined to serve the people in need with courage and perseverance. She urged the student community to stand united and fight against racial and communal disintegration. She worked to encourage the setting up of homes for orphans and other needy persons and schools where girls could pursue education.

She entered politics about the year 1902 with Gopal Other Eminent Personalities Krishna Gokhale as her initiator. Under his guidance, she began to work for the cause of India's freedom from the foreign yoke. Thus she was one of the first women to participate in the national struggle for independence. Working close to Mahatma Gandhi and participating in all of his programmes including the Dandi March, Sarojini Naidu received much adulation. She became the President of the Indian National Congress in 1925. The Asian Relations Conference in the year 1947 was presided by her.

Following India's independence, she was given the governorship of Uttar Pradesh.

Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809 in Kentucky (USA). He worked on the farm of his father. He attended school for less than a year, but taught himself to read and write. He did different types of jobs before he settled as a highly successful lawyer. He was gradually drawn to politics.

The country was having problems regarding the practice of slavery. The white men owned large farms in the southern states, Blacks were brought from Africa to work on these farms, They were kept as slaves. The people of northern states were against this practice of slavery and wanted to abolish it, The Constitution of America is based on the equality of man. Therefore, there was no place for slavery in that country,

At this difficult time, Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the USA in 1860. He wanted to solve the problem of slavery. The southern states were against the abolition of slavery. This brought the unity of the country in danger. The southern states were prepared even to form a new country. Abraham Lincoln wanted all the states to remain united.

He faced many problems. He wanted to preserve the unity of the country at any cost. Finally a civil war broke out between the northern and southern states. He fought the war bravely and declared, 'A Nation cannot exist half free and half slave.' He won the war and kept the country united.

Lincoln was elected president for a second term. He was not against anybody and wanted everybody to live in peace. He made sincere efforts to heal the people's wounds caused by the war. In 1862, Lincoln declared that from then onwards all slaves would be free. This made him very popular among the people. Lincoln was assassinated in 1865.

Meera Bai

A household name for all Hindus, Meera Bai belonged to the royal Rathode family of Marwar. Born in 1547 A.D., she played with an idol of Lord Krishna since her childhood. She was so attracted to the idol that she took him her husband.

At she was married to Prince Bhoja, son of Maharana Pratap of Chittor. It is said that during the entire ceremony she held fast the idol of Lord Krishna and considered that she was actually being married to Lord Krishna.

At her in law's home, she fulfilled all her marital obligations towards the husband, but she could not give up her devotion to Lord Krishna and as such after performing her household duties she would get lost in meditation and worship of the Lord.

She even used to sing and dance with the other devotees and saints, which was never liked by her family members. Meera Bai remained indifferent to their disappointment.

It is even said that once her family members gave her poison under the impression of holy water, but it could do no harm to Meera.

In her later years she went to Vrindavan where she spent her life in the worship of Lord Krishna. Her bhajans are popular and sung even today.

Karl Marx

The Industrial Revolution in Europe helped the factories to produce goods on a large-scale. The surplus goods were exported to other countries. The owners of the factories earned huge profits and became rich. They started new factories and earned more profits, Thus a few businessmen and industrialists became very rich. This new class of people was called capitalists.Though the capitalists became rich, they did not pay enough wages to the workers.

During these days, Karl Marx was born in 1818 in Germany. He studied law, history and philosophy at the Universities of Bonn and Berlin. He thought about the miseries of the working people. He wanted to fight against the unfair and unjust situation. In 1848, revolution broke out against capitalism in many parts of Europe. Marx and his friend Engels took active part in it. The revolution failed and Karl Marx was expelled from Germany. He spent the rest of his life in London.

Marx thought that the modern factories producing large quantities of goods should not be owned by individuals. He wanted the workers or society to own them. The most famous of his early writings is The Communist Manifesto, which he and his friend Engels wrote together in 1848, It appeals to workers in all countries to unite and fight against the capitalists. He wanted a classless, communist society.

Marx further developed his ideas on economics and wrote them in a book which is known by its German title Das Kapital. Marx claimed that the struggle to make a living, had divided people into social classes. He wanted the working classes to revolt and make themselves masters of society. He also wrote many articles in different newspapers. Karl Marx died in England in 1883. His ideas provided the basis for communist thinking.

Jesus Christ

In the olden times Jewish priests were very wicked. Their holy book said that people should hate their enemies. At that time a brilliant child was born in the family of a carpenter in the village Nazreth.

His mother's name was Mary. When he was twelve year old his knowledge about God was more than the priests. At the age of twenty, he went in a jungle and kept fast for forty days and discovered the true path of life.

He returned home and began to teach people that one should shed hatred and love their enemies. The most important lesson he taught to the people of the village was "Do to others only those things you would like them to do to you."

He told the people that the world had grown wicked-But God is kind enough to forgive everyone who felt sorry for his mistakes and confess them. He became very famous and thousands of people flocked to listen to him from far off places.

The priests of the Jews feared to lose their power so they began to hate Jesus and even started planning to kill him. On their complaint Roman Governor told them that he had no reason to arrest him.

The Jewish priests conspired and bribed Jesus's friend Judas to capture him. After capturing Jesus, they produced him before Governor; he didn't find any fault with Jesus. The Governor was compelled to order for his crucifixion as Jesus said nothing in his self defense.

Thus the lighting figure sacrificed his life for the sins of mankind.

Asoka as a King

Asoka was not only great as missionary, but was also great as a ruler. The examples he showed as a king are rare in the annals of monarchs. The finest principles of his administration were announced in his Kalinga rock Edict. He proclaimed: “All men are my children. Just as for my children I desire that they been united with all welfare and happiness of this world and of the next, precisely do I desire it all for men.” Asoka thus appears as a paternal king who considered it his duty to work for the happiness of has subjects.

Asoka’s prime objective was to work both for material and spiritual welfare for men. The Dharma Mahamatras were appointed to look to that. On the material side, the emperor ordered for liberality and charity towards the needy; for protection of the interests of different sects of people; for protecting people against injuries; for reduction of punishments to criminals and for release of old men or fathers of many children from prisons etc. Only the spiritual side, he taught people all those values, which made life nobler and better.

Besides Dharma Mahamatras, he also appoints Rajukas “shall make themselves acquainted with what gives happiness or pain, and exhaust the people of provinces

along with the faithful, so that they may give happiness in this world and in the next.” The emperor further wrote: “just as a person feels confident after making over a child to a clever nurse, saying unto himself: ‘the clever nurse desires to bring up my offspring’, even so have I appointed the Rajukas for the welfare and happiness of the provincials, in order that they may perform their duties without fear, with confidence, and without perplexity.”

Asoka taught of his administrative works as sacred duties. He commanded his officers to be a dutiful, sincere and just. His inscriptions are full of instructions for the servants of the state. As regards himself, he wanted to be only duty always and everywhere. He announced: “At all hours and in all places, whether I am eating or am in the closed apartments, in the inner chamber, in the royal rancho, only horseback or in pleasure orchards, the reporters may report People’s business to me. People’s business I do at all places.”

