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![Page 1: Agriculture Humans shifted from hunter- gatherer to farmer about 12,000 yrs ago Happened almost simultaneously around the world; three major centers were.](https://reader033.fdocuments.net/reader033/viewer/2022061520/56649cfd5503460f949cd423/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Agriculture• Humans shifted
from hunter-gatherer to farmer about 12,000 yrs ago
• Happened almost simultaneously around the world; three major centers were around the Middle East (‘fertile crescent’), Eastern China, and India
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Impact of farming• Farming changed human society
forever
1. To farm, you need fertile ground for long periods: this kept people in one spot
2. One spotvillages
3. Villagesstructure/rules
4. Rulesto stable civilizations
5. Stable civilizationsadvancements
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Domestication
•Stability allowed long-term domestication of plants & animals•Domestication occurred by selective breeding; all modern crops derived from wild relatives (same with cows, chickens, etc.)•Domestication not easy—but produces more in long run
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Top Agricultural Crop Families
• Grass family (Poaceae)—rice, wheat, corn, etc.
• Tomato family (Solanaceae)—tomatos, potatoes, peppers, eggplants
• Bean family (Fabaceae)—soybeans, peas, beans
• Cabbage family (Brassicaceae)—cabbage, mustard, turnips, broccoli
• Melon family (Cucurbitaceae)—watermelon, honeydews, squash, zucchini
• Carrot family (Apiaceae)—carrots, celery, parsnips, cilantro
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Poaceae—Grass family
• Named for genus Poa• Crops called cereal crops (Greek god of
agriculture was Ceres)• Monocots• Old family name: Graminae (=grains)• Of the total food produced by the World's
top 30 crops (based on dry matter), about 23.4% comes from wheat, followed by maize (21.5%) and rice (16.5%) (Harlan, 1995).
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Poaceae• ~70% of farmland dedicated to this
group
• 9,000 species worldwide
• 35 species domesticated, 5 important today
• Only 1 from New World—which one?
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Rice
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Corn
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Wheat
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Sorghum, Millet
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Sugar Cane
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Oats, Rye
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Grass vegetative structure
• Fibrous roots
• Leaves wrap around stem
• Produces clones (tillers) from runners (stolons) or from rhizomes
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Grass reproductive structure• Highly modified
flower—no sepals, no petals
• Protective leaves (glumes) around flower stem base
• Closer to each flower, 2 more protective leaves: lemmas, paleas
• 1 carpel, 2 stigma lobes, 3 stamens
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Grass seeds:• As seed matures, fuses completely to ovary wall=caryopsis (kernel)
• Ovary wall + seed coat = bran
• Interior to seed coat is oil-rich layer called aleurone layer
• Lots of endosperm• 1-cotyledon =
monocot
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Grass domestication:
• Synchronicity
• Tiller elimination
• Height (reduced lodging & matting)
• Shattering reduction
• Easier threshing
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Bean family (Fabaceae)
• 2nd to grasses in economic importance
• Major crops: soybeans, peanuts, beans, peas, alfalfa, clover, chickpeas, lentils
• Old family name = Leguminosae because fruit type is legume
• 1-carpel flowers with many seeds; dehiscent at maturity
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Fabaceae• Rhizobium bacteria form symbiotic relationships with roots• Produce nodules
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Cucurbitaceae: melon family
• Cucumbers, melons, squashes, zucchini, gourds, pumpkins, loofahs
• Fruit typepepo
• Some medicinal uses: Chinese abortions & compound tricosanthin slows HIV
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Apiaceae: carrot family• Carrots,
parsnips, celery • Herbs: chervil,
angelica, dill, caraway, coriander, cumin, fennel, parsely, aniseed, cilantro, rhubarb
• Old name: Umbelliferae
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Solanaceae:Family of Paradox
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Eggplants--OW
Potatoes--NW
Peppers--NW
Tomatoes--NW
Food plants
Mandrake--OW
Belladonna--OW
Henbane--OW
Tobacco--NW
Psychoactive plants
Petunias
Ornamentals
Plants in the Solanaceae
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Alkaloids of Solanaceae plants:
• Atropine from belladonna
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Nicotine
• 2 species: Nicotiana rusticum & N. tabacum
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Other common alkaloids:
• Scopolamine—used for motion sickness
• Mandragorine—1st date-rape drug
• Hyoscyamine—hallucinogenic
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Eggplants
• Native to India• Domesticated
about 3,000 yrs ago
• Original plants produced egg-like fruit
• Modern varieties have thicker, purple skin
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Peppers3 main species, each with many varieties:
Capsicum annuum
Capsicum frutescens
Capsicum chinense
The name “Capsicum” could arise from the Latin capsa (box) or the Greek kapto (to bite).
