1. 1. Aggression
2. 2. Observation Modelling Social Learning theory
3. 3. Observation - Social Learning Theory Explanation The social learning theory of aggression suggests that we learn via observation of others (models). Skinners rats highlighted the operant conditioning theory that behaviour is taught be direct reinforcement. Children observe and learn through one main way: vicarious learning Watching others get rewarded or punished for behaviour and imitating them depending on the consequences. Children witness examples of aggressive behaviour either at school, home, television or newspapers. By observing the consequences of that person, they will go onto choose whether they copy it or not. They may also learn by Reciprocal determinism This is when an individuals and environment interact and impact on each other shaping our behaviour. Similar to the previous learning process, we allow what we see or hear to help shape our behaviour unintentionally. Evidence Bandura, ross + ross Children watched a short film in which the model behaved aggressively Out of three groups, the model has various consequences: Model-rewarded, Model-punished and No-consequence. Children were then put in a room of toys and given 10 minutes to play and do as they pleased. The results showed that those in the model-punished group were less aggressive but was little difference between the other two. Evaluating studies There was no difference between the no-consequence group and rewarded group indicating that they do not always follow models Evaluating theory IDAs Reductionist Only focusing on the social aspect of behaviour, not how it could be biological Ethical issues Exposing children from behaviour needs to be regulated to ensure children are protected from harm General
4. 4. Modelling Social learning theory Explanation The theory also suggests we learn through the process of Modelling. This involves 4 main stages. Firstly, attention person plays attention to the actions of model. Secondly, retention Remembering behaviour that was observed. Thirdly, Motor reproduction the ability to replicate the behaviour. And finally, Motivation must want to show what they have learned. Again, there are two variations of the modelling process: Self efficiency People are more likely to engage in behaviours if they believe they are capable of achieving them and Self- regulation When an individual has their own ideas of what is appropriate or inappropriate behaviour and chooses to act accordingly. Evidence Bandura, Ross and Ross 36 boys and 36 girls were placed in a room for 20 minutes to play with toys. Before they could play with the toys, a model entered the room and set up some toys. In the non aggressive group, the model did this normally, but in the aggressive group, the model was aggressive to the doll and to other toys. Children were left to play with the toys and 70% of those in the non-aggressive group had an aggressive rating of 0 Men were also found to be more influential than women Evaluating studies Because only 70% were given 0 in the non-aggressive groups shows that the other 30% had no reason to be aggressive but were anyway proving it hasnt got everything to do with models Evaluating theory IDAs Gender bias In Banduras study, men were ore influential as aggressive models than women proving stereotypes Nature vs Nurture Heavily reliant on nurture and how the environment shapes us General Can explain individual differences and personalities differ in aggression
5. 5. Deindividuation theory
6. 6. Deindividuation theory Explanation The deindivduation theory is based on the classic crowd. It is the idea that people lose their identity in a big crowd of people so feel it is acceptable to act differently to how they normally would. When anonymity, suggestibility and contagion are combined, a collective mind takes a hold of the individual. It is a psychological state of mind where a person feels less concerned about others. This leads to an increase in behaviour which would otherwise not be allowed according to our social norms. Simple: Anonymity in a crowd causes the deindivduation which gives an excuse to be aggressive. Factors that influence this could be uniforms, crowds, alcohol or drugs. Evidence Zimbardo Created a stimulated prison of 24 male participants. Half were assigned to be guards and the other were prisoners. The guards wore reflective glasses, uniform and carried hand cuffs. Whereas the prisoners wore lose smocks and were only referred to by number. The guards created a brutal atmosphere becoming aggressive verbally and physically. Both participants showed classic signs of deindivduation. Zimbardo Four females were asked to give shocks to the learners to help them learn. Half the participants wore bulky lab coats, addressed as a group and were not introduced to each other whilst the remaining half wore their normal clothes, given instructions individually and were introduced to each other before hand. Those who were covered up and had their identity stolen gave shocks for twice as long proving that deindivduation causes people to become more brutal and aggressive. Real life examples of deindivduation London riots; everyone joined in just for the sake of it