Asoka’s administration was humanitarian and liberal. He wanted to reduce the sufferings of men in their actual living. For pilgrims he built inns. For travelers, he built roads. For men and animals, he laid orchards. All these public works were undertaken in proportion to the gigantic size of the empire. Asoka’s period was as time of hectic activities in the service of men.

In his unbound kindness, the emperor thought of minimizing bodily pain of both man and animals. He established all over his empire centers of medical treatment. They were of two kinds, one for men, and other for animals. Medicinal plants and herbs were planted extensively.

A political ruler though he was, Asoka’s concept of rule was ethical. He considered the service of men as a religion of ruler. But what for? To him, as king was in debt to his people. It is by duty that he should release himself from that debt. His philosophy of Government can be summed up in his following words:

“There is no higher duty than the welfare of the whole world .and what little I made, what is it for? In order that I may be free from debt to the creatures, that I may render some happy here and that they may gain heaven in the next world.”

What Asoka thought for his people and what actually he did for them make him they noblest of the king’s history ever possessed. That settles his place in history as the greatest of the monarchs.

Autobiography of a Rupee

I am now an old coin, and have been in circulation for many years. But I can still remember my early life. My active life began when I was paid over the counter of a bank, along with other new rupees, to a gentleman who cashed a cheque. I went off jingling in his pocket; but I was not long there, as he gave me to a shopkeeper. The shopkeeper looked pleased, and banged me on the counter to see if I were genuine. Then he threw me into a drawer, with a lot of other coins.

I soon found I was in mixed company. I took no notice of the greasy copper coins, as I knew they were of very low caste. I was condescending to the small change, knowing that I was twice as valuable as the best of them, the 50-paisa pieces, and 100 times better than the cheeky little paisa. But I found a number of rupees of my own rank, but none as bright and new as I was. Most were old coins, dull and worn-as I am, alas! Today.

Some of them were jealous of my smart appearance, and made nasty remarks. But a very old rupee was kind, and gave me good advice. He told me I must respect old rupees, and always keep the small change in their place. He summed up his advice with the remark, "A rupee is always a rupee, however old and worn".

Then the drawer was opened, and I was given in change to a young lady, who put me into her purse. But the purse had a hole in it; and, as she walked along the street, I fell out and rolled into the gutter, where I lay for a long time. At last a dirty boy picked me up; and for some time after I was in low company, passing between poor people and petty shopkeepers in dirty little streets. But at last I got into good society, and most of my time I have been in the pockets and purses of the rich.

I have no time to tell the hundredth part of my adventures. I have lived an active life, and never rested long anywhere. Anyway, I have had a better life than a rupee I knew .who spent all his time locked up in a miser's strong-box. What a dull life!

Akbar (the son of Humayun)

After the death of Humayun, Akbar ascended the throne. At the time of the death of his father Akbar was only 14 years old and he was the governor of Lahore. Bairam Khan proclaimed Akbar the king on 14th Feb, 1556 AD at Kslanaur in the district Gurudaspur of Punjab. Bairam Khan became his guardian. Hamida Bano Begum was the mother of Akbar.

Akbar was born on 15th October, 1542 AD at Amarkot in Sindh. He was brought up by his uncle Askari in Qandhar. When he was only nine years old he was made governor of Ghazni for the first time. First of all Akbar marched towards Delhi. He defeated Hemu, the Prime Minister of Adil Shah in the second battle of Panipat in 1556. From 1556 to 1560 AD Gwaltor, Ajmer and Jaipur were annexed to Mughal empire.

Akbar defeated Baz Bahadur the ruler of Malwa in 1562 AD. Rana Pratap, the Rajput ruler of Chittor continued the struggle against the Mughals. Akbar defeated Rana Pratap in the battle of Haldighati in 1576 AD. Akbar died on 15th Oct, 1605 AD and he was buried at Slkandra near Fatehpur Sikri.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

A powerful religious and social reform movement in northern Indian was started by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. Born in AD 1824 at Gujarat, he was named Mul Shankara b his parents.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

A powerful religious and social reform movement in northern Indian was started by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. Born in AD 1824 at Gujarat, he was named Mul Shankara b his parents. He left home at an early age and wandered across the country in search of knowledge and answers to his spiritual questions.

Dayanand Saraswati believed in the existence of only One Supreme Reality which should be worshipped in spirit not form. He said the all knowledge was contained in the Vedas and the social problems of India could be solved but studying the Vedas. His philosophy was- “Go back to the Vedas”. He also started the Shuddhi Movement to reconvert those Hindus who had been converted to other religions.

Dayanand Saraswati attacked decadent socio-religious customs and practices. He opposed child marriage and encouraged widow remarriage. He was in favour of education of women. He also strongly attacked caste distinctions which perpetuated social inequalities.

In AD 1875, Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj at Bombay. His teachings were spread to the masses through this organization. Anyone could join it but had to follow the ‘Ten Principles’, of which the first and the most important one was the study of the Vedas. Use of Hindi and the publication of his teachings in the form of a book- Satyarth Prakash made his philosophy popular among the common people. In course of time, the Arya Samaj became a powerful social, political and religious force in North India, especially in the states of Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.

The good work of Dayanand Saraswati was carried on by his followers. Lala Hansraj set up the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School at Lahore. Soon, this school developed into a famous college. Children were taught in English and Hindi by modern methods. Some disciple founded the Gurukul at Hardwar. A number of DAV educational institutions were established to provide modern education. Thus, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries AD, the Arya Samaj became an important organization for religious and social reforms.

Jahangir

A week after the death of Akbar in 1605 AD, Salim his only son ascended the throne under the title of Nuruddin Mohammad Jahangir. Jahangir was born on 30th August, 1569 AD in the hut of the Sufi Saint Shaikh Salim Christi at Fatehpur Sikri.

The name of his mother was Yodha Bah. In his childhood he was popularly known as Shaikhu Baba. Salim was married to Manbai the daughter of raja Bhagwan Das on 13th Feb., 1585 AD. Jahangir fixed in stone pillar on the bank of the river Yamuna behind Red Fort Agra. He hung a golden chain in front of his palace to give even handed justice to the people. In 1611 AD, Jahangir married Nurjahan.

The most distinguished achievement of Jahangir was his victory over Mewar. Jahangir died in 1627 AD and he was buried in a beautiful tomb of Shahdara on the bank of the river Ravi near Lahore.

Vivekananda

One of the most notable personalities of modern India Swami Vivekananda was a spiritual leader, philosopher and social reformer whose teachings have been a continual source of inspiration to people all over the world. Hailed as the "Prophet of Nationalism", Vivekananda's soul-inspiring messages on the motherland infused the"nationalists of pre- independence India with a burning patriotism. Though never directly involved in politics, he was the very spirit of courage, self-help and independence.

Advocating the building up of physical and moral courage and pride in the ancient glory of India, he awakened millions to the plight of the motherland and strengthened Indian nationalism. His speeches on foreign soils not only roused the international community to India's strife for freedom but unveiled to them the glory of India's ancient religion and culture.

Narendranath Datta or Vivekananda was born on January 12,1863 in Calcutta. He cleared the entrance examination of the Metropolitan Institute and studied in the

Scottish Church College in Calcutta. His education included study of western philosophy which he later used to interpret Indian concepts on religion. He became a disciple of the saint Ramakrishna Paramhansa.