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Why are peppers so hot?•produce the alkaloid capsaicin, chemically similar to vanillin in vanilla orchids
•capsaicin is the main ingredient in pepper sprays
•humans can detect capsaicin in 8 parts per billion!!
•all the capsaicin is located in the tissue that connects the pepper seed to the ovary wall of the flower:
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*The hottest pepper recorded was a Habanero.
Pure Capsaicin measures 16,000,000 Scoville units.
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Pepper Facts:
• first appear in cave deposits in Mexico about 7000 BC
• a second, independent origin in South America by 5000 BC
• first European encounter: Columbus in 1494
• spread from Europe to Hungary (paprika) & to India, where peppers became naturalized
• spread from Mexico to Louisiana & Texas in the 1850s after the Mexican-American war
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Little known pepper anecdotes:
• Carib Indians’ usage: POW’s
• Aztec usage: punishment, air-conditioning
• Incan usage: gas warfare
• Paprika, Szent-Gyorgyi, and the Nobel Prize
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Tomatos: wolf-peaches• Lycopersicon
esculentum=‘wolf-peach tasty’
• Domesticated in Central America
• Nahuatl tribes called them ‘tomatl’
• First record in Europe is 1544 in Italy
• Called ‘love apples’ to boost sales
• Not eaten for centuries in Europe because it looked like local toxic cousins
• Ketchup finally popularized in early 1900s, salsa in the 1980s
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Potatoes• Domesticated in
mountains of Argentina• Good crop for area—cool,
moist, underground• Tuber=modified stem• Biennial crops• ‘eyes’ = axillary buds• Native name ‘batatas’• Natives first to discover
the process of freeze-drying; used potatoes
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Potatoes & history
• Irish potato famine—1840s—killed 1-6 million people—caused by potato fungus Phytophthora
• Russians used potatoes as fermentation sourcevodka
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Asteraceae: sunflower family• Composite/head
flowers• Old name
Compositae• Egyptians
domesticated by 5000BC!
• Columbus carried to New World
• Crops: lettuce, endive, chicory, artichoke, sunflower seeds/oil
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Liliaceae: lily family
• Crops: onions, garlic, leeks, chives
• Domesticated by Egyptians 6000BC—garlic & onions used for mummification & perfumes
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Cabbage family: Brassicaceae
• Crops: cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, turnips, kale, collards, mustard, brussel sprouts, rutabagas
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Spices
• Phoenicians (2000BC-1000BC) cornered market on spice trade from India to Spain
• Arabs took over spice trade to Europe 500AD-1000AD
• Spices more valued than gold, silver, diamonds
• Value of spices started European exploration ~1100AD
• European food rather tasteless, also meat rotted so spices covered up rotten part
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Spices: Mint family• Spearmint,
sage, basil, rosemary, thyme, oregano, peppermint, marjoram
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Spices: myrtle family (Myrtaceae)
• Cloves, allspice
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Spices: Saffron (Iridaceae)• Saffron is world’s
most expensive spice
• Saffron=stigma lobes of purple crocus
• 1 oz costs $36
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Spices: ginger family• Turmeric, cardamom, ginger
• Family Zingiberaceae (tropical)
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Spices: Cinnamon• Family Lauraceae
• Cinnamon is bark of cinnamon tree
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Spices: Licorice• Licorice comes from bean
family, Fabaceae
• So does tamarind
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Perfumes• The basic ingredients are
odorants (=volatile oils) that can be extracted
• Extracted with organic solvents, alcohols, steam, pressing oils, or heating with alcohol
• Many compounds used in perfumes are synthesized
