AHSGE BIOLOGY REVIEW Mrs. Johnson Taxonomy Carlos Linnaeus, father of taxonomy Binomial nomenclature system of giving each individual organism 2 names Example of how to write the genus and species name correctly: Homo sapiens the genus and species for humans Taxonomic divisions Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species You must know these in order. They are listed from the largest group to the individual. Food chain Represents how energy is passed from producers to consumers Food web Shows how food chains can overlap Also shows how energy moves from one level to another Energy pyramid Shows how energy is transferred to each trophic level Trophic level a step in a food chain that represents how many times energy has been transferred from one organism to the next Energy pyramid Another energy pyramid Terms to know Producer Consumer Autotroph Heterotroph Predator Prey Herbivore Carnivore Omnivore Competition Symbiotic relationship Mutualism Commensalism Parasitism Ecology terms Biotic living things Abiotic nonliving things Habitat where something lives Niche how something lives Levels of organization you must know these in order Organelle Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism Population Community Ecosystem Biosphere Cycles in nature Water cycle Nitrogen cycle Carbon cycle Oxygen cycle Water cycle Carbon cycle Nitrogen cycle Oxygen cycle photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen 6 CO H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O Cellular Respiration Uses oxygen to break glucose down and release energy for cells One of the by-products of respiration is carbon dioxide C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) + energy Heredity Genetics The study of the mechanism of heredity Nuclei of all human cells (except gametes) contain 46 chromosomes Sex chromosomes determine the genetic sex (XX = female, XY = male) Non-sex chromosomes are known as autosomes Karyotype the diploid chromosomal complement displayed in homologous pairs Genome genetic (DNA) makeup represents two sets of genetic instructions one maternal and the other paternal Genetic Terms to Know Alleles - two genes that occupy the same position on homologous chromosomes and cover the same trait; all of the molecular forms of a specific gene Locus- a fixed location on a strand of DNA where a gene or one of its alleles is located Homozygous - having identical genes (one from each parent) for a particular characteristic (DD) Heterozygous - having two different genes for a particular characteristic (Dd) Dominant- the trait that appears in the heterozygous condition (D) Recessive - the trait that is masked in the heterozygous condition (d) Phenotype appearance, the observable trait Genotype - genetic makeup (not always apparent from phenotype) Monohybrid cross - cross involving a single pair of genes, one trait P parent, F1 first filial generation, F2 second filial generation Gene- the unit of heredity; a section of DNA sequence encoding a single protein Alleles Matched genes at the same locus on homologous chromosomes Homozygous two identical alleles controlling a single trait are the same (AA or aa) Heterozygous the two different alleles for a trait are different (Aa) Dominant an allele masks or suppresses the expression of its partner Recessive the allele that is masked or suppressed Genotype and Phenotype Genotype refers to particular genes an individual carries (e.g.,AaBBCc) the genetic makeup Phenotype refers to an individuals observable traits the way ones genotype is expressed (eye color, height, blood type) One cannot always determine genotype by observing phenotype Segregation and Independent Assortment Chromosomes are randomly distributed to daughter cells Members of the allele pair for each trait are segregated during meiosis (each gets one allele) law of segregation Alleles on different pairs of homologous chromosomes are distributed independently law of independent assortment The number of different types of gametes can be calculated by this formula:2n, where n is the number of homologous pairs In a mans testes, the number of gamete types that can be produced based on independent assortment is 223, which equals8.5 million possibilities Independent Assortment Crossover Homologous chromosomes synapse in meiosis I One chromosome segment exchanges positions with its homologous counterpart Genetic information is exchanged between homologous chromosomes Two recombinant chromosomes are formed This increases genetic variability Dominant-Recessive Inheritance Reflects the interaction of dominant and recessive alleles (Mendelian traits) Punnett square diagram used to predict the probability of having a certain type of offspring with a particular genotype and phenotype Example: probability of different offspring from mating two heterozygous parents T = tongue roller and t = cannot roll tongue Recessive allele is expressed when both alleles occur in an individual (genotype) Dominance Relations Complete dominance the presence of one allele (dominant) completely masks the expression of another (recessive); the recessive allele is expressed only when two copies are present in the genotype Incomplete dominance here, the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between that of either homozygote (blending) Codominance here, more than one dominant allele may be expressed in the phenotype; so, a heterozygote would express both dominant alleles Penetrance the same alleles can