After his guru's death, he became a monk to popularise Ramakrishna's teachings denouncing priestly domination and rituals, and emphasising renunciation, bhakti and meditation. After taking the vow of sannyasa he travelled all around India. He adopted the name 'Vivekananda' at the suggestion of Maharaja Ajit Singh of' Khetri. Vivekananda opposed child marriage, discrimination on the basis of caste and the poor status of women and supported education and health care for the needy.

In 1897, he formed the Ramakrishna Mission to carry out charity and work for spiritual welfare. The Mission mainly sought to improve the condition of women, overhaul the education system and fight against caste injustices and belief in superstitions.

While meditating on a rock at Kanyakumari—which now bears the Vivekananda memorial, he decided to spread Indian culture in the West and arouse it to the needs of the poor in India.

In 1893, Vivekananda attended the World Parliament of Religions at Chicago, USA to represent Hinduism. His performance there made history for he astounded the audience by his portrayal of Hinduism as a religion of tolerance and universal acceptance. It was his rhetoric, his showmanship and the manner in which he unveiled the religion in western terms that won him international repute. His lectures abroad on other occasions as well revealed the essential spirit of Hinduism and its relevance in modern times to the western world. As a result, he won many followers abroad.

He wrote the Song of the Sannyasin. The journal Parbuddha Bharat was set up. He was the inspiration behind the setting up of the Advaita Ashram at Pithoragarh, the Shanti Ashram in California and Vedanta Centre in San Francisco.

For Vivekananda, the Bhagavat Gita bore the supreme goals of mankind. He spread the ideas of universal brotherhood, unity in diversity and unattached karma of the Sanatana Dharma. He believed that true Hinduism was to be found in the Advaita Vedanta which considers all kinds of phenomena as incomplete representations of the one reality. He drew upon western idealistic and evolutionary thoughts to explain that the philosophy of Advaita was a scientific and rational set of principles that could provide the universal cure for problems whethertheybe ofmaterialism or backwardness.

Vivekananda held the Vedanta as the touchstone of reason. He called to the youth of India to draw their inspiration from the Vedanta and strive to free India from political bondage and advance her spiritually. Vivekananda's spiritual philosophy and national-istic thoughts influenced Aurobindo Ghose, Radhakrishnan, Aldous Huxley and many others.

Annie Besant

 Annie Besant was a leading member of the Theosophical Society, founded I AD 1886. It had its headquarters at Adyar (near Madras). The society worked for the revival of Hinduism. Annie Besant propagated Vedic philosophy. She was deeply committed towards ancient philosophies and urged the Indians to take pride in their culture. She helped set up schools for boys and girls and for the children of the oppressed classes.

Chandra Shekhar Azad

A famous revolutionary hailing from Uttar Pradesh, Chandra Shekhar became popular as 'Azad' when, arrested during the Non-Cooperation Movement and questioned by the court, he repeatedly gave his name as 'Azad'. He believed that aggression was necessary to end the British rule.

Azad became a member of the Hindustan Republican Association. He took part in the Kakori conspiracy of 1925 and worked in association with the Bengal revolutionaries. He became a leader of the Hindustan Social Republ ican Army and the head of its military division. He was involved in a number of incidents such as the second Lahore Conspiracy, the Delhi Conspiracy, the killing of Saunders in Lahore and the throwing of the bomb in the Central Assembly. Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad while fighting the police.

Mugal Emperor Aurangzeb

With his victory in the war of succession, Aurangzeb became the Emperor in 1658. Only coming to the throne, he styled himself as Alamgir by keeping his old father a prisoner, and by killing his brothers, he proved himself a man of merciless character.

In many respects, Aurangzeb was a remarkable man. Among the great Mughals, he possessed extraordinary personal qualities. In this private life, he was far from vices, pleasures and extravagance. He was so puritan that he abolished music from the royal court and dismissed the singers and musicians. He maintain high moral standard and lived a simple life. He devoted himself wholeheartedly to the affairs of the State. He remained dutiful till the sunset of his life.

Aurangzeb was deeply religious. To many Muslims, he appeared as a living saint, Zinda Pir. Even in the thick of battle, he could kneel down to pray when the time of prayer come.

But with all these personal qualities, he became a sad failure as a ruler. Though pure in private life, he could not rise above some grave defects of his character. He is suspicious of everybody. He gave no trust to others, and therefore received no trust. His heart and mind were too hard. He had no pity. People were afraid of him. He had no friends and advisers. As he worked hard to run the empire, he took all responsibilities upon himself. His fearful officers did not get opportunity to show their ability. The administration of a vast empire became a personal matter of the emperor.

The Mughal Empire reached its zenith under Aurangzeb. Its territorial extent became the largest. Yet the signs of decline became clear. For this, Aurangzeb’s personal character was partly responsible. Side by side, his religious and political policies became largely responsible for the decline of the Empire.

Aurangzeb’s Religious Policy

Personal Orthodoxy- Aurangzeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim. His extreme devotion to his own faith made him rigid in his outlook. He lacked vision, imagination and understanding in religious matters. To him, his own religion was the only true religion. Other faiths counted for nothing.

In the respect, he was just the opposite of Akbar. Akbar was pious Muslim, but he respected the religions of others. To him, the substances of all religions were same. All religions also pointed to the same goal. In India, as Akbar realized, the Hindus formed

the vast majority of the population. Without their sympathy, the foundation of the Mughal Empire could never be strong. He, therefore, adopted a liberal policy towards the Hindus. As a result, the Hindus gave him their maximum support. The Mughal Empire thus received a secular national character. Akbar’s son Jahangir, and Grandson Shah Jahan followed that policy. The Mughal Empire thus completed a century of its grand existence.

But Aurangzeb abounded the wisdom of Akbar. This signaled a danger to the Empire. He fought the war of succession as the champion of orthodoxy against the liberal Dara. Coming to the throne, he thought it wise to follow a rigid Islamic policy. His mistake was that he looked at the Empire through the zeal for his faith.

Religious measures:

Aurangzeb took several steps to work out his new policy. Restrictions were imposed only religious practices of other communities. For example, the Hindus could not attend their religious fair freely. Festivals like Dipavali were prohibited in the cities. The Hindus could not get official appointment as before. Aurangzeb forgot that Akbar gave service only merit, not only religious consideration. The Rajputs who enjoyed higher places in previous reigns fell from Aurangzeb favour.

From the time of Akbar, the Hindu subject came to see the Emperor to pay respect. System was known as the Jharoka Darshan. Every morning the Emperor stood only balcony of the palace to receive the salute of the people. Aurangzeb gave up this good practice. He also abolished the use of Kalma or the Muslim confession of faith only the coins so that men of faiths should not touch it. Officers called Muhtasibs were appointing to “regulate the lives of the people in strict accordance with the Holy Law”. All such steps created a gulf between the Government and the governed.

