Contents

. Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................................I

. Contents ..................................................................................................................................II

. Introduction (Child Development ........................................................................................III

1. Table illustrating child development ..................................................................................2 2. 0-1 years old .......................................................................................................................3

3. Toddlers (1-2) years old .....................................................................................................7

4. Four years old ...................................................................................................................11

5. Five years old ....................................................................................................................15

6. Six years old .....................................................................................................................20

7. Seven years old .................................................................................................................22

8. Eight years old ..................................................................................................................24

9. Nine years old ...................................................................................................................28

10. Ten years old .....................................................................................................................31

11. Eleven years old ................................................................................................................32

12. Twelve years old ...............................................................................................................33

. Reference .........................................................................................................................38

Psychology 1 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Table illustrating child development stages

Developmental MilestonesAge Motor Speech Vision and

hearingSocial development

4-6 weeks

Smiles at parent

6-8 weeks

Vocalises

3 months

Prone: head held up for prolonged periods. No grasp reflex

Makes vowel noises

Follows dangling toy from side to side. Turns head round to sound

Squeals with pleasure appropriately. Discriminates smile

5 months Holds head steady.

Goes for objects and gets them. Objects taken to mouth

Enjoys vocal play Smiles at mirror image

6 months

Transfers objects from one hand to the other. Pulls self up to sit and sits erect with supports. Rolls over prone to supine. Palmer grasp of cube

Double syllable sounds such as 'mumum' and 'dada'

Localises sound 45cm lateral to either ear

May show 'stranger shyness'

9-10 months

Wiggles and crawls. Sits unsupported. Picks up objects with pincer grasp

Babbles tunefully Looks for toys dropped

Apprehensive about strangers

1 year Stands holding furniture. Stands alone for a second or two, then collapses with a bump

Babbles 2 or 3 words repeatedly

Drops toys, and watches where they go

Cooperates with dressing, waves goodbye, understands simple commands

18 months

Can walk alone. Picks up toy without falling over. Gets up/down stairs holding onto rail. Begins to jump with both feet. Can build a tower of 3 or 4 cubes and throw a ball

'Jargon'. Many intelligible words

Demands constant mothering. Drinks from a cup with both hands. Feeds self with a spoon

2 years Able to run. Walks up and down stairs 2 feet per step. Builds tower of 6 cubes

Joins 2-3 words in sentences

Parallel play. Dry by day

Psychology 2 Ages and Stages of Child Development

3 years Goes up stairs 1 foot per step and downstairs 2 feet per step. Copies circle, imitates cross and draws man on request. Builds tower of 9 cubes

Constantly asks questions. Speaks in sentences

Cooperative play. Undresses with assistance. Imaginary companions

4 years Goes down stairs one foot per step, skips on one foot. Imitates gate with cubes, copies a cross

Questioning at its height. Many infantile substitutions in speech

Dresses and undresses with assistance. Attends to own toilet needs

5 years Skips on both feet and hops. Draws a man and copies a triangle. Gives age

Fluent speech with few infantile substitutions in speech

Dresses and undresses alone

6 years Copies a diamond. Knows right from left and number of fingers

Fluent speech

Cognitive and creative

Creative development could very well be seen as how the child learns in its environment through experimenting in different ways of doing everything.

1.0-1 years old

Looks for fallen objects by 7 months Plays ‘peek-a-boo’ games Cannot understand “no” or “Danger”

8-12 months

Watches people, objects, and activities in the immediate environment. Shows awareness of distant objects (15 to 20 feet away) by pointing at them. Responds to hearing tests (voice localization); however, loses interest quickly and, therefore,

may be difficult to test informally. Follows simple instructions. Reaches for toys that are out of reach but visible Recognizes objects in reverse Drops thing intentionally and repeats and watches object Imitates activities like playing drum

1-4 months

Psychology 3 Ages and Stages of Child Development

A baby's first smile usually occurs four to six weeks after birth.

Physical Average length is 50.8-68.6 cm grows approximately 2.54 cm per month. Weighs an average of 3.6-7.3 kg Gains approximately 0.11-0.22 kg per week. Respiration rate is approximately thirty to forty breaths per minute. Normal body temperature ranges from 35.7-37.5°C. Head and chest circumference are nearly equal. Head circumference increases approximately 1.9 cm per month until two months, then

increases 1.6 cm per month until four months. Increases are an important indication of continued brain growth.

Continues to breathe using abdominal muscles. Posterior fontanel closes by the second month. Anterior fontanel closes to approximately 1/2 inch (1.3 cm). Skin remains sensitive and easily irritated. Legs may appear slightly bowed. Cries with tears. Eyes begin moving together in unison (binocular vision).