produce different degrees of a phenotype in different individuals. If everyone who inherits the alleles has the phenotype, the alleles are completely penetrant (most diseases). A genotype is incompletely penetrant if some individuals do not express the phenotype. The penetrance of a gene is described numerically. If 80 of 100 people who have the dominant allele express the phenotype, the allele is 80% penetrant. The dominant polydactyly allele is such a trait. A phenotype is variably expressive if the symptoms (or characteristics) vary in intensity between individuals. Penetrance refers to the all-or-none expression of a genotype; expressivity refers to the severity of the phenotype Cell Structure Nucleus Control center of the cell Nucleolus found inside the nucleus Nucleolus makes ribosomes Chromatin-uncoiled DNA-is found in the nucleus Mitochondria Power house of the cell Double-membrane organelle Inner membrane is folded to make more surface area Cellular respiration takes place on the surface of the inner membrane Endoplasmic Reticulum System of membranes inside the cytoplasm that form passages through the cell Rough ER-covered with ribosomes; carries proteins Smooth ER-no ribosomes; produces & transports lipids Golgi Body Stack of flattened membranous sacs Synthesis, packaging & distribution of materials in a cell Vacuole Lysosome -found in animal cells -contains digestive enzymes -engulf & break down worn-out cell parts -small storage areas in animal cells -plant cells have a large central one used to store mostly water Ribosomes Centrioles Found only in animal cells Function in mitosis Made up of microtubules Made in the nucleolus Found both free & attached to the endoplasmic reticulum Site of protein synthesis Microtubules Microfilaments Provide structural support to the cell May be involved in movement -found in various places in the cytoplasm -involved in movement & attachment to other cells Chloroplast Found only in plant cells & algae Site of photosynthesis Double membrane Contains chlorophyll Chlorophyll green pigment that helps trap light energy Plasma Membrane Phospholipid bilayer Semi-permeable Has proteins embedded in it to help carry large molecules through both into and out of the cell Provides barrier between the cell and its outside environment Holds the cell together and gives it shape Cell Wall Found only in plant cells Rigid outer structure made mostly of cellulose Gives plant cells their shape Differences between Animal & Plant Cells Found only in Plant Cells Cell wall Chloroplast Large central vacuole No lysosomes Found only in Animal Cells Centrioles Small vacuoles Contain lysosomes Animal cell Plant cells Differences between plant and animal cells Plant cells have cell walls, chloroplasts, and a large central vacuole Animal cells have no cell wall and no large vacuole Animal cells use centrioles in mitosis Mitosis cell division Skin cancer - the abnormal growth of skin cells - most often develops on skin exposed to the sun. Cell that reproduce by asexual reproduction reproduce constantly. Animated Mitosis CycleInterphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase & Cytokinesis Chromosomes are copied (# doubles) Chromosomes appear as threadlike coils (chromatin) at the start, but each chromosome and its copy(sister chromosome) change to sister chromatids at end of this phase CELL MEMBRANE Nucleus Cytoplasm Animal Cell Plant Cell Photographs from: Mitosis begins (cell begins to divide) Centrioles (or poles) appear and begin to move to opposite end of the cell. Spindle fibers form between the poles. Centrioles Sister chromatids Spindle fibers Animal Cell Plant Cell Photographs from:Spindle fibers Centrioles Chromatids (or pairs of chromosomes) attach to the spindle fibers. Centrioles Spindle fibers Animal Cell Plant Cell Photographs from: Chromatids (or pairs of chromosomes) separate and begin to move to opposite ends of the cell. Centrioles Spindle fibers Animal Cell Plant Cell Photographs from: Two new nuclei form. Chromosomes appear as chromatin (threads rather than rods). Mitosis ends. Nuclei Chromatin Animal Cell Plant Cell Photographs from: Cell membrane moves inward to create two daughter cells each with its own nucleus with identical chromosomes. Animal Mitosis -- Review Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Interphase Plant Mitosis -- Review Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Interphase 60 Meiosis Kingdom Plantae Characteristics of Plants Eukaryotic Autotrophic Multicellular Cell walls (made of cellulose) Chloroplasts (containing chlorophyll) Store food as starch Classification of Plants Kingdom is subdivided into divisions, which are the equivalent of phyla Plants vary in several ways: Presence of/absence of vascular tissue Dominant reproductive generation Production of pollen, spores, seeds, fruits, flowers Whether or not water is necessary for reproduction Vascular vs. Non-vascular Vascular tissue consists of vessels, ducts, or tubes of elongated cells that conduct materials throughout the plant Only vascular plants are considered to have true roots, stems, and leaves, the main vegetative organs of advanced plants Vascular vs. Non-vascular xylemtissue that conducts water and dissolved minerals up (from the roots) within a vascular plant phloemtissue that conducts food (glucose) down (from the leaves) within a vascular plant Life Cycle of Plants Alternation of Generation Plants have a life cycle consisting of 2 phases, one