Finally, Aurangzeb committed the worst mistake of his reign. In the year 1679, he re-imposed the hated Ziziya tax on the Hindus. It was a tax only the non-Muslims to practice their own religion. Though not economically oppressive, this tax was most painful to the Hindus for sentimental reasons. Akbar had abolished it to win over the Hindus. After some time, The Emperor passed another harsh regulation. Except the Rajputs, other sections of Hindus were not permitted to keep arms, and to ride horse, elephant or palanquin.

Thus, that Aurangzeb reversed the Mughal policy of liberalism. By this unwise action he invited trouble for himself and paved path for the downfall his empire.

Revolts:

Revolts broke out against Aurangzeb because of his religious policy. The first to rise were the Jats of Mathura.Under their leaders like Gokla, Raja Ram, Charuman, they continued their uprising again and again. The second people to revolt were the Bundelas under Chhatrasal Bundela. Chhatrasal organized the Hindus of Bundelakahnd and Malwa. His troops defeated the Mughal soldiers repeatedly. Aurangzeb could not suppress this brave warrior in his life time. After the emperor’s death, Chhatrasal created an independent territory of himself.

Even a peaceful people like the Santamis took up the arms. They were a God-fearing religious sect of the Hindus. They lived in the Patiala and Alwar areas. They lived by agriculture and trade, and were devoted to religious practices. But suddenly they rose against Aurangzeb for his illiberal measures. Their revolt became serious that the

Emperor himself proceeded to suppress it. The poor santamis were mercilessly put down. But their discontent did not die out.

While these smaller revolts were going only, Aurangzeb’s dispute began with formidable sections of the Hindu population, namely, the Rajputs and the Marathas, as well as with the Sikhs.

Vardhamana Mahavira

Vardhamana was born at Kundagrama, a suburb of Vaisali now known as Basukunda (modern Muzafarpur district of Bihar) in the Jnatric (known as Niya in Pali) Kshatriya clan. His father Siddhartha was a wealthy noble; mother Trishala was sister of a Lichchhavi prince Chetaka of Vaisali whose daughter was wedded to Bimbisara of Magadha. Vardhamana was married to his cousin Yasoda and had a daughter Priyadarshana or Anojja who was given in marriage to his nephew Jamali. Different dates have been given by different scholars about his birth and death though all of them agree that he lived for 72 years and died at Pava near Rajagriha in the house of the ruler by the name Hastipala (Hatthivala).

According to one view he was born in 618 B.C. and died in 540 B.C. As per another view he was born 540 B.C. and died in 468 B.C., which is generally accepted. According to the Jaina tradition Mahavira's death took place 470 years after the beginning of Vikrama Era i.e. 470+58=528 B.C. Hence, according to this view he was born in 528+72=600 B.C. But this view is generally discarded, as the source is undependable for confusing between kingdoms of Ujjain and Magadha. The famous Jaina writer Hemachandra (12th century A.D.) states that Chandragupta Maurya's accession to the throne took place 155 years after the death of Mahavira. As per this view the year of death comes to 322+155=477 B.C and that of birth comes to 477+72=549 B.C. In any case he was a senior contemporary of Gautam Buddha.

Attainment of Knowledge:

After the death of his parents and with the permission of his elder brother Nandivardhana, he left home at the age of 30. For over twelve years Vardhaman wandered from place to place begging his food, meditating,disputing and subjecting his body to extreme austerities. During this period another ascetic, Gosala Mukhaliputta, shared his hardships for six years but ultimately the two quarreled on doctrinal isssues and Gosala left Vardhamana to found the new sect of Ajivikas. At first he wore a single garment for thirteen months after which he gave it up and the rest of his life was spent in complete nudity. In the 13th year of his asceticism out of severest penance and deep meditation under a saal tree on the banks of the river Rijupalika not far away from the village Jrimbhikagrama he found full enlightenment and the ultimate state of knowledge (Kaivalya) and became Jina (the conqueror) or Nigrantha (free from bondage) or the Arhant (worthy).

Thus, Mahavira (the great hero) propagated Jainism, the religion of the Jinas (the conquerors). He spent the remaining 32 years of his life propagating Jainism.

Parsvanath :

According to traditional accounts the doctrines embodied in Jainism were preached by twenty-fourth Tirthankaras (preparers of the path) or Saints each of whom preached during his own age. With the exception of the last two, Parsvanath and Mahavira the remaining twenty-two are all mythical figures. According to Abhidharma Chaintmani Rishavadeva was the first Tirthankara followed by Adinatha, Sambhabanath, Abhinandanatha, Sumantinath, Padmaprabha, Suparvanath, Chandraprabha,

Suvidhinatha, Vasupuja, Vimalnatha, Anantanatha, Dharmanath, Santinatha, Kunthunatha, Aranatha, Mallinatha, Munisuvrata, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira. The life of Parsvanath who flourished about 250 years before Mahavira, is not known with any element of certainty. He was the son of Asvasena of Varanasi and his wife was Vama. At the age of 30 he abandoned his royal life and became an ascetic and after 84 days of intense penance attained enlightenment. He lived upto 100 years and preached his religion.

Parsvanath taught the fourfold virtue of Satya (truthfulness), Ahimsa (non-injury), Aparigraha (non-possession) and Asteya (non-receipt of anything except when it is freely given). Mahavira added one more to these four vows - Brahmacharya (celibacy). Hence unlike Buddha, Mahavira was more a reformer than the founder of a new faith.

Lakshmi Bai - Rani of Jhansi

One of India's youngest and greatest freedom fighters was Lakshmi Bai, the Rani of Jhansi. She was born on 19th November 1835. She married Gangadhar Rao, Maharaja of Jhansi, and came to be known as Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi.

In 1838 the British appointed Gangadhar Rao as the King. Since they had no children. They had adopted a boy and named him Damodar Rao. Soon afterwards, Gangadhar Rao died. The 18-year-old Lakshmi Bai became a widow. But the British did not recognise Damodar Rao as his heir. Lord Dalhousie declared, "The Company does not recognise the late Maharaja Gangadhar Rao's adopted son as an heir. It has, therefore, been decided to include Jhansi in the British provinces."

After the British took over the government from her, the Rani trained herself to become an accomplished warrior. "I will never give up my Jhansi", she declared. Along with many leaders of the freedom struggle including Tantia Tope and Rao Saheb, she discussed rising discontent among the Indian soldiers in the British Army. They were treated badly and forced to work with guns having cartridges that were greased with cow and pig fat. This hurt the religious sentiments of the Hindus and Muslims. It was decided that throughout the country people should rise in revolt. Because the soldiers played a leading part in this war, this uprising was called 'The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857'. It was then that her troops and commanders begged the Rani to become the ruler of the state. The Rani consented.

The British declared war against Jhansi in 1858 and defeated the Rani's army. The Rani escaped from Jhansi and went to Kalpi and joined Tantia Tope and Rao Saheb. Together they went to Gwalior to try and collect troops to fight again. The British soon encircled them. A British soldier threw a dagger at Rani and injured her badly. The Rani killed the solider. But there was no time to rest. The British army was pursuing her. When the Rani was about to cross the Swarnarekha* Canal, another British soldier shot her on her thigh. Flashing the sword with her left hand, the Rani put an end to him. She reached a safe spot where surrounded by her loyals she breathed her last.