7. 7. Deindividuation theory Evaluating studies In the female Zimbardo's studies, only one gender is used which subsequently means it cannot be applied to the opposite gender. The simulated prison study was in a real life environment so has high ecological validity. Evaluating theory IDAs Deterministic we dont all conform and act aggressive in a crowd, individual differences. Reductionist Heavily focused on the behavioural approach Nature vs Nurture Focused on nurture and environment General Real life examples as stated previously are evidence of deindivduation
8. 8. Importation model Deprivation theory Institutional aggression
9. 9. Deprivation theory -Institutional aggression Explanation: Human aggression in general could be interpersonal or institutional. Interpersonal is direct actions against a specific individual whereas institutional aggression may occur within groups. For example, the army, prisons or mental institutions. The deprivation theory looks into factors regarding why there is aggression in prisons. These could be sexual, boredom, picked on for crime or racial. Evidence: Sykes Outlined 5 main deprivations which prisoners experience: 1) G Deprivation of Goods and services Have no personal possessions, feel like they are living in poverty 2) A Deprivation of Autonomy Now power or control, leading to a feeling of helplessness, this equals aggression 3) H Deprivation of Heterosexual relationships Denied female companionship decreasing self worth and increasing anger 4) L Deprivation of Liberty Prisoner isn't trusted in the free world and is rejected by society leading to feelings of anger 5) S Deprivation of Security Prisoners fear for their safety and become aggressive too stop others being aggressive towards them Evaluating studies: Hard to gain an accurate knowledge of what prisoners feel unless they have actually been one themselves. Evaluating theory: IDAs Reductionist Only applies to prison behaviour, may not be applied to other institution's Nature vs nurture Nature explains personality traits, nurture environment (institution) shapes us Gender bias tends to be male research e.g male prison General Can explain the type A personality
10. 10. Importation model -Institutional aggression Explanation: Prisoners bring their own social histories and traits with them into prison which influences their adaption to the prison environment. In the prison system, depending on the type of crime you have committed, you are unintentionally placed into subcultures. Interpersonal violence in prisons is not a product of the institution but the characteristics of individuals who enter such intuitions. Values and attitudes of the criminals segregate them into their categories. Evidence: Irwin and Cressey The criminal subculture Follow the norms of a thief e.g- no betrayal and being trustworthy The convict subculture Been raised in the prison system and seek status (most aggressive) The straight subculture One-time offenders, share values with the officers and guards Evaluating studies: Not everyone fits into these 3 categories and may create their own subculture. Evaluating theory: IDAs Deterministic In assuming we all decide to join a subculture when sometimes we like to be alone Reductionist Only certain types of criminals involved, ignores all varieties for why people are in prison General Real world application high ecological validity
11. 11. Serotonin & Dopamine Testosterone & Cortisol Neural and hormonal aggression
12. 12. Serotonin & dopamine neural aggression Explanation: Neurotransmitters are chemicals that enable impulses within the brain to be transmitted from one area to another. Low levels of serotonin are supposed to be related to higher levels of aggression. Serotonin is associated with our emotional stimuli, so if we are happy, we have a high level of serotonin and vice versa, hence why when we are sad, we can become angry and aggressive. The treatment of aggressive behaviour uses serotonin drugs to increase the mood of a patient in order to reduce aggressiveness. Higher levels of dopamine are also associated with aggressive behaviour. Dopamine is seen as the pleasure centre. When the levels of dopamine increase, the pleasure centre works in a faulty way and change the way we interpret rewards. Though the link between these is not as well established as that of serotonin, there has been research into dopamine drugs which have been proven to help reduce aggressive behaviour. Evidence: Mann et al Drugs which reduced serotonin increased measures of hostility and aggression in males Lauine Giving amphetamines (increase dopamine) increases aggression Evaluating studies: All based on the treatment of drugs as oppose to a behavioural therapy Evaluating theory: IDAs Reductionist Heavily based on biological and neurotransmitters which cannot fully explain aggression Nature vs nurture No nurture considered, all nature and biology General Limited evidence for dopamine, serotonin has more links with aggressive behaviour