of which is dominant: Gametophyte generation produces sex cells gametessperm and egg cells); during fertilization a sperm cell and an egg cell unite to form a zygote Sporophyte generation produces cells called spores within sporangia Major Plant Groups Division Bryophytaincludes mosses Division Tracheophytaincludes ferns and their allies, gymnosperms and angiosperms Division Bryophyta Non-vascular plants; no xylem, phloem, or true roots, stems, or leaves Rhizoids are root-like structures which anchor mosses in the ground and absorb water and minerals from the soil Require water for reproduction (produce swimming sperm, not pollen) Dominant gametophyte generation Division Bryophyta Gametophyte generation is leafy and green Division Tracheophyta Includes ferns, gymnosperms and the angiosperms. Vascular plants; have xylem, phloem, and true roots, stems, and leaves Dominant sporophyte generation Gymnosperms Mosses and ferns do not produce seeds, but gymnosperms and angiosperms do The word gymnosperm means naked seed No requirement for water in reproduction; instead, they produce pollen Produce 2 different types of spores: Microsporesmale spores; become pollen Megasporesfemale spores; become eggs Angiosperms The word angiosperm means seeds enclosed These plants produce seeds that are inside of fruits Ex. Grass, oak, maple, iris, rose, buttercup, geranium Angiosperms are also known as flowering plants Reproduce sexually by forming flowers, fruits, and seeds Angiosperms KINGDOM ANIMALIA Characteristics of Animals January 16 th, 2007 Characteristics of Life 1. Living things are organized. 2. Living things are made up of cells. 3. Living things metabolize. 4. Living things maintain an internal environment. 5. Living things grow. 6. Living things respond. 7. Living things reproduce. 8. Living things evolve. Seven Levels of Taxonomic Classification Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Kingdom Animalia All animals are multicellular, mitochondrial heterotrophsthey have multiple cells with mitochondria and they rely on other organisms for their nourishment. Most animals ingest their food and then digest it in some kind of internal cavity. Animal Species Somewhere around 9 or 10 million species of animals inhabit the earth. About 800,000 species have been identified. Animal Phyla Biologists recognize about 36 separate phyla within the Kingdom Animalia. Animal Phyla Web Page Animal Movement Most animals are capable of complex and relatively rapid movement compared to plants and other organisms. Animal Reproduction Most animals reproduce sexually, by means of differentiated haploid cells (eggs and sperm). Most animals are diploid, meaning that the cells of adults contain two copies of the genetic material. Animal Sizes Animals range in size from no more than a few cells (like the mesozoans) to organisms weighing many tons (like the blue whale). a mesozoan blue whale Animal Habitats Most animals inhabit the seas, with fewer in fresh water and even fewer on land. Animal Cells Animal cells, like all eukaryotic cells, have internal structures called organelles that serve specific functions for the cell. Animal cells lack the rigid cell walls that characterize plant cells. Animal Cell Diagram Animal Bodies The bodies of most animals (all except sponges) are made up of cells organized into tissues. Each tissue is specialized to perform specific functions. In most animals, tissues are organized into even more specialized organs. Animal Symmetry The most primitive animals are asymmetrical. Cnidarians and echinoderms are radially symmetrical. Most animals are bilaterally symmetrical. Radial Symmetry applies to forms that can be divided into similar halves by more than two planes passing through it. Animals with radial symmetry are usually sessile, free-floating, or weakly swimming. Bilateral Symmetry Animals with bilateral symmetery are most well-suited for directional movement. Radial vs. Bilateral Symmetry Kingdom Protista If you look at a drop of pond water under a microscope, all the "little creatures" you see swimming around are protists. All protists have a nucleus and are therefore eukaryotic.eukaryotic Protists are either plant-like, animal-like or fungus-like. Plant-like protists are autotrophs they contain chloroplasts and make their own food. Animal-like and fungus-like protists and are heterotrophs. Protozoans are animal-like protists (heterotrophs) grouped according to how they move. The word protozoa means "little animal." They are so named because many species behave like tiny animals specifically, they hunt and gather other microbes as food. Amoebae live in water or moist places. They have a cell membrane but no cell wall. Giardia The Fungi Kingdom Parts of fungi: Hyphae - network of thin thread-like structures that form the body of a fungus hyphae grow and branch until they cover and digest the food source (upon which the fungi is growing) hyphae contain cytoplasm hypha - singular hyphae - plural The Fungi Kingdom What are we looking at when we see a fungus-among-us? The living body of the fungus is a mycelium The part of the fungus that we see is only the fruit of the organism The Fungi Kingdom Sporangium fungi reproduces by spores in the sporangia Sporangia- structures found on the tips of hyphae that make spores EX: Bread Mold Bread mold produces spores in sporangia that stick up above the bread 4 Main Types of Fungi: 1.Sporangium Fungi/Mold The Fungi Kingdom Rhizoids- hyphae of bread