The British General Sir Hugh Rose who fought against the Rani saluted her greatness and said : "Of the mutineers, the bravest and the greatest commander was the Rani."

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in a famous family of Bengal in 1772 A.D. He was a great scholar of Sanskrit, Persian, and English and knew Arabic, Latin and Greek. He studied Hindu scriptures like the Vedas, the Upanishadas etc. and books of other religions. He joined the service of the East India Company in 1805 and gradually rose

to high offices. He died in England in 1833 while he was pleading the case of pension for the Mughal emperor Akbar-II.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the first social reformer of Modern India and he is rightly called the 'Father of Modern India'. He had a rational and scientific approach and believed in the principle of human dignity and social equality. He was a perfect combination of the East and the West.

He was deeply devoted to the work of religious and social reform, so he founded the 'Brahmo Samaj* in 1825. He condemned polytheism and idol worship and propagated the concept of one God. His religious ideas had assimilated elements of Islam, Christianity, Hinduism and modern European liberal philosophy. He translated ancient Indian works on religion and philosophy into Bengali.

He attacked the caste system and campaigned to persuade the Government to abolish 'Sati' system and child marriage. He advocated equal rights for women, right of widows to remarry and right of women to property.

He stood for modern education, introduction of English education for the propagation of science in India and modernization of Indian society.

He was internationalist and supported the cause of freedom everywhere. He celebrated the success of the 1830 Revolution in France and condemned the Britishers who were inflicting miseries on Ireland.

Chandragupta-I – son of Ghatotkacha gupta

Third ruler Chandra gupta-I was the successor and son of "Maharaja" Ghatotkacha gupta (who ruled from 320 A.D. to 335 A.D ). He was the first sovereign ruler of this dynasty who assumed the title of "Maharajadhiraja". During his brief rule he succeeded in raising the power and prestige of his dynasty.

His marriage with 'Kumaradevi', a Lichchhavi princess helped him in amassing great political gains by adding Lichchhavi principality to Magadha and thereby enhancing the power and prestige of the guptas.

Chandragupta -I was able to extend his dominion over Awadh as well as Magadha and along the Ganges as far as Prayaga or Allahabad. Thus probably Chandragupta's empire included a part of Bengal, Bihar and Uttar-Pradesh as far as Allahabad.

Chandragupta-I is said to have also started a new era from 319 or 320 A.D. (Probably December or February). It is not clear from any records that he started this era, which came to be known as "Gupta Sambat" or "Gupta Era", but since Chandragupta-I is indicated as a "Maharajadhiraj" he is credited with the founding of the era.

Nothing is known about the death of Chandragupta-I. Probably, after placing Samudragupta on the throne he became hermit and died as such.

great ruler- Bukka

Bukka was a great ruler. He carried on the traditions of the Vijayanagar Empire and infused a new life into moribund Hindu society. He assumed the title of "Vedamarga-pratishthapaka or the establisher of the path of the Vedas". He retained and renovated the temples and patronized Hindu learning.

Literary works mostly dealing with Hindu religion and philosophy were produced during his reign. His guru Madhavacharya Vidyaranya and his celebrated brother

Sajanacharya took a leading part in literary activities. Telugu literature also flourished due to his encouragement.

He was a tolerant and kind who made no distinction between his subjects on the basis of caste or creed. All religious communities enjoyed complete freedom in his kingdom. He tried to bring together the various sects of Hinduism particularly the Vaishnavas and the Jainas.

He cleared practically the whole of South India from the domination of the Muslim rulers and brought it under one unified control. Even Firishta, otherwise a hostile writer, pays a handsome tribute to Bukka whose "country was well prepared and the subjects were submissive to his authority.

The rais of Malabar, Ceylon and other countries kept ambassadors at his court, and sent annually rich presents."

Bhakta Surdas

Bhakta Surdas was born on Vaishakh Panchmi in Samvat 1535 to a poor family of Ballabhagarh. He was blind since his birth but had a strong inner vision. At 18 he went to Gaughat, near Mathura, where he used to sing bhajans.

Impressed by his bhajans of Lord Krishna, Ballabhacharya initiated him as his disciple. Surdas is renowned for his realistic description of child Krishna, his divine pranks with Yashoda and cowherdesses.

His verses show his profound knowledge of the spiritual world and his deep devotion to Lord Krishna. It is said that he composed of 1, 10,000 songs of which only 10,000 are available. About 4,578 poems are collected in Sur Sagar. These are further divided into 12 skandhas.

Raja Rammohan Roy

Raja Ramona Roy was born in 1772 in Bengal. He was a learned man and a social reformer. He was able to abolish the Sati System in Hinduism by enacting law passed by the government.

Ramona went to England to complain against a number of irregularities, of the British rule in India, and also the injustice done to his countrymen. He was invited by the King of England in his palace. He stayed in England for a long time, working for the welfare of his countrymen.

English language was then internationally recognized as the medium of higher education, especially in science and technology. So he wanted to introduce English education in the Indian educational institutions.

He established English medium schools in India with the help of some of his European friends and also some of the enlightened Indians.

Rammohan believed in One God. He founded Brahma Samar which worshipped only Brahma, said to be the creator of the universe. Rammohan Roy was a philosopher, patriot, educationalist, author and a great social reformer.

Lord Gautama Buddha

The childhood name of Gautama Buddha was Siddhartha. He was born in 563 BC. His father's name was Shuddhodhana who was the king of Kapilvastu. His mother's name was Maya Devi. She died when Gautama was only seven days old. It was his step-mother, Gautami Devi, who brought him up.

He grew up to be a very sensitive young man who was much concerned with the welfare of others. His father tried his best to keep him involved in the luxurious life of the palace. He did not want that young Siddhartha should go outside and see the misery of the world. But history tells us that the young man went out with his charioteer, Channa on three occasions, at least.

Siddhartha was greatly touched as he saw an old man, a sick man and a dead body. He wanted to do something to deliver the humanity from all such misery. He reflected on this problem for long.

At last on hearing some words from the mouth of a hermit which encouraged him to renounce the world, he decided to leave the palace and go into the forest for meditation. Before going, he had a lasting glance on his beloved wife Yashodhra and son, Rahul, who were enjoying a sound sleep at midnight.

He started austere meditation to know the secret of life and death and observed long fasts. At last, he got enlightenment under the Bodhi tree at Gaya. Now, he became the 'Buddha' the enlightened one.

He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath. At first, five persons became his disciples. Soon, his message began to spread far and wide and the number of his disciples grew quickly. Buddhist 'math' were later established all over the country.

He was an agnostic. He challenged the truth of the Vedas. He laid stress on truth and reason. He preached that the sole cause of misery was our desires which should be controlled to get peace and happiness.

He laid emphasis on the middle path and exhorted his disciples to follow the eight fold path to get rid of misery. In essence, his message means service to mankind and all living beings without any selfish motives.

King Bindusara

Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara. If Jain tradition is to be believed the name of his mother was Durdhara. The Greek historian Alhenacus calls him Amitrochates (Sanskrit Amitraghata 'Slayer of Foes' or Amitrakhada 'Devourer of Foes'). We do not know how he got the title of 'Amitrochates'.

