Aircraft Engine -

30/05/2015 AircraftengineWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_engine#Reciprocating_.28piston.29_engines 1/11

ARollsRoyceMerlininstalledinapreservedAvroYork

AircraftengineFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anaircraftengineisthecomponentofthepropulsionsystemforanaircraftthatgeneratesmechanicalpower.Aircraftenginesarealmostalwayseitherlightweightpistonenginesorgasturbines.

Contents

1Aircraftenginemanufacturingindustry2Timelineofaircraftenginedevelopment3Shaftengines

3.1Reciprocating(piston)engines3.1.1Inlineengine3.1.2Vtypeengine3.1.3Horizontallyopposedengine3.1.4Hconfigurationengine3.1.5Radialengine3.1.6Rotaryengine

3.2Turbinepowered3.2.1Turboprop3.2.2Turboshaft

4Reactionengines4.1Jets

4.1.1Turbojet4.1.2Turbofan

4.2Pulsejets4.3Rocket

5Newerenginetypes5.1Wankelengine5.2Dieselengine5.3Precooledjetengines5.4Electric

6Fuel7Seealso8Notes9References10Externallinks

Aircraftenginemanufacturingindustry

Asof2012,thesizeoftheaircraftenginemanufacturingmarketwasalmost$40billion.[1]Thereareover350manufacturingcompaniesintheUnitedStatesemployingover70thousandpeople.



Wrightvertical4cylinderengine

Timelineofaircraftenginedevelopment

1848:JohnStringfellowmadeasteamenginefora10footwingspanmodelaircraftwhichachievedthefirstpoweredflight,albeitwithnegligiblepayload.1903:CharlieTaylorbuiltaninlineaeroenginefortheWrightFlyer(12horsepower).1903:ManlyBalzerenginesetsstandardsforlaterradialengines.[2]1906:LonLevavasseurproducesasuccessfulwatercooledV8engineforaircraftuse.1908:RenLorinpatentsadesignfortheramjetengine.1908:LouisSeguindesignedtheGnomeOmega,theworld'sfirstrotaryenginetobeproducedinquantity.In1909aGnomepoweredFarmanIIIaircraftwontheprizeforthegreatestnonstopdistanceflownattheReimsGrandeSemained'Aviationsettingaworldrecordforenduranceof180kilometres(110mi).1910:Coand1910,anunsuccessfulductedfanaircraftexhibitedatParisAeroSalon,poweredbyapistonengine.Theaircraftneverflew,butapatentwasfiledforroutingexhaustgasesintotheducttoaugmentthrust.[3][4][5][6]1914:AugusteRateausuggestsusingexhaustpoweredcompressoraturbochargertoimprovehighaltitudeperformance[2]notacceptedafterthetests[7]191718TheIdfliegnumberedR.30/16exampleoftheImperialGermanLuftstreitkrfte'sZeppelinStaakenR.VIheavybomberbecomestheearliestknownsuperchargerequippedaircrafttofly,withaMercedesD.IIstraightsixengineinthecentralfuselagedrivingaBrownBoverimechanicalsuperchargerfortheR.30/16'sfourMercedesD.IVaengines.1918:SanfordAlexanderMosspicksupRateau'sideaandcreatesthefirstsuccessfulturbocharger[2][8]1926:ArmstrongSiddeleyJaguarIV(S),thefirstseriesproducedsuperchargedengineforaircraftuse[9][nb1]tworowradialwithageardrivencentrifugalsupercharger.1930:FrankWhittlesubmittedhisfirstpatentforturbojetengine.June1939:HeinkelHe176isthefirstsuccessfulaircrafttoflypoweredsolelybyaliquidfueledrocketengine.August1939:HeinkelHeS3turbojetpropelsthepioneeringGermanHeinkelHe178aircraft.1940:JendrassikCs1,theworld'sfirstrunofaturbopropengine.Itisnotputintoservice.1943DaimlerBenzDB670,firstturbofanruns1944:MesserschmittMe163BKomet,theworld'sfirstrocketpropelledcombataircraftdeployed.1945:Firstturboproppoweredaircraftflies,aGlosterMeteorwithtwoRollsRoyceTrentengines.1947:BellX1rocketpropelledaircraftexceedsthespeedofsound.1948:100shp782,thefirstturboshaftenginetobeappliedtoaircraftusein1950usedtodevelopthelarger280shp(210kW)TurbomecaArtouste.1949:Leduc010,theworld'sfirstramjetpoweredaircraftflight.1950:RollsRoyceConway,theworld'sfirstproductionturbofan,entersservice.1968:GeneralElectricTF39highbypassturbofanentersservicedeliveringgreaterthrustandmuchbetterefficiency.2002:HyShotscramjetflewindive.2004:NASAX43,thefirstscramjettomaintainaltitude.