mold that digest bread for ingestion The Fungi Kingdom 2. Club fungi - have a club-shaped part which produces the spores 3. Sac Fungi - produce spores in sac-like structures EX: yeasts, cup fungi, powdery mildews, & lichens Lichens - 4 Types of Fungi a fungus and an organism with chlorophyll that live together Example: Mushrooms The Fungi Kingdom 4 Types of Fungi 4) Imperfect sporangium/mold, sac, and club fungi that can only reproduce asexually cause most fungal diseases in humans EX: ringworm, athletes foot, thrush The Fungi Kingdom the structure of the fungi that you can see, is the part that carries out reproduction most fungi reproduce by using spores Reproduction is classified according to: fungi spores are microscopic EX: Mushrooms & puffballs release large clouds of spores. Each cloud contains millions of spores Fungi Reproduction: 1) the way they form the spores 2) the shape of the structure in which spores are made The Fungi Kingdom Fungi Reproduction of 4 types of fungi: 1) Mold reproduce asexually & sexually 2) Sac fungi reproduce asexually & sexually The Fungi Kingdom Fungi Reproduction of 4 types of fungi contd: 3) Club fungi reproduce asexually & sexually 4) Imperfect can only reproduce asexually How Do Fungi Get Around Not Being Tall Enough? Fungi have a major problem: Many fungi do not grow tall enough to clear the "boundary layer" of still air next to the ground so they 1) Shoot their spores 2) Use animals, water or wind for dispersal Once spores are caught by something they can be carried long distances The Fungi Kingdom Wind and water can carry pieces of hyphae to new places. If enough moisture and food is present, the spores/hyphae can grow into new fungi Fungi can also reproduce from pieces of hyphae. Fungi Reproduction Contd: Science Lab Equipment Identification Lab Test Tube A test tube (Sometimes culture tube) are designed to allow easy heating of samples, to be held in a flame, and often are made of expansion- resistant glasses. Funnel A funnel is a conically shaped pipe, employed as a device to channel liquid or fine-grained substances into containers with a small opening.liquid Erlenmeyer Flask An Erlenmeyer flask (also known as a conical flask) is a type of laboratory glassware which consists of an inverted conical base with a cylindrical neck. Beaker A beaker is a type of laboratory glassware which consists of a cylindrical cup with a notch on the top to allow for the pouring of liquids.laboratory glasswarecup Microscope A microscope (Greek: micron = small and scopos = aim) is an instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the naked or unaided eye.Greekeye Graduated Cylinder A graduated (Grad for short) cylinder, also referred to as a measuring cylinder, is a type of laboratory glassware that is used for measuring the volumes of liquids in a quantitative manner. laboratory glasswarevolumes liquids Triple Beam Balance A balance (also balance scale, beam balance or laboratory balance) is used to accurately measure the mass of an object.balancemass Test Tube Brush Used to clean the insides of test tubes. Hot Plate A hot plate is a small electric stove often used in a laboratory setting to heat glassware. Hand Lens/Magnifying Glass A magnifying glass is a single convex lens which is used to produce a magnified image of an object.convexlens magnifiedimage Test Tube Holder Used to hold test tubes, especially when heated or containing harmful chemicals. Tongs Tongs are gripping and lifting tools, of which there are many forms adapted to their specific use.tools Stopper A stopper is a truncated conical piece of rubber or cork used to close off a glass tube, piece of laboratory glassware, a wine bottle or barrel and other containers with orifices.rubbercorkglass laboratory glasswarewine bottlebarrel Microscope Slide & Cover Slip A microscope slide is a thin sheet of glass used to hold objects for examination under a microscope.glass microscope The cover glass protects the microscope's objective lens from contacting the specimen, Scalpel A scalpel is a very sharp knife used for surgery as well as various arts and crafts. Scalpels can have a fixed blade, or a disposable blade. The blades on scalpels are extremely sharpmerely touching a medical scalpel with bare hands to test it will cut through the skin. The handles of medical and dissection scalpels are flatter, more like a bread knife. They do not have the same level of grip as art scalpels, as this would make cleaning and sterilization more difficult. The grip in medical scalpels is usually just a slight corrugation. surgeryarts and crafts medicalskindissectionsterilization Test Tube Rack Used to store and hold test tubes in an upright position. Safety Goggles Goggles or safety glasses are a form of protective eyewear that usually enclose the eye area to prevent particulates or chemicals from striking the eyes.eyewear Eye Dropper/Medicine Dropper Used to mix or dispense small amounts of liquid, a drop at a time. Thermometer A thermometer is a device used to measure temperatures or temperature changes. temperatures Bunsen Burner A Bunsen burner is a device used in scientific laboratories for heating, sterilization, and many other uses. Forceps Forceps are a hand-held instrument for grasping and holding objects, similar in concept to tongs, tweezers or pincers. tweezers Probe Probe is a generic term used to refer to a device used to gather information. Dissecting Pins Used to hold objects in place during dissection.