Greek historians say little about the internal affairs of India in the days of Bindusara: The Jain scholar Hemachandra and the Tibetan historian Taranatha state that Chanakya outlived Chandragupta and continued as a minister of Bindusara.

Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana (also named Susima) as his Viceroy at Taxila and Asoka at Ujjaini. The Divyavadana tells the story of a revolt in Taxila. When it went out of control for Sumana or Susima, Bindusara deputed Asoka to restore order.

Bindusara maintained friendly relations with the Hellenic world that had been established in the later days of his father. It is said on the basis of the Greek sources

that Bindusara asked the Syrian-King Antiochus I Scoter (of Syria) "to buy and send him sweet wine, dried figs and a philosopher".

Thereupon, the Syrian King replied "we shall send you figs and wine, but the Greece laws forbid a philosopher to be sold". Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philladelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as his ambassador to India.

Bindusara had a large family. Asoka states in his fifth Rock Edict that he had several brothers and sisters. Two of these brothers are named in Divyadana as Susima and Vigatasoka, whom the Sri Lankan chronicles, name Summan and Tishya; the former was Asoka's step brother. Asoka's mother was named Subhadrangi or Dharma, and Tishya was his youngest brother.

Hockey player Udham Singh

Of the finest hockey players of India was Udham Singh. He is le second Indian player who has the distinction of playing in three lccessive Olympic Games. These were the 1952 Helsinki Olympics, 56 Melbourne Olympics and 1960 Tokyo Olympics.

His professional career began with the Punjab Police and later on he tend the B.S.E His international' career in hockey started in 1949 in ghanistan and he remained an indispensable part of the Indian team till 64. During his one and half decade long career, he was the captain of Iain team thrice -1953, 1959, 1961.

A versatile player, Udham Singh was a fine centre-forward player. He 1 the capability to play at left-inside, right-inside, centre-forward at centre-half position too.

His dedication and devotion to the Indian m always set an example for his colleagues. Once when his team was lying in a tournament he got himself into the playing kit and turned the les. Indian government honoured him with the coveted Arjuna Award.

Sri Aurobindo Gosh

Aurobindo was born on August 15,, 1872 at Calcutta in rich aristocratic family. His father was Dr. Krishnadhan Ghose, an anglicized medical officer. His mother was Swarnalatha Devi. The family was well-known throughout Bengal.

Aurobindo along with his two brothers was sent to Darjeeling to pursue Westernized education. Aurobindo went to England to qualify for I.C.S. He returned to India without completing the courses, even though he passed the open test. On return from England he joined service in the State of Baroda, in the settlement department. Later he joined as Professor of English in Baroda College.

He was a voracious reader of books even from his boyhood. He was specially interested in subjects like History and Philosophy. He was a good orator and many people thronged to listen to him.

He started his political career while working at Baroda. Later he expanded his activities to Maharashtra, Gujarat and other states in India including his home state, Bengal. He was a revolutionary with deep thoughts. He was in some way or other connected with many Indian extremists to drive the British rules. He married at the age of 29 but his married life was not quite a happy one.

On account of his anti-British Government activities he could not live in British India safely. So he sifted his residence to Pondicherry, which was then under French rule. Aurobindo was a mystic. He was great liking for Yoga and practiced it sincerely. He

was religious and also had a scientific temper. He was of the opinion that there was no place for superstition in religion. He pursued his quest in this direction and developed his philosophy.

After settling in Pondicherry he started an Ashram and also a small school to experiment his ideas. He got a realization that ‘All is He’, meaning that everything is God and that changed his life. He developed the principle of universal Brotherhood and put it in practice by starting an International school at Pondicherry and also an international Residential Complex named Aurovile.

He had written a number of books and his lectures are also compiled into various volumes. On education he had some clear-cut ideas. He said (1) student should be totally free to learn (2) a school should have a healthy atmosphere (3) Student should be creative and (4) Spiritual education along with physical education is necessary. Teacher would set the tasks. The students are to explore the answers and find them out. Aurobindo believed in evolutionary process of change and he felt if men could evolve from an ape, he is sure to evolve into a superman in the years to come.

In the later years of his life Aurobindo spent more time on spiritual quests than on politics. He was a real a patriot and fighter for India’s freedom in his earlier years. Aurobindo left his mortal frame on December 5, 1950 leaving his philosophy behind. He wrote (1) Life divine (2) Essays on the Gita (3) Basis of Yoga (4) Love and Death, a attracts people from all corners of the world even today.

Vallabhbhai Patel

Vallabhbhai Patel, remembered as 'Sardar Patel' and honoured with the title of 'the Iron Man of India', assumes a special place in the history of India's freedom struggle. Not only was he a fearless and dedicated freedom fighter, but he also equally concerned himself with social service. His unique achievement was his creation of a new, united India or the 'Bharat'—the India of today—by integrating the erstwhile princely states into the Indian Union within a year's time.

Vallabhbhai Patel was born at Nadiad in Gujarat on October 31,1875 in the family of an agriculturist, Jhaverbhai Patel who was believed to have fought in the army of Rani Jhansi at the time of the 185 7 revolt. A latecomer to school life, Vallabhbhai completed his matriculation in 1897. A law course, preparatory to the District Pleaders' Examination, set him up as a country lawyer in Godhra. He gained reputation as a defence lawyer and left for England in 1910 to pursue higher studies in law. He distinguished himself in the Roman law and became a Barrister in just two years instead of three. Coming back to India, he set up legal practice in Ahmadabad.'

It was from 1917 onwards that Vallabhbhai began seriously devoting himself to social service. Elected Municipal Councillor in Ahmadabad and Secretary to the new Gujarat Sabha that went on to aid Gandhi immensely in his Gujarat campaigns, Vallabhbhai now involved himself in the peasant struggle.

In 1918, he started the Kheda or Kaira Satyagraha that demanded the suspension of revenue collection from cultivators as the crop yield was less than 25 per cent—a provision included in the land revenue regulations. Vallabhbhai, who was thus brought in close alliance with Gandhi, encouraged the cultivators to fight in a non-violent and confident manner. The two men played a large part in forcing the government to finally yield to the cultivators' demands. What awaited Vallabhbhai next was the other great Satyagraha to follow—the Bardoli Satyagraha. It was while fighting for the rights of peasants in Bardoli that the nation saluted him as their 'Sardar'. Vallabhbhai courageously led as many as 80,000 peasants in this taluka in Surat district to protest

against the land revenue hike by 22 per cent or even 50 to 60 per cent. Again here, the government was forced to agree that it would assess the correct revenue to be levied. Vallabhbhai had by this time given up his legal practice and had splendidly trans-formed the Municipal Committee of Ahmadabad from a local body into a popular representative institution.