RangerL440aircooled,sixcylinder,inverted,inlineengineusedinFairchildPT19

ARollsRoyceMerlinV12Engine

AULPowerUL260ihorizontallyopposedaircooledaeroengine

Shaftengines

Reciprocating(piston)engines

Inlineengine

Thistypeofenginehascylinderslinedupinonerow.Ittypicallyhasanevennumberofcylinders,butthereareinstancesofthreeandfivecylinderengines.Thegreatestadvantageofaninlineengineisthatitallowstheaircrafttobedesignedwithalowfrontalareatominimisedrag.Iftheenginecrankshaftislocatedabovethecylinders,itiscalledaninvertedinlineengine:thisallowsthepropellertobemountedhighuptoincreasegroundclearance,enablingshorterlandinggear.Thedisadvantagesofaninlineengine

includeapoorpowertoweightratio,becausethecrankcaseandcrankshaftarelongandthusheavy.Aninlineenginemaybeeitheraircooledorliquidcooled,butliquidcoolingismorecommonbecauseitisdifficulttogetenoughairflowtocooltherearcylindersdirectly.InlineengineswerecommoninearlyaircraftonewasusedintheWrightFlyer,theaircraftthatmadethefirstcontrolledpoweredflight.However,theinherentdisadvantagesofthedesignsoonbecameapparent,andtheinlinedesignwasabandoned,becomingararityinmodernaviation.

Vtypeengine

Cylindersinthisenginearearrangedintwoinlinebanks,typicallytilted6090degreesapartfromeachotheranddrivingacommoncrankshaft.ThevastmajorityofVenginesarewatercooled.TheVdesignprovidesahigherpowertoweightratiothananinlineengine,whilestillprovidingasmallfrontalarea.PerhapsthemostfamousexampleofthisdesignisthelegendaryRollsRoyceMerlinengine,a27litre(1649in3)60V12engineusedin,amongothers,theSpitfiresthatplayedamajorroleintheBattleofBritain.

Horizontallyopposedengine

Ahorizontallyopposedengine,alsocalledaflatorboxerengine,hastwobanksofcylindersonoppositesidesofacentrallylocatedcrankcase.Theengineiseitheraircooledorliquidcooled,butaircooledversionspredominate.Opposedenginesaremountedwiththecrankshafthorizontalinairplanes,butmaybemountedwiththecrankshaftverticalinhelicopters.Duetothecylinderlayout,reciprocatingforcestendtocancel,resultinginasmoothrunningengine.

Opposed,aircooledfourandsixcylinderpistonenginesarebyfarthemostcommonenginesusedinsmallgeneralaviationaircraftrequiringupto400horsepower(300kW)perengine.Aircraftthat



APratt&WhitneyR2800engine

requiremorethan400horsepower(300kW)perenginetendtobepoweredbyturbineengines.

Hconfigurationengine

AnHconfigurationengineisessentiallyapairofhorizontallyopposedenginesplacedtogether,withthetwocrankshaftsgearedtogether.

Radialengine

Thistypeofenginehasoneormorerowsofcylindersarrangedaroundacentrallylocatedcrankcase.Eachrowgenerallyhasanoddnumberofcylinderstoproducesmoothoperation.Aradialenginehasonlyonecrankthrowperrowandarelativelysmallcrankcase,resultinginafavorablepowertoweightratio.Becausethecylinderarrangementexposesalargeamountoftheengine'sheatradiatingsurfacestotheairandtendstocancelreciprocatingforces,radialstendtocoolevenlyandrunsmoothly.Thelowercylinders,whichareunderthecrankcase,maycollectoilwhentheenginehasbeenstoppedforanextendedperiod.Ifthisoilisnotclearedfromthecylinderspriortostartingtheengine,seriousdamageduetohydrostaticlockmayoccur.