• Blending of fragrances is an art and producing a new scent can cost $2-$3 million, mostly for advertising
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Formulation TypeFragrance or Essential Oil
Perfume Diluent
Perfume 20% to 30% 70% to 80%
Cologne 15% to 20% 80% to 85%
Eau de Cologne 12% to 17% 83% to 88%
Eau de Toilette 5% to 10% 90% to 95%
Aftershave 2% to 5% 95% to 98%
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Vegetable Oils
• Canola AKA rapeseed (Brassicaceae)
• Corn (Poaceae)
• Peanut (Fabaceae)
• Olive (Oleaceae)
• Palm (Arecaceae)
• Coconut (Areaceae)
• Safflower (Asteraceae)
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Medicinal Plants• Plant/plant compounds used to treat/cure
disease/illnesses• Long history of human-plant use for this• Usually accidental discovery of value• ¼ to ½ modern medicines derived from plants• Herbalists use strong plant solutions;
homeopaths use very dilute solutions• Most rainforest species will disappear before
we can determine their medicinal value
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Yams: Dioscorea• Family
Dioscoreaceae
• Produce diosgenin, precursor compound for birth control pills
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Foxgloves• =Digitalis
(Scrophulariaceae; snapdragon family)
• Compound named digitalis
• Stabilizes arrythmia
• 1st use in 1790s
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Poppies: Papaveraceae• Carpel produces latex
(milky juice) that contains opioids
• Domesticated by Sumerians 3500BC
• China-Great Britain fought several wars over mandated poppy production
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Cinchona tree• Produces quinine,
an anti-malarial compound
• Native to South America
• Member of Rubiaceae, the coffee family
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Willows• Salicaceae
• Bark/leaves contain salicylic acid, which, in mammals, converts to acetylsalicylic acid or aspirin
• Bayer patented aspirin in 1899
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Periwinkles
• Produce anti-tumor compounds vinblastine, vincristine
• Apocynaceae (dogbane family)
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Psychoactive plants
• Plant with compounds that affect mainly the central nervous system
• Usually causes hallucinations, delusions, visions, etc.
• Can be fatal
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Coca• Cocacocaine, an
alkaloid• Bushes; tropical, mid-
high altitude• Member of
Erythroxylaceae• Natives chew leaves
to prevent altitude sickness
• Present in early versions of Coca-cola
• Stimulant effect
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How cocaine works:
• Normally: norepinephrine (neurotransmitter) is released from axon of one neuron & stimulates a nearby neuron
• Cocaine prevents the reuptake (recycling) of norepinephrine, so over-stimulation occurs
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Peyote• Cactus
(Cactaceae)
• Used in Native Am. Ceremonies
• Flower buds are most potent
• Hallucinogenic
• Induces nausea before ‘high’
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Marijuana• Compound is
THC• Member of
hemp family Cannabaceae
• Long-term use produces brain shrinkage
• Can be used to alleviate effects of chemotherapy or HIV
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Opium/Heroin• Heroinbrain
opiate receptors dopamine release=pleasure
• 4-5 hour ‘high’
• Pain is blocked
• Body adapts, requires more & more
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Nicotine
• Tobacco in Solanaceae
• Nicotine=alkaloid
• Also a dopamine releaser
• Also addictive
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LSD• Lysergic acid
• 2 natural sources: several morning glory species & a fungus (ergot)
• Morning-glories: ¼ seed can be fatal
• Ergot: Salem witch trials?
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Stimulating Beverages
• Usually served hot
• Usually have caffeine or other stimulant
• Several major: coffee, chocolate, tea, kola for example
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Green Tea
Oolong Tea
Black Tea
Coffee
0mg 50mg 100mg 150mg 200mg
Amounts of caffeine per 5 ounces of beverage.