Vallabhbhai actively participated in the boycott of the Simon Commission and helped Gandhi and other leaders launch the salt Satyagraha. He became the first national leader to be arrested in March, 1930. Recognising his dedication to the freedom cause, the Indian National Congress made him its President in the March of 1931. When the Congress ministries were set up in 1937, Vallabhbhai guided the provincial governments along Congress policies as Chairman of the

Congress Parliamentary Sub-Committee. He also instructed the ministries to resign in 1939 in protest. Vallabhbhai participated in Gandhi's individual civil disobedience and he was arrested on November 17, 1940 though soon released on account of his health. But he now participated in the Quit India Movement. Arrested on August 9, 1942, he was imprisoned for about three years this time.

After the Second World War, Vallabhbhai, on behalf of the Congress, explored with the British ways to provide a peaceful and enduring solution where Indian independence was concerned. India gained independence and he was appointed the Deputy Prime Minister of India, with the Home, Information and Broadcasting, and States portfolios placed under his care. Vallabhbhai reorganised the Civil Services by creating categories such as the Indian Administrative Service and the Indian Foreign Service. The Hindi language received its due status in the government media. And as Minister of States he integrated 562 States into the Indian Union within just 365 days!

Aurangzeb

In 1657 AD, emperor Shahjahan fell ill and war of succession started. Aurangzeb emerged victorious. He was twice coroneted- once in July 1658 AD immediately after his occupation of Agra and second in June 1659 AD at the Fort of Shahjahan in Delhi.

The name of his mother was Mumtaz Mahal. He was born on 31 July, 1618 AD at a place near Ujjain. He was married to Diltras Bano Begam on 18th May, 1637 AD.

He was an orthodox Sunni Muslim. He did not follow the policy of religious toleration as set by Akbar. The Rajputs revolted against him which proved very harmful for him. He ruled for 50 years. His reign was divided into two equal periods of about 25 years. From 1658- 1681 AD, during this time he concentrated in north India. During this period Shaista Khan, the governor of Bengal captured the island of Sandip in the bay of Bengal. During Aurangzeb's reign Marathas had become very powerful under Shivaji. Aurangzeb set out for the Deccan in 1682 AD and spent 25 years of his life there. He conquered many Deccan states.

He died in 1707 AD and was buried near Daulatabad.

Allan Octavian Hume

A. O. Hume's name figures among those few Bruisers who not only supported the cause of Indian independence but also zealously worked for it. Hume came to India after joining the Indian Civil Service (in 1849). He introduced several reform measures for social emancipation, some of them being—scheme of free schools at Etawah, scholarships for higher education and establishment of, juvenile reformatory school.

He also favoured the introduction of new technologies in the field of agriculture for increasing the quantity and quality of food production. He criticized the unjust and anti- India policies of the British and opposed the concentration of judicial powers in the hands of police superintendents. In consequence of his criticism of Lord Lytton's administration, he was removed from the Secretariat.

After retiring from the ICS in 1882, Hume began mobilising leading intellectuals and nationalistic forces of the time and formed the Indian National Union in March 1884. This was later named as the Indian National Congress. The INC was the first political organization to exist at an all-India level. Hume is thus appropriately known as the father of the INC, who led Indians to fight "bloodless battles of constitutional reform". He dedicated the rest of his life in popularizing the aims and objectives of the Congress both in India and abroad.

He played a significant role in bringing to the notice of English officials the grievances of the people of India. For the purpose, he set up the British Committee of Congress in London in 1899 and launched a journal, India. Although his dream of seeing India an independent country was not fulfilled during his life-time, his assiduous efforts for the cause did not go waste. The INC, which was his brainchild, succeeded in launching a mass political struggle and ultimately overthrew the colonial rule.

The Mughal King Humayun

Humayun, meaning the fortunate one, was born at Kabul on 6 March 1508 from Maham Begam, Babar's third wife who was the daughter of a Shia noble of Khurasan. Humayun's actual name was Nasiruddin Muhammad and he was the eldest of Babar's four sons, the other three being Kamran, Askari and Hindal. When he was only twelve years old, he was appointed as the governor of Badakhshan with his mother, an educated and accomplished lady herself, staying with him and looking after his proper training.

When Babar conquered India in 1526, Humayun distinguished himself in various engagements there including the battle of Panipat. Sent to Badakhshan as its governor by Babar after the battle of Khanua, he returned to Sambhal without informing his father. He fell ill there and within six months after his recovery Babar died on 26 December 1530 nominating Humayun as his successor. It seems the Vazir, Nizamuddin had doubts about his abilities and tried to raise Mahdi Khwaja, Babar's brother-iit-law to the throne. Realising subsequently the hopelessness of his plan, he supported Humayun. Thus, four days after the death of Babar, Humayun ascended the throne on 30 December, 1530 unopposed.

At the time of Babar's death, Humayun was 23 and though he did not lack ability, was deficient in the sustained energy of his versatile father. Presumably, his addiction to opium explained this laxity, Anyway, he could not retain the loyalties of his nobles, who found other centres of power to support Among these, was his elder brother Kamran, governor of Kabul and Kandahar who treacherously added Punjab to his domain after Babar's death.

In 1535, Humayun made a brilliant raid on Gujarat, storming into the strong fortress of Champaner near Baroda. But he was unable to maintain the pace and returned to Agra to take his pleasure, in consequence of which Gujarat and Malwa was lost.

Meanwhile, Sher Khan (later Sher Shah), an Afghan chief was busily consolidating his position in south Bihar. Humayun moved against him taking a long time to take Chunar. Sher Shah by then had moved to Gaur and enriched himself by looting the immense treasure there.

Humayun moved to Gaur and prolonging his stay there allowed Sher Shah to disrupt his supply lines. The hastily returning Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah at Chausa with heavy losses. A year later in May 1540 he was defeated more decisively by Sher Shah at Kanauj, Humayun was then chased by Sher Shah's army to Lahore, but there he did not receive any help from his brothers. He had to flee again, first to Sindh, then to Marwar and then back to Sindh again.

While he was thus wandering from one place to the other, his son Akbar was born at Umrakote on November 23, 1542. Evading his brother Kamran's forces he reached Persia in 1544 and was given asylum by Shah Tahmasp. Promising that he would give Kandahar to the Persians, he won the place with Persian military help and then treacherously retained it. Next he defeated Kamran, pardoned him for sentimental reasons, but his nobles insisted on making him blind.

At this time the throne at Delhi was the cause of conflict between four Sur Afghan claimants, after the death of Sher Shah's son and successor Islam Shah. Humayun had no difficulty in conquering Agra and Delhi in July 1555, thus regaining his father's capital cities. He was establishing a regular civil government when he died by falling from the stairs of his library in January 1556.

Adi Shankaracharya

Adi Shankracharya was born to a Brahmin couple Shivaguru and Aryamba who lived in Kerala in 788 A.D. He studied all the four Vedas, when he was still a child. At 7, he mastered all the holy shastra and upanishads.

At the early age of 8 he renunciated the world. He met Shri Guru Govindanath of whom he became an ardent disciple and who conferred on him the degree of 'Acharya' meaning professor for his knowledge about Adwait philosophy, Upanishads and other Shastras.

He established Mathas or monasteries at Badrinath, Dwarka, Sringeri, Puri and Kanchi. The heads of the Mathas are named after him while the sanyasins who are his followers are called Dashnamis as they are known by the ten appellations namely, Teerth, Ashram, Vana, Aranya, Giri, Parvat, Sagai; Saraswati, Bharati and Puri.