Mostradialengineshavethecylindersarrangedevenlyaroundthecrankshaft,althoughsomeearlyengines,sometimescalledsemiradialsorfanconfigurationengines,hadanunevenarrangement.ThebestknownengineofthistypeistheAnzaniengine,whichwasfittedtotheBleriotXIusedforthefirstflightacrosstheEnglishChannelin1909.Thisarrangementhadthedrawbackofneedingaheavycounterbalanceforthecrankshaft,butwasusedtoavoidthesparkplugsoilingup.

Inmilitaryaircraftdesigns,thelargefrontalareaoftheengineactedasanextralayerofarmorforthepilot.Alsoaircooledengines,withoutvulnerableradiators,areslightlylesspronetobattledamage,andonoccasionwouldcontinuerunningevenwithoneormorecylindersshotaway.However,thelargefrontalareaalsoresultedinanaircraftwithanaerodynamicallyinefficientincreasedfrontalarea.

Rotaryengine

Rotaryengineshavethecylindersinacirclearoundthecrankcase,asinaradialengine,(seeabove),butthecrankshaftisfixedtotheairframeandthepropellerisfixedtotheenginecase,sothatthecrankcaseandcylindersrotate.Theadvantageofthisarrangementisthatasatisfactoryflowofcoolingairismaintainedevenatlowairspeeds,retainingtheweightadvantageandsimplicityofaconventionalaircooledenginewithoutoneoftheirmajordrawbacks.ThefirstpracticalrotaryenginewastheGnomeOmegadesignedbytheSeguinbrothersandfirstflownin1909.Itsrelativereliabilityandgoodpowertoweightratiochangedaviationdramatically.[10]BeforethefirstWorldWarmostspeedrecordsweregainedusingGnomeenginedaircraft,andintheearlyyearsofthewarrotaryenginesweredominantinaircrafttypesforwhichspeedandagilitywereparamount.Toincreasepower,engineswithtworowsofcylinderswerebuilt.



LeRhone9Crotaryaircraftengine

CutawayviewofaGarrettTPE331turbopropengineshowingthegearboxatthefrontoftheengineAnAllisonModel250turboshaft

enginecommontomanytypesofhelicopters

However,thegyroscopiceffectsoftheheavyrotatingengineproducedhandlingproblemsinaircraftandtheenginesalsoconsumedlargeamountsofoilsincetheyusedtotallosslubrication,theoilbeingmixedwiththefuelandejectedwiththeexhaustgases.Castoroilwasusedforlubrication,sinceitisnotsolubleinpetrol,andtheresultantfumeswerenauseatingtothepilots.Enginedesignershadalwaysbeenawareofthemanylimitationsoftherotaryenginesowhenthestaticstyleenginesbecamemorereliableandgavebetterspecificweightsandfuelconsumption,thedaysoftherotaryenginewerenumbered.

Turbinepowered

Turboprop

Whilemilitaryfightersrequireveryhighspeeds,manycivilairplanesdonot.Yet,civilaircraftdesignerswantedtobenefitfromthehighpowerandlowmaintenancethatagasturbineengineoffered.Thuswasborntheideatomateaturbineenginetoatraditionalpropeller.Becausegasturbinesoptimallyspinathighspeed,aturbopropfeaturesagearboxtolowerthespeedoftheshaftsothatthepropellertipsdon'treachsupersonicspeeds.Oftentheturbinesthatdrivethepropellerareseparatefromtherestoftherotatingcomponentssothattheycanrotateattheirownbestspeed(referredtoasafreeturbineengine).Aturbopropisveryefficientwhenoperatedwithintherealmofcruisespeedsitwasdesignedfor,whichistypically200to400mph(320to640km/h).

Turboshaft

Turboshaftenginesareusedprimarilyforhelicoptersandauxiliarypowerunits.Aturboshaftengineissimilarinprinciple,butinaturbopropthepropellerissupportedbytheengineandtheengineisboltedtotheairframe:inaturboshaft,theenginedoesnotprovideanydirectphysicalsupporttothehelicopter'srotors.Therotorisconnectedtoatransmissionwhichisboltedtotheairframe,and

theturboshaftenginedrivesthetransmission.Thedistinctionisseenbysomeasslim,asinsomecasesaircraftcompaniesmakebothturbopropandturboshaftenginesbasedonthesamedesign.

