1. CHAPTER 37: COMPUTER- ASSISTED LANGUAGELEARNING EVAGGELIA CHARALAMBOUS UNIVERSITY OF CYPRUS: MA IN TEFL SPRING SEMESTER 2013 ENG 741 TRENDS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

2. OUTLINE Introduction: 1. Definitions of CASLA, CALL (*focus), CALT, CAI, CMC 2. Issues around CALL and itsimplementation in the language classroom 3. Need for thedevelopment of pedagogies and evaluation tools for CALLprograms Theory in Instructed SLA and CALL Empirical Research on CALL: 1. Product- oriented 2. Process-oriented Principles for CALL Pedagogy Research: 1. Computer-Assisted Language Learning as aPredictor of Success in Acquiring English as a SecondLanguage 2. Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants 3. DigitalNatives, Digital Immigrants, Part II: Do They Really ThinkDifferently? 3. INTRODUCTION Computer-Assisted Language Leaning (CALL) isthe search for and study of applications of thecomputer in language teaching and learning (ascited in Chapelle, 2010, p. 539). Computer-Assisted Second Language Acquisition(CASLA) is the umbrella term for: CALL &Computer-Assisted Language Testing (CALT).Additionally, there are sub-areas for these terms,such as the Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI),Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC), etc. The main issues in using CALL are the pedagogiesthat can be applied through technology and theirevaluation 4. INTRODUCTION Varieties of technologies available to the languageteacher: interactive tutorialprograms, webinars, EFL/ESL websites, IWB & IWBsoftware, Web 2.0, electronic communicationtools, blogs, platforms, social networks, linguistic aids(programs) which help learners with spelling &grammar, etc. There is a need for development of practices(pedagogy) that will accompany these programs andthe evaluation of their success after theirimplementation in the language classroom. 5. INTRODUCTION Underwood (1984), based on the comprehensibleinput theory by Krashen (1982), tried to developpedagogical principles for designing CALL activities.These activities must provide students the exposureto sufficient quantities of comprehensible input. Theymust also aim at unconscious acquisition and teachgrammar implicitly. Todays language learners interact with computersin a variety of ways: they shop online, theycommunicate through the use of the internet(facebook, chat rooms), they receive linguistic helpfrom the computer (digital dictionaries, error mark-ups on spelling) In order to motivate our students, it is essential to 6. INTRODUCTION In order to integrate computers and technology ingeneral in our classroom, findings from empiricalresearch are necessary. The question is: How can our understanding of SLAinform the design, use, and evaluation of secondlanguage learning activities that make use oftechnology? (Chapelle, 2010, p.540) Note: teachers can use software specificallydesigned for teaching or commercially availableprograms (Facebook, Twitter, Blogs, Outlook, etc.) 7. THEORY IN INSTRUCTEDSLA & CALL1st change in SLA theory: Schmidt (1990), contradicts Underwood (1984), byclaiming that conscious acquisition (attention) isnecessary for the development of the L2. Noticing isrequired in all aspects of SLA: lexicon, phonology,morphology, grammar, syntax, pragmatics, etc. The above model reinforces the research findings whichdemonstrate that exposure to input must be enhancedwith the appropriate amount of interaction in L2. The importance of interaction selection of pedagogicalmaterials CALL pedagogy (select programs whichfacilitate interaction with the L2) 8. THEORY IN INSTRUCTEDSLA & CALL2nd change in SLA theory: Introduction of the socially-oriented theoreticalperspectives. Sociocultural Theory (SCT) proposes that L2 languagedevelopment is a part of the learners participation inculturally organized practices, life-long involvement in avariety of institutions, and humans ubiquitous use oftools (as cited in Chapelle, 2010, p.541). Tools in CALL: communication technologies (emails,blogs, wikis, IM, ipods, tablets, etc.) Focus on: why and how certain technologies are chosenby learners and how effective they are in the course ofSLA. 9. THEORY IN INSTRUCTEDSLA & CALL3rd change in SLA theory: The cognitive and theoretical perspectives thatguide the design and evaluation of learning activitiesand material in general. These materials can be selected by the teachersbased on their learners context, the instruction andthe contribution of these materials to the learningaims. Technological tools must be informed from thesetheories in order to achieve the goal of learning asecond language 10. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLThe aims of the research are to: Evaluate the effectiveness of instruction which isprovided by the computer. Decide how and how much technology should beintroduced in the language curriculum. Try to enlighten publishers who wish to developmaterial which integrate technology, teachers thatwish to know how successful is the integration oftechnology and teacher trainers that promotetechnology-related pedagogies.The area of research is divided into product-orientedresearch and process-oriented research. 11. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProduct-Oriented Research The problem is that research is limited to comparisonsbetween computer-assisted and non-computer assistedlanguage instruction. This comparison does not help the field to identify thehow, when and why technology can help in theclassroom. There is a need to focus on the pedagogiesaround the implementation of technology in thelanguage curriculum (Dunkel, 1991). The purpose of product-oriented research is to examinewhether technology-based tasks increase the learnerslanguage abilities. The methods of these studies are experimental andquasi-experimental with pre-test and post-test designs. 12. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProduct-Oriented Research Recent research is comparing classes that areteacher-led and hybrid classes some classes areteacher-led and some are online (Chenoweth &Murday, 2003; Scida & Saury, 2006). However, their results are not generalizable andcannot apply to all educational contexts. The how, when and why technology is effective inlanguage instruction is the main concern ofdevelopers of CALL tasks and teacher educators. 13. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProduct-Oriented Research Research around the field found positive results of taskfeatures such as:1. Subtitles in an interactive listening task (Borras & Lafayette, 1994)2. Highlighting linguistic form in texts (Doughty, 1991)3. Interactive glosses for learning reading and listening online (Yoshii & Flaitz, 2002)4. Specific error identification and corrective feedback (Nagata, 1993) Product-Oriented Research provides information on thebenefits of certain CALL activities. 14. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProduct-Oriented Research CMC tasks that provide student-student interaction haveshown positive effects in the consolidation of vocabularyknowledge (De la Fuente, 2003) and improvements inspeaking ability (Payne & Whitney, 2002). Types of online communication tasks that focus both onmeaning and on form are proven to be effective (Fiori,2005). Research is focused on whether a type of knowledgethat has been taught by using technology, is actuallylearned by students whether students are able tolearn through technology and if technology is a better 15. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProcess-Oriented Research Process-Oriented Research investigates the extendto which learners:1. Engage in interactions expected to prompts noticing2. Produce language providing evidence for development3. Expand their access to and engagement with the target language and culture It examines the interactions, discourse and otheraspects of learners performance and the dynamiccontexts of CALL use (Chapelle, 2010, p.543). 16. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProcess-Oriented Research Aims & Focus: Understand the use of CALL byexamining what learners do and focus on theinteractions of students with the computer, the otherstudents and their interlocutors in CMC. The question for examining these interactions is todetermine how frequent they are and how successfulthey can be in the language learning process Theseinteractions are beneficial for learners because they payattention to linguistic form, engage in interactionalmodifications and correct errors in their linguistic output. These kinds of reflective communication and 17. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProcess-Oriented Research In computer-learner interactions, internal modificationsoccur when the learner interrupts his languageprocessing to request for help for ex. when thelearners read a text on the screen and they click on aword to receive its definition (Chun & Plass, 1996). Bland, Noblitt, Armington & Gay (1990) examined System-D, a software that enables learners to get support on the vocabulary and grammar of French while they are writing. Error-correction tools provide error mark-up, spellinghelp and online dictionaries & texts available on theInternet can provide examples (sample essays) ofidiomatic phrases for high proficient learners. 18. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProcess-Oriented Research Error correction (modify an unsuccessful attempt toexpress something) in CMC tasks can occur through: 1.feedback from the computer 2. learners own reflectionon their linguistic output or peer correction. Another focus of process-oriented research: Discourseused when learners are in front of a computer doingcollaborative work and on the discourse of CMC . Language-for-doing: language for makingdecisions, initiate moves and react to the action that thecomputer program takes. 19. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProcess-Oriented Research Chun (1994) conducted a study to identify the discoursemoves that learners of German used in synchronousinteractive written communication: It takes place likea conversation. If your class uses only writing-basedtools to communicate, the only synchronouscommunication possible is a chat session. Everyone getsonline in the same chat room and typesquestions, comments, and responses in real time.Synchronous activities may include chatsessions, whiteboard drawings, and other groupinteractive work. If your class involves multimediatools, synchronous communication might involve audio orvideo feeds to the computerby conference call, orthrough closed-circuit television links.(http://academictech.doit.wisc.edu/ideas/otr/communication/asynchronous-synchronous) 20. EMPIRICAL RESEARCHON CALLProcess-Oriented Research Kern (1995) examined the discourse of students in acomputer-assisted classroom discussion and foundthat learners are involved in meaning-focusedlanguage at their level. Warschauer (1995/6) found that in CMC tasks thelevel of participation of learners was more even thanthe traditional classroom. It is important that the technology chosen to beused in the classroom includes contextual affordancesand constraints that affect learning (Chapelle, 2010,p.545). 21. EMPIRICAL RESEARCHON CALLProcess-Oriented Research Based on the sociocultural theory, research on CALLshould consider the dynamic communication amonglearners, the teacher, the language, the technology, theinstitution affected by the cultural and power relations. Belz (2001) demonstrated that the institutional andcultural factors affected their communication with theirkeypals: a person with whom one becomes friendlyby exchanging emails; an email penfriend(oxforddictionaries.com) Thorne (2003) demostrated that the learners priorexperience with technology influenced their choices in 22. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ONCALLProcess-Oriented Research Technology in the language classroom offers learnersthe opportunity for cultural contact and enhances theirintercultural competence. The focus of research is to raise our awareness and leadto the improvement of practices in software developmentand technology use in the classroom. However, it is important to educate learners on how toutilize and extend classroom practices (learn strategies)outside of the classroom context. how learning can be improved in and out of the classthrough technology? (Chapelle, 2010. p. 546). 23. PRINCIPLES FOR CALL PEDAGOGY CALL pedagogies must be informed by the research onSLA and technology, the technologies that are available tothe learners and successful teaching strategies inimplementing technology in the classroom. Learning materials that involve technology should givelearners the potential of learning the language: 1. directlearners attention to linguistic forms 2. help them withcomprehension and production 3. error-correctionopportunities. Technological learning materials should also be at thestudents level, appropriate for their age and interests andmeaning-focused. Tasks that involve technology should have a positiveimpact on the learners: 1. enhance their intercultural 24. PRINCIPLES FOR CALLPEDAGOGY CMC and computer-learner interaction provideopportunities for learners to develop and enhance theirvocabulary, grammar, reading, writing, listening,speaking, communication and content-based skills(Chapelle & Jamieson, 2008). communication skills (focus on the language): face-to-face conversation, synchronous interactive writtencommunication (learners have more time to reflect on theirlanguage use). reading: electronic texts & reading comprehension. listening: aural input enhanced with subtitles or focuson specific aspect of the language 25. CALL AS A PREDICTOR OFSUCCESS IN ENGLISH AS ASECOND LANGUAGE Purpose of the study by Chapelle & Jamieson (1986): toexamine the effectiveness of CALL in the acquisition ofEnglish as a Second Language. Participants: Arabic and Spanish-speaking students(N=48) enrolled in an intensive program offered by theUniversity of Illinois. Their proficiency in English was measured by theirTOEFL results. ESL PLATO courseware was the curriculum that involvedCALL: focus on grammar, reading and listening. Variables: Cognitive affective characteristics such asField Independence and Dependence (FI/D), time spendusing CALL (PLATO) and learners attitudes towards 26. CALL AS A PREDICTOR OFSUCCESS IN ENGLISH AS ASECOND LANGUAGE Results: 1. FI students did not like CALL lessons onPLATO, possibly because their learning style doesnot match the software accommodate the needsFI students by finding out which kind of instructionand the lesson they benefit from importance ofmatching CALL activities with theirlearning/cognitive style 2. Time spend on CALLactivities and learners attitudes are related to FI andhow motivated they were. Software developers and teachers should take intoaccount learner and context variables whendesigning or using CALL in the language classroom. 27. DIGITAL NATIVES VS.DIGITAL IMMIGRANTS Prenksy (2001) discusses the issue of radical change ineducation: Todays students are no longer the peopleour educational system was designed to teach (p.1). Singularity: technologys advances are a break in history we cannot revert back to how we were without thetechnology, but what we have to embrace the fact thatour students have changed in a way that traditionalinstruction cannot teach them. Digital Natives: this generation of students who wereexposed to technology really early on in their lives. Digital Immigrants: the generation that was exposed totechnology at a later stage of their lives. 28. DIGITAL NATIVES VS.DIGITAL IMMIGRANTS Characteristics of todays learners: they multi-task, preferinstant gratification, like games and rewards, they areaudiovisual types and they are constantly networked. Changes that are necessary in order to help thesenatives acquire a language: in the content and theteaching methodology. Include more games in our classroom, adapt textbookmaterials and worksheets (digitalize them), includeaudiovisual stimuli, interactive books, interactivewhiteboards, ebooks, tablets, laptops, blogs, pods, etc. Edutainment: entertainment and education combined. 29. DIGITAL NATIVES VS.DIGITAL IMMIGRANTS:PART II Children of today spend most of their time playingvideogames, socializing, watching TV The way todays learner think is different because it isinfluenced by the culture they experience and the inputthey receive. Children cannot follow the traditional way of learning asit does not accommodate their needs and that is whythey have shorter attention spans they needstimulation and interactivity. Digital Game-Based Learning: Gamification cuttingedge technique of using educational games to produceand demonstrate knowledge. 30. DIGITAL NATIVES VS.DIGITAL IMMIGRANTS:PART IIGamificationhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2N-5maKZ9Q 31. CONCLUSIONS &PEDAGOGICALIMPLICATIONS Innovative learning environment that offers benefits toboth learners and teachers and improves the languagelearning experience. Teachers need to acquire a new set of skills and developnew teaching strategies that will facilitate the use oftechnology in the classroom. They also need to beselective and evaluate the materials that are using so asfor learners to succeed in and out of the classroom(Hauck & Stickler, 2006). Pedagogies around CALL will keep changing, as newtechnologies are developed. Learners language use and knowledge and strategieswill be improved so as to help them deal with the moderntechnological word. 32. REFERENCES Chapelle, C. A. (2010). Computer-Assisted Language Learning. InR.B. Kaplan (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Applied Linguistics (2nded.) (pp.539-547). New York: Oxford University Press Chapelle, C. A. & Jamieson, J. (1986). Computer-Assisted LanguageLearning as a Predictor of Success in Acquiring English as a SecondLanguage, TESOL Quarterly, 20(1), 27-46. Prensky M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, Part II: Dothey really think differently?. On the Horizon, 9(6), 1-9. Retrievedfrom http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/prensky%20-%20digital%20natives,%20digital%20immigrants%20-%20part2.pdf Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. On theHorizon, 9(5), 1-6. Retrieved fromhttp://www.marcprensky.com/writing/prensky%20-%20digital%20natives,%20digital%20immigrants%20-%20part1.pdf