Shankracharya has also been called 'Shanmat Sthajianacharya' because he founded the following six religious cullts: (i) Ganapatyan, (ii) Kaumaram, (iii) Vaishnavam, (iv) Sauram, (v) Saktani and (vi) Shaivam. His literary works include commentaries called Shankar Bhasya. The philosophy that was systematised by Shankracharya was the Adwait philosophy.

Sant Goswami Tulsidas

Sant Goswami Tulsidas was born in Samvat 1554 who was named Rambola. He became orphan at a very early age. It is said that he was passionately love with his wife who later opened his eyes to the truth that such devotion towards God would entirely change his life.

Accordingly, he became an ascctic and came to Kasi where he began discourses on lord Ram. He wrote the immortal epic Ramayan and other important books like Kavitavali, Dohawali, Geetawali, Krishna Geetawali, Parvati Mangal and Janak Mangal. Tulsidas died in Samvat 1680.

Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose

Subhas Chandra was born on 23 January, 1897 in Cuttack. His father named Rai Bahadur Janakinath Bose was a Government pleader working there. Subhas had obtained his early education at Cuttack. In his childhood, the influence of his mother Probhavati Devi and that of the Headmaster named Beni Madhav Das taught him to learn about the ancient heritage of his motherland and to love India more than anything else in his life.

Subhas had his college education at Calcutta. He left for England on 15 September, 1919 to appear at the Indian Civil Service Examination, as desired by his father. He passed the examination by coming out 'Fourth' among the successful candidates, but he did not want to serve the British Government. So he resigned to the lucrative post offered to him. He returned to India and joined the Indian National Congress to fight for the independence of India.

Subhas was sent to jail about eleven times in his life. He became the President of the Congress Party, but later, resigned due to his differences of opinion with Gandhiji.

When the World War II broke in 1941, Subhas was interned in his Calcutta home under constant police guard'. He did not come out of his house for 40 days, nor did he see anyone during that period. And on the 41st midnight, he escaped in the disguise of a Maulavi and reached Germany under an Italian diplomatic passport with an Italian name of Orlando Mazzota.

In Berlin, he formed the first Indian National Army (I.N.A.) with the 'prisoners of war' who were Indian soldiers serving the British Army. Now he came to be known as 'Netaji'. Subhas also founded an Indian Radio Station called Azad Hind Radio in Berlin, from where he had very often to broadcast for his countrymen suggesting about their political activities during the war.

From Berlin, Subhas went to Japan, where the I. N. A. was enlarged with the addition of more soldiers and civilians. The I.N.A. was now a large army. Netaji, as the Chief Commander of the I.N.A., declared war against the British. The I.N.A. fought tooth and nail in the Burma front, and hoisted Indian national flag in Imphal at Manipur. The war took suddenly a strange turn, because the Japanese who were I.N.A.'s allied forces surrendered. So Netaji had to order retreat of his I.N.A.

Netaji's senior army officials advised him to go to Russia for help. He started for Russia in a Japanese aircraft which unfortunately met with an accident at the time of taking off, and the great Indian leader Netaji died on the spot or 18 August, 1945.

Kabir

Kabir, the most radical disciple of Ramananda, gave a positive shape to the social philosophy of his illustrious teacher. In his trenchant arguments against the barrier of castes, Ramananda prepared the way for Kabir.

The later made a sincere attempt at a religious and national synthesis out of conflicting creeds. Kabir was neither a theologian nor a philosopher. He appears before us as a teacher, he had the courage to condemn what he considered to be sham and counterfeit in both Hinduism and Islam.

The central theme of Kabir's teaching is bhakti "Kabir refused to acknowledge caste distinction or to recognize the authority of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, or the four divisions of life prescribed by the Brahmans.

He held that religion without bhakti was no religion at all and that asceticism, fasting and alms-giving had no value if unaccompanied by bhajan (devotional worship)". By means of ramaini, sakhas and sakhis he imparted religious instruction to Hindus and Muslims alike. He had no perference for either religion.

He thought aloud and never made it his object merely to please his hearers. He thor-oughly scrutinized the bases of ritualism. He incessantly fought to remove the ritualistic superstitions like visiting places of pilgrimage.

Kabir was a great satirist and ridiculed all the institutions of his time. He opposed the popular belief in the institution of sati. He was equally against the veiling of women. Kabir refused to recognize the superiority of Brahmins as a class.

He refused to believe that birth in a particular caste was due to the deeds in a previous life. He advocated perfect equality of Shudras and Brahmins. Both Shudras and Brahmins were born in the same way, he said.

Kabir provides us with a code of ethics; he condemned pride and selfishness and advocated the cultivation of the quality of humility. Kabir was a spokesman for the poor and downtrodden section of society.

He condemned the sense of humility and simplicity of the poor as well as the vanity and pride of the rich. By such condemnations, Kabir preached the common brotherhood of man and sought to remove the distinction between Hindus and the Muslims.

Though he led a religious life, Kabir married, and it is said that the name of his wife was Loi. His son Kamal was both a thinker and a devotee.

When, after his father's death, he was requested to organize a sect in his father's name, he answered, 'My father had striven throughout his life against all forms of sectarianisn; how can I, his son, destroy his ideal and thereby commit his spiritual murder?' This remark estranged many of Kabir's disciples from Kamal.

After Kabir's death, his Muslim disciples organized themselves in Maghar, where they founded a monastery; his Hindu disciples were organized into an order by Surat Gopala, with their centre in Varanasi.

The chief scripture of this sect is the well-known Bijak a compilation of Kabir's couplets. In course of time, this centre leaned more and more towords Vedantic doctrines.

Kabir believed in a simple and natural life, He himself wove cloth and sold it in the market like any ordinary weaver. He did not interpret religious life as a life of idleness; he held that all should toil and earn and help each other, but none should hoard money. There is no fear of corruption from wealth, if it is kept constantly in circulation in the service of humanity.

Kabir tried to express simple thoughts of a simple hearts in the common language of the people. He said, 'O Kabir, Sanskrit is the water in a well, the language of the people is the flowing stream'. His simple words had infinite power.

Read the short biography of Humayun

Babur's eldest son Humayun, who succeeded him, inherited "a monarchy which could be held together only by the continuance of war conditions, which in times of peace

was weak, structure less, and invertebrate." Babur's conquests had not been consolidated, the army lacked cohesiveness and the administration an effective machinery.

The imperial treasury was almost bankrupt and beyond the frontiers powerful political forces, such as Malwa, Gujarat and Bengal, were arrayed against the Mughals. On top if it Humayun divided the empire inherited from his father among his three brothers, Kamran, Hindal and Askari.

The Afghans, who had not yet been crushed, also raised their heads. Of them, Sher Khan, known as Sher Shah Suri, proved to be the most formidable enemy of Humayun, and after defeating the latter at Chausa and Kanauj in 1540, completely shat-tered his prospects.

After his final defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri, the Mughal empire in India was temporarily eclipsed and Humayun had to pass nearly fifteen years (1540-55) in exile. But shortly after regaining the empire Humayun die in an accident.