Reactionengines

Reactionenginesgeneratethethrusttopropelanaircraftbyejectingtheexhaustgasesathighvelocityfromtheengine,theresultantreactionofforcesdrivingtheaircraftforwards.Themostcommonreactionpropulsionenginesflownareturbojets,turbofansandrockets.Othertypessuchaspulsejets,ramjets,



AGeneralElectricJ85GE17Aturbojetengine.Thiscutawayclearlyshowsthe8stagesofaxialcompressoratthefront(leftsideofthepicture),thecombustionchambersinthemiddle,andthetwostagesofturbinesattherearoftheengine.

AcutawayofaCFM563turbofanengine

scramjetsandPulseDetonationEngineshavealsoflown.Injetenginestheoxygennecessaryforfuelcombustioncomesfromtheair,whilerocketscarryoxygeninsomeformaspartofthefuelload,permittingtheiruseinspace.

Jets

Turbojet

AturbojetisatypeofgasturbineenginethatwasoriginallydevelopedformilitaryfightersduringWorldWarII.Aturbojetisthesimplestofallaircraftgasturbines.Itconsistsofacompressortodrawairinandcompressit,acombustionsectionwherefuelisaddedandignited,oneormoreturbinesthatextractpowerfromtheexpandingexhaustgasestodrivethecompressor,andanexhaustnozzlethatacceleratestheexhaustgasesoutthebackoftheenginetocreatethrust.Whenturbojetswereintroduced,thetopspeedoffighteraircraftequippedwiththemwasatleast100milesperhourfasterthancompetingpistondrivenaircraft.Intheyearsafterthewar,thedrawbacksoftheturbojetgraduallybecameapparent.BelowaboutMach2,turbojetsareveryfuelinefficientandcreatetremendousamountsofnoise.Earlydesignsalsorespondveryslowlytopowerchanges,afactthatkilledmanyexperiencedpilotswhentheyattemptedthetransitiontojets.Thesedrawbackseventuallyledtothedownfallofthepureturbojet,andonlyahandfuloftypesarestillinproduction.ThelastairlinerthatusedturbojetswastheConcorde,whoseMach2airspeedpermittedtheenginetobehighlyefficient.

Turbofan

Aturbofanengineismuchthesameasaturbojet,butwithanenlargedfanatthefrontthatprovidesthrustinmuchthesamewayasaductedpropeller,resultinginimprovedfuelefficiency.Thoughthefancreatesthrustlikeapropeller,thesurroundingductfreesitfrommanyoftherestrictionsthatlimitpropellerperformance.Thisoperationisamoreefficientwaytoprovidethrustthansimplyusingthejetnozzlealoneandturbofansaremoreefficientthanpropellersinthetranssonicrangeofaircraftspeeds,andcanoperateinthesupersonicrealm.Aturbofantypicallyhasextraturbinestagestoturnthefan.Turbofanswereamongthefirstenginestousemultiplespoolsconcentricshaftsthatarefreetorotateattheirownspeedtolettheenginereactmorequicklytochangingpowerrequirements.Turbofansarecoarselysplitintolowbypassandhigh

bypasscategories.Bypassairflowsthroughthefan,butaroundthejetcore,notmixingwithfuelandburning.Theratioofthisairtotheamountofairflowingthroughtheenginecoreisthebypassratio.Lowbypassenginesarepreferredformilitaryapplicationssuchasfightersduetohighthrusttoweightratio,whilehighbypassenginesarepreferredforciviluseforgoodfuelefficiencyandlownoise.Highbypass



AnXLR99

turbofansareusuallymostefficientwhentheaircraftistravelingat500to550milesperhour(800to885km/h),thecruisespeedofmostlargeairliners.Lowbypassturbofanscanreachsupersonicspeeds,thoughnormallyonlywhenfittedwithafterburners.