Motor development Rooting and sucking reflexes are well developed. Swallowing reflex and tongue movements are still immature; continued drooling and inability

to move food to the back of the mouth. Grasp reflex gradually disappears. Landau reflex appears near the middle of this period; when baby is held in a prone (face down)

position, the head is held upright and legs are fully extended. Grasps with entire hand; strength insufficient to hold items. Holds hands in an open or semi-

open position. Muscle strength and control improving; early movements are large and jerky; gradually become

smoother and more purposeful. Raises head and upper body on arms when in a prone position. Turns head side to side when in a supine (face up) position; near the end of this period can hold

head up and in line with the body. Upper body parts are more active: clasps hands above face, waves arms about, reaches for

objects. 4-8 months

Physical Puts on 0.5 kg per month in weight, doubling birth weight Grows about 1.3 cm in length per month; average length is 69.8-73.7 cm. Head and chest circumferences are basically equal. Head circumference increases approximately 3/8 inch (0.95 cm) per month untl six to seven

months, then 3/16 inch (0.47 cm) per month; head circumference should continue to increase steadily, indicating healthy, ongoing brain growth.

Psychology 4 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Breathing is abdominal; ranges from twenty-five to fifty breaths per minute, depending on activity; rate and patterns vary from infant to infant.

Teeth begin to appear, with upper and lower incisors coming in first. Gums may become red and swollen, accompanied by increased drooling, chewing, biting, and mouthing of objects.

Legs may appear bowed; bowing gradually disappears as infant grows older. Fat rolls ("Baby Fat") appear on thighs, upper arms and neck. True eye color is established.

Motor development Reflexive behaviors are changing: Blinking reflex is well established Sucking reflex becomes voluntary Moro reflex disappears When lowered suddenly, infant throws out arms as a protective measure. Swallowing reflex appears allows infant to move solid foods from front of mouth to the back

for swallowing. Picks up objects using finger and thumb (pincer grip). Reaches for objects with both arms simultaneously; later reaches with one hand or the other. Transfers objects from one hand to the other; grasps object using entire hand (palmar grasp). Handles, shakes, and pounds objects; puts everything in mouth. Able to hold bottle. Sits alone without support, holding head erect, back straightened, and arms propped forward for

support Pulls self into a crawling position by raising up on arms and drawing knees up beneath the

body; rocks back and forth, but generally does not move forward. Lifts head when placed on back. Can roll over from back or stomach position. May accidentally begin scooting backwards when placed on stomach; soon will begin to crawl

forward.

8-12 Months

Physical Infants reach approximately 1-1/2 times their birth length by first birthday Weight increases by approximately 0.5 kg per month; birth weight nearly triples by one year of

age: infants weigh an average of 9.6 kg. Respiration rates vary with activity: typically, twenty to forty-five breaths per minute. Body temperature ranges from 96.4°F to 99.6°F (35.7-37.5°C); environmental conditions,

weather, activity, and clothing still affect variations in temperature. Head and chest circumference remain equal. Continues to use abdominal muscles for breathing. Anterior fontanel begins to close. Approximately four upper and four lower incisors and two lower molars erupt. Arm and hands are more developed than feet and legs (cephalocaudal development); hands

appear large in proportion to other body parts. Legs may continue to appear bowed. "Baby Fat" continues to appear on thighs, upper arms and neck. Feet appear flat as arch has not yet fully developed. Visual acuity is approximately 20/100.

Psychology 5 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Both eyes work in unison (true binocular coordination). Can see distant objects (15 to 20 feet away) and points at them.

Motor development Reaches with one hand leading to grasp an offered object or toy. Manipulates objects, transferring them from one hand to the other. Explores new objects by poking with one finger. Uses deliberate pincer grasp to pick up small objects, toys, and finger foods. Stacks objects; also places objects inside one another. Releases objects or toys by dropping or throwing; cannot intentionally put an object down. Beginning to pull self to a standing position. Beginning to stand alone, leaning on furniture for support; moves around obstacles by side-

stepping. Has good balance when sitting; can shift positions without falling. Creeps on hands and knees; crawls up and down stairs. Walks with adult support, holding onto adult's hand; may begin to walk alone.