13. 13. Testosterone & cortisol - hormonal aggression Explanation: Testosterone is normally associated with males and levels of aggression. It acts to sensitive neural circuits in the brain causing changes in levels of aggression. It appears in young males when they hit puberty and continues in young middle aged men. Higher levels of testosterone is associated with increased aggression. Cortisol mediates other hormones e.g- testosterone because it increases anxiety and the likelihood of social withdrawal. High levels of cortisol inhibits testosterone therefore increases aggressive. However, on its own, low levels will increase aggression. Evidence: Dabbs et al Salivary testosterone levels were able to differentiate between violent and non-violent crime Virkuunen Low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders Evaluating studies: All using biological tests which are more valid Evaluating theory: IDAs Gender bias testosterone levels are mainly found and tested in men Determinstic As humans we have a choice to be aggressive Nature vs Nurture Ignores nurture, strongly focused on biology and hormones General Culture bias it tends too be in the western culture
14. 14. Jealously Infidelity Evolutionary aggression
15. 15. Jealously - Evolutionary aggression Explanation: Evolutionary aggression is based on the idea that different reproductive challenges faced by our ancestors led to sex differences, including sexual jealously. We have therefore adapted to several strategies to deter their female partners from committing adultery. They do not want to loose their mating partner and use male retention strategies which could lead to aggression. These range from violence to vigilance but are both fuelled by male sexual jealously, an adaption evolved to deal with the threat of parental uncertainty. Evidence: Daly and wilson 58/214 cases of murder was motivated by sexual jealously. Evaluating studies: On such a sensitive topic, its hard to gain accurate results as people dont want to talk about it Evaluating theory: IDAs Reductionist heavily based on our ancestors, we have developed and do not resemble that much of an early human or animal General
16. 16. Infidelity - Institutional aggression Explanation: The idea of cuckoldery is the idea that a male doesnt want to raise a child that isn't there own so will try to deter other males to ensure there is no infidelity. In order to pass on their genes, they need to ensure their partner is loyal and doesnt carry another's child apart from their own. Strategies such as direct guarding are put in place to ensure the female does not cheat. Some examples of the direct guarding could be checking their partners facebook messages, their phone or locking them in a room and not letting them see their friends. This could explain domestic violence in couples and why men get so paranoid over women. These strategies are put in place to prevent these problems. Evidence: Miller 55% of battered wives claimed jealously as a reason for their husbands behaviour often based on suspicion and fear. Evaluating studies: No scientific measure, it shows a correlation not cause of being aggressive and violent behaviour. Evaluating theory: IDAs Nature vs nurture Can explain both; Nurture- our environment makes us think only to ensure reproduction of our genes whereas nature is suggesting it is the evolutionary theory of genes and how we have developed since that makes us behave this way General Cannot explain individual differences and why some men are less aggressive than others
17. 17. Twin studies Adoption studies Gene MAOA Genetics
18. 18. Twin studies genetics Explanation: Monozygotic twins share 100% of the same genes whereas dizygotic twins share 50% of the same genes. It should therefore be a high concordance rates between monozygotic twins. This is because, if the twins have all the same genes, then they should both equally be as likely as the other to have the same levels of aggression. This would prove that it is due to genes and no alternative factors that aggression is genetic. Evidence: Rutter Dizygotic twins had a concordance rate between 13-22% Monozygotic twins had a concordance rate between 26-31% Evaluating studies: The results of the study show that with such low figures, its unlikely that aggression is genetic. Evaluating theory: IDAs Nature vs nurture-Theory is built upon the idea of nature and that genetics makes us aggressive when rutters study identified that it was no-where near all genetics so a nurture aspect must be true General Though there are figures to prove that genetics may be a good explanation, the numbers are so low that alternative factors must also be influencing aggression levels Individual differences Though the monozygotic twins are biologically the same, their personalities may be different and it might just be that one twin is a bit more feisty than the other
19. 19. Adoption studies - Genetics Explanation: Adoption studies untangle the contribution of the environment and genetic aggression. If there is a positive correlation found between aggressive behaviour in adopted children and their biological parents then the genetic explanation is strong. However if a correlation is found between adopted child's aggression and the new family, then it shows that the environment plays the biggest role. Evidence: Hutchings et al Studied criminal records of all Danish children outside their biological family between 1924-1947 It was found that having a criminal biological father increases criminality chances in the child There is a higher chance is both the biological and adoptive father is criminal Evaluating studies: Low demographics only used Danish participants Out-dated study Evaluating theory: IDAs Nature vs Nurture both are considered Nature and genes play a role but so does the adoptive father (environment) General Fails to acknowledge the difference between violent and non-violent crime meaning its harder to label those that are truly aggressive, not just committing any crime
20. 20. MAOA gene - Genetics Explanation: The MAOA gene regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain. Low levels of serotonin are associated with aggressive feelings. Having too little of this gene leads to the brain being flooded with so much serotonin leading to lowered sensitivity to those neurotransmitters. This means that anyone with too little of the MAOA gene is at risk of being criminal for violent crime. Evidence: Moffat et al Conducted a longditutional study of 422 males in New Zealand Their criminal convictions were studied His findings found that there was a link between the MAOA gene and violent crime Evaluating studies: Longditutional studies suffer from attrition Androcentric only used males Evaluating theory: IDAs Gender bias males tend to be more aggressive than females so a lot of research is done into males aggression but little is known about female aggression General There are other factors which contribute to aggressive behaviour gene- environment interaction
21. 21. Sports Warfare Group Display
22. 22. Sports Group display Explanation: In some team sports, aggression is linked with victory as displaying aggression threatens/intimidates the other team putting them off leaving more chance of your team to win. According to the evolutionary theory, higher status brings increased opportunities for survival. Applying this to sports, a successful sport team will be rewarded with resources e.g- money bonuses which makes them more attractive as a mate. A team are more likely to win at their home ground/territory. Victory brings status to fans. Fans provide exposure, fame and more money, these are opportunities for better mates and leads to increased survival. Xenophobia is a fear of strangers. Evidence: Maxwell & Viscek Questioned 144 rugby union players about aggression in their games. Those high in professions placed more emphasis on winning and therefore used more aggression Evaluating studies: One sport was examined, some sports are not as competitive Evaluating theory: IDAs Reductionist Fails to consider the role of biology and cognitive factors General Deindivduation can further explain aggression in bigger crowds/sports teams as there is an increase in anonymity Sporting group displays e.g- the haka, are more for commercial reasons than traditional practises
23. 23. Warfare Group Display Explanation: It is difficult to see why organisms such as humans who were selected to survive would engage in something like war at such personal costs. The evolutionary suggestion may suggest that males act like this because of their usefulness in battles. If a male performs well in these battles and acts brave, they are rewarded as they win the female, status and reproductive fitness. Evidence: Changnon Yanomamo tribe in the Amazon rainforest There were frequent battles over women The success in battle lead to a higher status and had more wives and children Young men who didnt kill were rarely married Evaluating studies: One tribe that has different norms to western society doesnt explain aggression in our culture Evaluating theory: IDAs Gender bias- Heavily focused on the alpha male role on men and doesnt explain womens aggression General War only occurred when we shifted from nomadic living to one site. Therefore, whens there conflict, we can no longer run away so have to use war to deal with the problems. This showing aggressive displays are not biological, just an environmental change.