Pulsejets

Pulsejetsaremechanicallysimpledevicesthatinarepeatingcycledrawairthroughanoreturnvalveatthefrontoftheengineintoacombustionchamberandignitedit.Thecombustionforcestheexhaustgasesoutthebackoftheengine.Itproducespowerasaseriesofpulsesratherthanasasteadyoutput,hencethename.TheonlyapplicationofthistypeofenginewastheGermanunmannedV1flyingbombofWorldWarII.Thoughthesameengineswerealsousedexperimentallyforersatzfighteraircraft,theextremelyloudnoisegeneratedbytheenginescausedmechanicaldamagetotheairframethatwassufficienttomaketheideaunworkable.

Rocket

Afewaircrafthaveusedrocketenginesformainthrustorattitudecontrol,notablytheBellX1andNorthAmericanX15.Rocketenginesarenotusedformostaircraftastheenergyandpropellantefficiencyisverypoorexceptathighspeeds,buthavebeenemployedforshortburstsofspeedandtakeoff.Rocketenginesareveryefficientonlyatveryhighspeeds,althoughtheyareusefulbecausetheyproduceverylargeamountsofthrustandweighverylittle.

Newerenginetypes

Wankelengine

AnotherpromisingdesignforaircraftusewastheWankelrotaryengine.TheWankelengineisaboutonehalftheweightandsizeofatraditionalfourstrokecyclepistonengineofequalpoweroutput,andmuchlowerincomplexity.Inanaircraftapplication,thepowertoweightratioisveryimportant,makingtheWankelengineagoodchoice.Becausetheengineistypicallyconstructedwithanaluminiumhousingandasteelrotor,andaluminiumexpandsmorethansteelwhenheated,aWankelenginedoesnotseizewhenoverheated,unlikeapistonengine.Thisisanimportantsafetyfactorforaeronauticaluse.ConsiderabledevelopmentofthesedesignsstartedafterWorldWarII,butatthetimetheaircraftindustryfavoredtheuseofturbineengines.Itwasbelievedthatturbojetorturbopropenginescouldpowerallaircraft,fromthelargesttosmallestdesigns.TheWankelenginedidnotfindmanyapplicationsinaircraft,butwasusedbyMazdainapopularlineofsportscars.Recently,theWankelenginehasbeendevelopedforuseinmotorgliderswherethesmallsize,lightweight,andlowvibrationareespeciallyimportant.[11]

Wankelenginesarebecomingincreasinglypopularinhomebuiltexperimentalaircraft,duetoanumberoffactors.MostareMazda12Aand13Bengines,removedfromautomobilesandconvertedtoaviationuse.Thisisaverycosteffectivealternativetocertifiedaircraftengines,providingenginesrangingfrom100to300horsepower(220kW)atafractionofthecostoftraditionalengines.Theseconversionsfirsttookplaceintheearly1970s,andwithhundredsoreventhousandsoftheseenginesmountedonaircraft,asof10



PowerplantfromaSchleicherASH26eselflaunchingmotorglider,removedfromthegliderandmountedonateststandformaintenanceattheAlexanderSchleicherGmbH&CoinPoppenhausen,Germany.Counterclockwisefromtopleft:propellerhub,mastwithbeltguide,radiator,Wankelengine,mufflershroud.

December2006theNationalTransportationSafetyBoardhasonlysevenreportsofincidentsinvolvingaircraftwithMazdaengines,andnoneoftheseisofafailureduetodesignormanufacturingflaws.

Dieselengine

Mostaircraftenginesusesparkignition,generallyusinggasolineasafuel.Startinginthe1930sattemptsweremadetoproduceacompressionignitionDieselengineforaviationuse.Ingeneral,Dieselenginesaremorereliableandmuchbettersuitedtorunningforlongperiodsoftimeatmediumpowersettings,whichiswhytheyarewidelyusedin,forexample,trucksandships.Thelightweightalloysofthe1930swerenotuptothetaskofhandlingthemuchhighercompressionratiosofdieselengines,sotheygenerallyhadpoorpowertoweightratiosandwereuncommonforthatreason,althoughtheClerget14FDieselradialengine(1939)hasthesamepowertoweightratioasagasolineradial.ImprovementsinDieseltechnologyinautomobiles(leadingtomuchbetterpowerweightratios),theDiesel'smuchbetterfuelefficiencyandthehighrelativetaxationofAVGAScomparedtoJetA1inEuropehaveallseenarevivalofinterestintheuseofdieselsforaircraft.ThielertAircraftEnginesconvertedMercedesDieselautomotiveengines,certifiedthemforaircraftuse,andbecameanOEMprovidertoDiamondAviationfortheirlighttwin.FinancialproblemshaveplaguedThielert,soDiamond'saffiliateAustroEnginedevelopedthenewAE300turbodiesel,alsobasedonaMercedesengine.[12]CompetingnewDieselenginesmaybringfuelefficiencyandleadfreeemissionstosmallaircraft,representingthebiggestchangeinlightaircraftenginesindecades.WilkschAirmotivebuild2strokeDieselengine(samepowertoweightasagasolineengine)forexperimentalaircraft:WAM100(100hp),WAM120(120hp)andWAM160(160hp)

Precooledjetengines

Forveryhighsupersonic/lowhypersonicflightspeedsinsertingacoolingsystemintotheairductofahydrogenjetenginepermitsgreaterfuelinjectionathighspeedandobviatestheneedfortheducttobemadeofrefractoryoractivelycooledmaterials.Thisgreatlyimprovesthethrust/weightratiooftheengineathighspeed.

ItisthoughtthatthisdesignofenginecouldpermitsufficientperformanceforantipodalflightatMach5,orevenpermitasinglestagetoorbitvehicletobepractical.ThehybridairbreathingSABRErocketengineisaprecooledengineunderdevelopment.

Electric

About60electricallypoweredaircraft,suchastheQinetiQZephyr,havebeendesignedsincethe1960s.[13][14]Someareusedasmilitarydrones.[15]InFranceinlate2007,aconventionallightaircraftpoweredbyan18kWelectricmotorusinglithiumpolymerbatterieswasflown,coveringmorethan50kilometers(31mi),thefirstelectricairplanetoreceiveacertificateofairworthiness.[13]



Limitedexperimentswithsolarelectricpropulsionhavebeenperformed,notablythemannedSolarChallengerandSolarImpulseandtheunmannedNASAPathfinderaircraft.

Fuel

Allaviationfuelisproducedtostringentqualitystandardstoavoidfuelrelatedenginefailures.Aviationstandardsaremuchmorestrictthanthoseforroadvehiclefuelbecauseanaircraftenginemustmeetastrictlydefinedlevelofperformanceunderknownconditions.Thesehighstandardsmeanthataviationfuelcostsmuchmorethanfuelusedforroadvehicles.

Aircraftreciprocating(piston)enginesaretypicallydesignedtorunonaviationgasoline.Avgashasahigheroctaneratingthanautomotivegasolinetoallowhighercompressionratios,poweroutputandefficiencyathigheraltitudes.CurrentlythemostcommonAvgasis100LLthatreferstotheoctanerating(100octane)andtheleadcontent(LL=lowlead).

RefineriesblendAvgaswithtetraethyllead(TEL)toachievethesehighoctaneratings,apracticethatgovernmentsnolongerpermitforroadvehiclegasoline.TheshrinkingsupplyofTELandthepossibilityofenvironmentallegislationbanningitsusehasmadeasearchforreplacementfuelsforgeneralaviationaircraftapriorityforpilot'sorganizations.[16]

TurbineenginesandaircraftDieselenginesburnvariousgradesofjetfuel.Jetfuelisarelativelyheavyandlessvolatilepetroleumderivativebasedonkerosene,butcertifiedtostrictaviationstandards,withadditionaladditives.

Seealso

Notes1. Theworld'sfirstseriesproducedcarswithsuperchargerscameearlierthanaircraft.ThesewereMercedes

6/25/40hpandMercedes10/40/65hp,bothmodelsintroducedin1921andusedRootssuperchargers.G.N.Georgano,ed.(1982).Thenewencyclopediaofmotorcars1885tothepresent(3rded.).NewYork:Dutton.p.415.ISBN0525932542.

References1. "PellResearchAircraftEngineManufacturingIndustryReport"(https://www.pellresearch.com/AircraftEngine

andEnginePartsManufacturing.htm).Pellresearch.com.Retrieved7April2013.

AircraftdieselengineAircraftenginepositionnumberAirsafetyEngineconfigurationHyperengineListofaircraftenginesModelengineUnitedStatesmilitaryaeroenginedesignations



WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoAircraftengines.

LookupaircraftengineinWiktionary,thefreedictionary.