2. Toddlers (1-2 years old)

Physical Rate of growth slows Height increases approximately 5cm- 7.6cm with an average height of 81cm – 89cm Weighs 9.6-12.3 kg; gains 0.13-0.25 kg per month; weight is now approximately 3 times the

child's birth weight. Respiration rate is typically twenty-two to thirty breaths per minute; varies with emotional state

and activity. Heart rate (pulse) is approximately 80 to 110 per minute. Head size increases slowly; grows approximately 1/2 inch (1.3 cm) every six months; anterior

fontanelle is nearly closed at eighteen months as bones of the skull thicken. Chest circumference is larger than head circumference. Rapid eruption of teeth; six to ten new teeth will appear. Legs may still appear bowed. Toddler will begin to lose the "Baby Fat" once he/she begins walking. Body shape changes; takes on more adult-like appearance; still appears top-heavy; abdomen

protrudes, back is swayed. Visual acuity is approximately 20/60.

Motor development Crawls skillfully and quickly. Stands alone with feet spread apart, legs stiffened, and arms extended for support. Gets to feet unaided. Most children walk unassisted near the end of this period; falls often; not always able to

maneuver around obstacles, such as furniture or toys.

Psychology 6 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Uses furniture to lower self to floor; collapses backwards into a sitting position or falls forward on hands and then sits.

Enjoys pushing or pulling toys while walking. Repeatedly picks up objects and throws them; direction becomes more deliberate. Attempts to run; has difficulty stopping and usually just drops to the floor. Crawls up stairs on all fours; goes down stairs in same position. Sits in a small chair. Carries toys from place to place. Enjoys crayons and markers for scribbling; uses whole-arm movement. Helps feed self; enjoys holding spoon (often upside down) and drinking from a glass or cup;

not always accurate in getting utensils into mouth; frequent spills should be expected. Helps turn pages in book. Stacks two to four objects.

Cognitive development Enjoys object-hiding activities Early in this period, the child always searches in the same location for a hidden object (if the

child has watched the hiding of an object). Later, the child will search in several locations. Passes toy to other hand when offered a second object (referred to as "crossing the midline"-an

important neurological development). Manages three to four objects by setting an object aside (on lap or floor) when presented with a

new toy. Puts toys in mouth less often. Enjoys looking at picture books. Demonstrates understanding of functional relationships (objects that belong together): Puts

spoon in bowl and then uses spoon as if eating; places teacup on saucer and sips from cup; tries to make doll stand up.

Shows or offers toy to another person to look at. Names many everyday objects. Shows increasing understanding of spatial and form discrimination: puts all pegs in a pegboard;

places three geometric shapes in large formboard or puzzle. Places several small items (blocks, clothespins, cereal pieces) in a container or bottle and then

dumps them out. Tries to make mechanical objects work after watching someone else do so. Responds with some facial movement, but cannot truly imitate facial expression.

Language Produces considerable "jargon": puts words and sounds together into speech-like (inflected)

patterns. Holophrastic speech: uses one word to convey an entire thought; meaning depends on the

inflection ("me" may be used to request more cookies or a desire to feed self). Later; produces two-word phrases to express a complete thought (telegraphic speech): "More cookie," "Daddy bye-bye."

Follows simple directions, "Give Daddy the cup." When asked, will point to familiar persons, animals, and toys. Identifies three body parts if someone names them: "Show me your nose (toe, ear)." Indicates a few desired objects and activities by name: "Bye-bye," "cookie"; verbal request is

often accompanied by an insistent gesture. Responds to simple questions with "yes" or "no" and appropriate head movement. Speech is 25 to 50 percent intelligible during this period. Locates familiar objects on request (if child knows location of objects).

Psychology 7 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Acquires and uses five to fifty words; typically these are words that refer to animals, food, and toys.

Uses gestures, such as pointing or pulling, to direct adult attention. Enjoys rhymes and songs; tries to join in. Seems aware of reciprocal (back and forth) aspects of conversational exchanges; some turn-

taking in other kinds of vocal exchanges, such as making and imitating sounds.

Two year old

Physical Weight gain averages 0.9-1.1 kg per year; weighs approximately 26 to 11.8-14.5 kg or about 4

times the weight at birth. Grows approximately 7.6-12.7 cm per year; average height is 86-96.5 cm. Posture is more erect; abdomen still large and protruding, back swayed, because abdominal

muscles are not yet fully developed. Respirations are slow and regular (approximately twenty to thirty-five breaths per minute). Body temperature continues to fluctuate with activity, emotional state, and environment. Brain reaches about 80 percent of its adult size. 20 baby teeth almost finished growing out

Motor development Can walk around obstacles and walk more erect Squats for long periods while playing. Climbs stairs unassisted (but not with alternating feet). Balances on one foot (for a few moments), jumps up and down, but may fall. Often achieves toilet training during this year (depending on child's physical and neurological

development) although accidents should still be expected; the child will indicate readiness for toilet training.

Throws large ball underhand without losing balance. Holds cup or glass (be sure it is unbreakable) in one hand. Unbuttons large buttons; unzips large zippers.

Opens doors by turning doorknobs. Grasps large crayon with fist; scribbles enthusiastically on large paper. Climbs up on chair, turns around and sits down. Enjoys pouring and filling activities-sand, water, styrofoam peanuts. Stacks four to six objects on top of one another. Uses feet to propel wheeled riding toys.

Cognitive Eye-hand movements better coordinated; can put objects together, take them apart; fit large

pegs into pegboard. Begins to use objects for purposes other than intended (may push a block around as a boat). ~ Does simple classification tasks based on one dimension (separates toy dinosaurs from toy

cars). Stares for long moments; seems fascinated by, or engrossed in, figuring out a situation: where

the tennis ball has rolled, where the dog has gone, what has caused a particular noise. Attends to self-selected activities for longer periods of time. Discovering cause and effect:

squeezing the cat makes her scratch. Knows where familiar persons should be; notes their absence; finds a hidden object by looking

in last hiding place first. Names objects in picture books; may pretend to pick something off the page and taste or smell

it.

Psychology 8 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Recognizes and expresses pain and its location.

Language Enjoys being read to if allowed to participate by pointing, making relevant noises, turning

pages. Realizes that Language is effective for getting others to respond to needs and preferences. Uses fifty to three hundred different words; vocabulary continuously increasing. Has broken the linguistic code; in other words, much of a two-year-old's talk has meaning to

him or her. Receptive Language is more developed than expressive Language ; most two-year olds

understand significantly more than they can talk about. Utters three- and four-word statements; uses conventional word order to form more complete

sentences. Refers to self as "me" or sometimes "I" rather than by name: "Me go bye-bye"; has no trouble

verbalizing "mine." Expresses negative statements by tacking on a negative word such as "no" or "not": "Not more

milk." Repeatedly asks, "What's that?" Uses some plurals; tells about objects and events not immediately present (this is both a

cognitive and linguistic advance). Some stammering and other dysfluencies are common. Speech is as much as 65 to 70 percent intelligible.

Social and emotional Shows signs of empathy and caring: comforts another child if hurt or frightened; appears to

sometimes be overly affectionate in offering hugs and kisses to children Continues to use physical aggression if frustrated or angry (for some children, this is more

exaggerated than for others); Physical aggression usually lessens as verbal skills improve. Temper tantrums likely to peak during this year; cannot be reasoned with while tantrum is in

progress. Impatient; finds it difficult to wait or take turns. Enjoys "helping" with household chores; imitates everyday activities: may try to toilet a stuffed

animal, feed a doll. "Bossy" with parents and caregivers; orders them around, makes demands, expects immediate

compliance from adults. Watches and imitates the play of other children, but seldom joins in; content to play alone. Offers toys to other children, but is usually possessive of playthings; still tends to hoard toys. Making choices is difficult; wants it both ways. Often defiant; shouting "no" becomes automatic. Ritualistic; wants everything "just so"; routines carried out exactly as before; belongings placed

"where they belong."

3.Three year old

Physical

Growth is steady though slower than in first two years. Height increases 5-7.6cm per year ; average height is 96.5 – 101.6cm, nearly double the child’s

birth length Adult height can be predicted from measurements of height at three years of age; males are

approximately 53 percent of their adult height and females, 57 percent. Weight gains 1.4-2.3 kg per year; weight 13 -17 kg.

Psychology 9 Ages and Stages of Child Development

90 to 110 beats per minute. Respiratory rate is twenty to thirty, Temperature 35-37 °C Legs grow faster than arms, Circumference of head and chest is equal; head size is in better proportion to the body. "Baby fat" disappears as neck appears. Posture is more erect; abdomen no longer protrudes. Slightly knock-kneed. "baby" teeth stage over . Needs to consume approximately 1,500 calories daily. Visual sight is about 20/40.

Motor development Walks up and down stairs unassisted, using alternating feet; may jump from bottom step,

landing on both feet. Can walk on one foot, balance momentarily. Can kick big ball-shaped objects. Needs minimal assistance eating. Jumps on the spot. Pedals a small tricycle. Throws a ball overhand; aim and distance are limited. Catches a large bounced ball with both arms extended. Enjoys swinging on a swing (not too high or too fast). Shows improved control of crayons or markers; uses vertical, horizontal and circular strokes. