AHSGE

Biology

1 Select appropriate laboratory glassware, balances, time measuring equipment, and optical instrumentsto conduct an experiment.

• 1-1. Select appropriate glassware for conducting experiments including a graduated cylinder, a beaker, a flask, a test tube, a microscope slide, a pipette, and a Petri dish.

• 1-2. Select appropriate measuring equipment for conducting experiments including a balance and a stopwatch.

• 1-3. Select appropriate optical instruments for conducting experiments including a compound microscope, an electron microscope, and a magnifying glass.

1-1. Select appropriate laboratory glassware, balances, time measuring equipment, and optical instruments

to conduct an experiment.• Select appropriate glassware for conducting experiments including a

graduated cylinder, a beaker, a flask, a test tube, a microscope slide, a pipette, and a Petri dish.

graduated cylinder --used to measure liquid volumes--can be used to find the volume of irregularly shaped objects (using water displacement)

Watch glass--placed over a beaker or other glassware so that a chemical reaction can be safely observed

Beaker-Used for mixing and storageCan be used when the amount of liquid does not have to be exact (approximately)

Petri dish---Used for growing bacteria or other cultures on nutrient agar

Flask---Used for mixing solutions --used when a mixture is boiled

• Slide– Used with a microscope – Wet mount slide are the most common

made in the lab• Pipette– Used for transferring liquids– Also know as droppers

• Test tube

1-2. Select appropriate measuring equipment for conducting experiments including a balance and astopwatch. • Balance

– Triple beam balance is the most common in lab– used for measuring mass (weight) – unit for mass is grams g (kilograms kg)

• Stopwatch– Used to measure time– Unit for time is the second s (hour h)

• Ruler– Used to measure length, height, weight– Unit for length is meter (centimeter cm, kilometer km)

• Thermometer– Used to measure temperature– Unit for temperature is Kelvin (Celsius is used in lab then converted to Kelvin)

• Graduated cylinder– Used to measure liquid volume– Unit for liquid volume is liter (milliliter mL)

• Density-– Is a special property of materials which can be

used to identify the material– The formula for density is mass/volume– The unit for density is grams/milliters (g/mL)– The instruments needed for determining density is

a balance and graduated cylinder

1-3. appropriate optical instruments for conducting experiments including a compound microscope,an electron microscope, and a magnifying glass.

• Compound microscope-– Uses light to view microscopic objects– Objects are often placed on slides for viewing (wet mount slides)– May view alive objects

• Electron microscope-– Uses electrons to make images of objects– Can magnify many times more than the light microscope

• Magnifying glass– Used for viewing the surface of objects– Small magnification ability– Needs no special needs such as electricity

2. Describe cell processes necessary for achieving homeostasis, including active and passive transport,osmosis, diffusion, exocytosis, and endocytosis.• 2-1. Recognize and apply the definition of homeostasis. (The ability of an organism or cell to

maintain internal balance and stability by adjusting its physiological processes.)• 2-2. Recognize and apply the definition of active transport. (The movement of a substance

across a biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient with the help of energy input and specific transport proteins.)

• 2-3. Recognize and apply the definition of passive transport. (The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane.)

• 2-4. Recognize and apply the definition of osmosis. (The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.)

• 2-5. Recognize and apply the definition of diffusion. (The spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from a more concentrated to a less concentrated area.)

• 2-6. Recognize and apply the definition of exocytosis. (The cellular secretion of macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the cell membrane.)

• 2-7. Recognize and apply the definition of endocytosis. (The cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized regions of the cell membrane that surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle.)

• 2-1. Recognize and apply the definition of homeostasis. (The ability of an organism or cell to maintain internal balance and stability by adjusting its physiological processes.)– Examples of trying to maintaining homeostasis– Sweating and increased heart rate after running

• 2-2. Recognize and apply the definition of active transport. (The movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient with the help of energy input and specific transport proteins.)– Always requires energy from the cell– Goes from areas of low concentration to high concentration

2-3. Recognize and apply the definition of passive transport. (The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane.)

Occurs naturally without the use of cellular energyGoes from areas of high concentration to low concentration

2-4. Recognize and apply the definition of osmosis. (The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.)

Type of passive transportAlso know as the diffusion of waterGoes from areas of high water concentration (low solute concentration) to areas of low water concentration (higher solute concentration)Comparing concentrations of a solution to the concentration of another object

Hypotonic solution have high water concentration /low solute concentrationHypertonic solutions have low water concentration/ high solute concentrationIsotonic solution have equal concentrations of water and solute as the cell

Be careful the percentages refer the amount of solute not waterWater percentages would be that number subtracted from 100%

• 2-5. Recognize and apply the definition of diffusion. (The spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from a more concentrated to a less concentrated area.)– Type of passive transport– Does not require cellular energy

• 2-6. Recognize and apply the definition of exocytosis. (The cellular secretion of macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the cell membrane.)– Type of active transport– Materials go out of the cell– Way of removing waste – Means of releasing cellular secretions such as oil, wax, hormones etc.

• 2-7. Recognize and apply the definition of endocytosis. (The cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized regions of the cell membrane that surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle.)– Type of active transport– Materials enter the cell– Phagocytosis- cell eating (cell membrane stretches out and surrounds the substance)– Pinocytosis- cell drinking (cell membranes pushes inward to take in the substance)

3. Identify reactants and products associated with photosynthesis and cellular respiration, and the purposes of these two processes.• 3-1. Identify the chemical formula for

photosynthesis.• 3-2. Identify the function of photosynthesis.• 3-3. Identify the chemical formula for

respiration.• 3-4. Identify the function of respiration.• 3-5. Identify the relationship between

photosynthesis and respiration.

• 3-1. Identify the chemical formula for photosynthesis.– CO2 + H2O C6 H12O6 + O2

– Carbon dioxide and water produces glucose and oxygen– Carbon dioxide and water are reactants– Glucose and oxygen are products– Glucose may also be called sugar or carbohydrate– Sunlight and chlorophyll are needed to start the reaction

• 3-2. Identify the function of photosynthesis.– Photo- means light synthesis- means to make– Photosynthesis means to make using light– Photosynthesis purpose is to capture the energy from the sun– This energy is stored in a molecule called glucose – Carried out by plants and algae

• 3-3. Identify the chemical formula for respiration.– C6 H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + energy (ATP)– glucose and oxygen produces carbon dioxide and water – Glucose and oxygen are reactants– Carbon dioxide and water are products

• 3-4. Identify the function of respiration.– Releases the energy stored in glucose– This energy can now be used by the cell– The energy is stored in a molecule called ATP (adenosine tri-

phosphate)– Carried out by both plants and animals

• 3-5. Identify the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration.– Photo synthesis captures the sun’s energy and respiration releases

this energy

4. Describe similarities and differences of cell organelles, using diagrams and tables.9. Differentiate between the previous five-kingdom and current six-kingdom classification systems.

• 4-1. Identify cell structures including cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, ribosome, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, vacuole, chloroplast, and mitochondrion.

• 4-2. Classify organisms as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

• 4-3. Identify and define similarities and differences between the five-kingdom and six-kingdom classification systems.

• 4-1. Identify cell structures including cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, ribosome, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, vacuole, chloroplast, and mitochondrion.

Anatomy of the plant cell

• cell membrane • regulates the raw materials

(glucose, amino acids, and lipids) that enter the cell and waste products that leave the cell.

• Maintains the cell’s internal environment (homeostasis.)

• protects the cell from its external environment.

• Cell wall • is found outside the

cell membrane. • made of cellulose. • found in plants,

bacteria and fungi that give cells their shape.

• nucleus • is the control center of the cell

that manages cellular functions.• Nucleolus – structure inside the

nucleus that produces ribosomes.

• Chromatin – thin strands of DNA• Nuclear pore – holes in the

nuclear envelope through which ribosomes leave the nucleus.

• Ribosomes are the site for protein synthesis in the cell.– Produced in the

nucleolus– Found floating free

in the cytoplasm– Also exist on the

rough endoplasmic reticulum

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resembles a folded membrane that forms a network of interconnected compartments in the cytoplasm

• Smooth ER does not contain ribosomes

• Rough ER is covered with ribosomes

• Function: transportation of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

• The Golgi apparatus resembles closely stacked flattened membranous sacs

• Function: processing, packaging, and secreting proteins, lipids, etc.

• Vesicles are membranous pouches that may bud from the ER or golgi apparatus filled with protein.

• Chloroplasts are the sites for photosynthesis – where light is converted into chemical energy.

• Chloroplasts are a type of plastid (organelle that contains pigments)

• They contain chlorophyll - a green plant pigment that traps energy from sunlight and gives plants their green color.

• The mitochondria is the site of energy production through respiration.

• It consists of two membranes; The inner membrane is folded into structures called cristae.

• Nicknamed “the powerhouse”

Plant vs. Animal Cells

• Only animal cells contain centrioles.• Only plant cells contain a cell wall, chloroplasts,

and large central vacuole.

4-2. Classify organisms as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

Prokaryotic– cell without membrane-bound structures. Characteristics-

Simple internal structuresBasically consists of cytoplasm and cell membrane

no nucleusno membrane bound organelles all are unicellularExample: bacteria

Phyla with prokaryotic cells ArchaebacteriaEubacteria

Eukaryotic– cell with membrane-bound structures.

Characteristics-complex internal structures, nucleus, membrane bound organelles are found

in the cytoplasmsome are unicellular most are

multicellularPhyla which have eukaryotic cells

Animalia PlantaeProtistiaFungi

4-3. Identify and define similarities and differences between the five-kingdom and six-kingdom classification systems.

Six Kingdoms Archaebacteria Eubacteria ProtistaFungiPlantaeAnimalia

Five Kingdoms Monera

ProtistaFungiPlantaeAnimaliaMonera in the five-kingdom system is divided into Eubacteria and Archaebacteria in the six-kingdom system.

Archeabacteria

-Have cell membranes that contain lipids not found in any other organisms-Lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls. -prokaryotic-unicellular-unique ribosomal RNA-commonly found in harsh environments-commonly found in anaerobic environments

Eubacteria• are composed of bacteria and are the most

numerous and widespread organisms on earth.

• prokaryotic organisms• have a cell wall partially composed of peptidoglycan, a complex structural molecule not found in eukaryotic cells..

**characteristic which can be used to classify the bacteria as either Eubacteria or Archaebacteria the structure of ribosomal RNA

• Kingdom Protistia • Commonly called protists or protozoans• unicellular, colonial and multicellular Eukaryotes• Members of this kingdom are often microscopic

(unicellular) • Some protists can make their own food (autotrophic)

others cannot (heterotrophic) • Some protists display much movement others little. • Common members• Structures for movement• Ameoba paramecium euglena• Pseudopods cilia flagella

Fungi-Most are eukaryotic multicellular , some are unicellular-absorb nutrient from organic materials in the environment (heterotrophic) -Organisms break down dead organic material (decomposers), they continue the cycle of nutrients through ecosystems. Most plants could not grow without the symbiotic fungi, or mycorrhizae, that inhabit their roots and supply essential nutrients. Other fungi provide numerous drugs (such as penicillin and other antibiotics), foods like mushrooms, truffles and morels, and the bubbles in bread, champagne, and beer.