2. IanMcNeil,ed.(1990).EncyclopediaoftheHistoryofTechnology(http://books.google.com/books?id=fj96Dpp35gC&lpg=PA315&dq=rateau%20engine&pg=PA315#v=onepage&q&f=false).London:Routledge.pp.31521.ISBN0203192117.

3. GibbsSmith,CharlesHarvard(1970).Aviation:anhistoricalsurveyfromitsoriginstotheendofWorldWarII(http://books.google.com/books?id=hxEOAQAAIAAJ).London:HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice.

4. GibbsSmith,CharlesHarvard(1960).TheAeroplane:AnHistoricalSurveyofItsOriginsandDevelopment(http://books.google.com/books?id=mzcZAAAAIAAJ).London:HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice.

5. Winter,FrankH.(December1980)."DuctedFanortheWorld'sFirstJetPlane?TheCoandaclaimreexamined"(http://books.google.com/books?id=XkBWAAAAMAAJ).TheAeronauticalJournal(RoyalAeronauticalSociety)84.

6. Antoniu,DanCico,GeorgeBuiu,IoanVasileBartoc,Alexandruutic,Robert.HenriCoandandhistechnicalworkduring19061918(inRomanian).Bucharest:EdituraAnima.ISBN9789737729613.

7. Guttman,Jon(2009).SPADXIIIvs.FokkerDVII:WesternFront1918(http://books.google.com/books?id=8TBE5nGmxbEC&lpg=PA25&dq=Rateau%20Hispano&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false)(1sted.).Oxford:Osprey.pp.2425.ISBN1846034329.

8. Powell,Hickman(Jun1941)."HeHarnessedaTornado..."(http://books.google.com/books?id=UycDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA66&ots=1wK1pz44JD&dq=altitude%20record%20supercharger%20british&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q&f=false).PopularScience.

9. Anderson,JohnD(2002).Theairplane:Ahistoryofitstechnology.(http://books.google.com/books?id=FrvrkXYDCL8C&lpg=PA253&dq=Siddeley%20Jaguar%20the%20first%20production%20supercharged&pg=PA253#v=onepage&q&f=false)Reston,VA,USA:AmericanInstituteofAeronauticsandAstronautics.pp.25253.ISBN1563475251.

10. GibbsSmith,C.H.(2003).Aviation.London:NMSO.p.175.ISBN1900747529.11. "ASH26EInformation"(http://web.archive.org/web/20061008125929/http://www.alexander

schleicher.de/englisch/produkte/ash26/e_ash26_main.htm).DE:AlexanderSchleicher.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.alexanderschleicher.de/englisch/produkte/ash26/e_ash26_main.htm)on20061008.Retrieved20061124.

12. "DiamondTwinsReborn"(http://www.flyingmag.com/pilotreports/pistons/diamondtwinsreborn).FlyingMag.Retrieved20100614.

13. Worldwidepremire:firstaircraftflightwithelectricalengine(http://www.apame.eu/AA%20Projects.html),AssociationpourlaPromotiondesAronefsMotorisationlectrique,December23,2007.

14. SuperconductingTurbojet(http://www.physorg.com/printnews.php?newsid=101391900),Physorg.com.15. Voyeur(http://www.litemachines.com/mil/mil_main.htm),Litemachines.16. "EAA'SEarlLawrenceElectedSecretaryofInternationalAviationFuelCommittee"

(http://www.eaa.org/communications/eaanews/pr/011207_lawrence.html)(Pressrelease).

Externallinks

AircraftEnginesandAircraftEngineTheory(includeslinkstodiagrams)(http://www.aviationhistory.com/indexengine.htm)TheAircraftEngineHistoricalSociety(http://www.enginehistory.org/)JetEngineSpecificationDatabase(http://www.jetengine.net/)AircraftEngineEfficiency:ComparisonofCounterrotatingandAxialAircraftLPTurbines(http://www.softinway.com/news/articles/CounterRotatingandTraditionalAxialAircraftLowpressureTurbines/1.asp)TheHistoryofAircraftPowerPlantsBrieflyReviewed:Fromthe"7lb.perh.p"Daystothe"1lb.perh.p"ofToday(http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1935/1935%20%201222.html)"TheQuestforPower"(http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20%200959.html)a1954FlightarticlebyBillGunston



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