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Tea• Camellia sinensis
(camellia from China)• Theaceae• Shrubby; after Opium
Wars, Brits took tea to India (now #1 grower)
• 2 types: green & black; difference in how leaves are harvested
• Green tea: leaves picked, shredded, allowed to dry
• Black tea: leaves picked, sometimes shredded, wetted to allow fermentation, then dried
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Chocolate• Theobroma cacao
(Sterculiaceae)• =cocoa (not coca!)• Central American tree• Theobroma=food of the
gods• Flowers arise from outer
cortex cells, not from axillary buds
• Chocolate compounds come from fermentation of seed sheaths
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Chocolate• Stimulant in chocolate
is theobromine, chemically almost identical to caffeine
• Very bitter alkaloid• Fermentation changes
to usable produce• Labor-intensive
industry• White chocolate has
no chocolate in it
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Coffee• Native to
Ethiopia (Africa)• Exported by
Arabs to rest of world for 1000 years
• Dipped seeds in boiling water to prevent others from growing
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Coffee• Genus Coffea in
family Rubiaceae• 3 species used:
– C. arabica ~90% of world’s coffee
– C. canephora ~9%– C. liberica ~1%
• Coffee ‘bean’ not a true bean but 2 seeds per fruit
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Coffee’s history
• 1720s: coffee seeds/plants stolen from Paris botanical garden & transported to Caribbean
• From several trees to thousands in a few decades
• Then transported to Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela
• Brazil now #1 grower• Coffee more valuable than oil
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Coffee processing• ‘beans’ picked green• Transported to
coasts; roasted on site
• Bagged and shipped to grocery stores
• Decaf coffee made by steaming or organic solvents
• Instant coffee
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Alcoholic Beverages
• Alcohol=ethanol (not methanol; methanol is poisonous)
• 2 types: fermented & distilled• Alcohol derived from Arabic al kuhul
because they invented distillation process• Proof = double the % of ethanol:
– 100 proof = 50% ethanol– 190 proof = 95% ethanol
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Fermented vs. Distilled• Fermented: beers,
wines• Distilled: uses
fermented solutions & steam to concentrate % ethanol
• Fermented uses fungus Saccharomyces to turn glucose into ethanol as a byproduct
• ~50% of sugars get made into ethanol
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Fermented: Beer
• Beers start as fermented grains
• Usually barley, rye, or wheat (sometimes corn)
• Malting=sprouting grain used
• Hops (marijuana family) used to de-bitter beer
• Beers (by law) usually 3.5%-8%
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Fermented: Wine
• Wines start as fruits (grapes usually), not seeds
• Grape wine usually red or white; white wine has skins removed; red keeps skins
• Usually 4-8% ethanol
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Other fermented:
• Sake—rice beer, not wine
• Pulque—agave-based (yucca relative)
• Chicha—corn-based
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Distillation Process• Ethanol boils at
83C, water at 100C
• As ethanol evaporates, leaves water behind
• Fumes are concentrated
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Distilled: Whiskeys• 3 types: scotch,
bourbon, rye
• Scotch: malted barley
• Bourbon: malted corn (only American whiskey)
• Rye: malted rye
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Distilled: Vodka• Potatoes used as starch
source
• Usually 100-200 proof (50-100%)
• Can almost run car on high proof vodka
• Tasteless, odorless
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Distilled: Rum
• Uses sugar cane sap as sugar source
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Distilled: Gin
• Flavored with juniper cones (‘berries’)
• Gin & tonic favorite drink of British because in India, gin covered the bitter taste of quinine (anti-malarial drug)
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Distilled: Tequila
• Made from sap of yucca-relative
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Brandy/Liqueurs
•A fortified wine
•Wine+ethanol
•Usually based on non-grape wine; ex. Blackberry, elderberry
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Textiles
• Early cultures used animal skins• About 15,000 yrs ago (maybe as much
as 40,000) we see woven clothes• Cloth ‘fiber’=cellulose, not a botanical
fiber• Commonly derived from seed hairs
(cotton), stems (linens), or lignified leaf fibers (“hard” ex. Agave)
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World Production by TextileTextile NationCotton China, US
Flax (linens) China, France
Hemp China, Romania (outlawed by the U.S.)
Jute India
Sisal Brazil
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Cotton• Gossypium sp. in family
Malvaceae• Cotton ‘fibers’ derived from
single epidermal cells of seed coat
• History: as British withdrew after Rev. War, took sugar supplies; U.S. needed fast economic boost
• 1790s—Eli Whitney invents cotton gin—begins period of massive slavery
• 1791—400 bales produced; 1800-30,000 bales produced
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Whitney’s cotton gin
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Modern Cotton Gin
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Flax• Linum sp. in
Linaceae
• Stem tissues provide strong fabric=linen
• Superior to cotton, but more expensive to make
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Hemp
• Marijuana family (Cannabaceae)
• Stem tissues provide tough, durable fabric
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Rayon• Chemically-
straightened cotton ‘fibers’
• Doesn’t wrinkle as easily
• Invented as a cheap alternative to silk
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Dyes• Probably used
originally to dye skin
• Common dyes:– Henna (brown)– Indigo (blue)—color of
royalty before purple was discovered
– Saffron (yellow)– Nettles (green)
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Genetically Modified Crops• Non-plant genes
incorporated • Ex. Golden rice—
has extra copies of Vitamin A genes
• Ex. Bt corn (Morningstar Corn)-contain natural insecticide genes from Bacillus thuringiensis
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The downside:
• Unknown and unpredictable effects
• Ex. Bt corn genes have now shown up in the ancient varieties still grown in northern Mexico
• Ex. Monarchs may be damaged by contact with pollen containing Bt genes
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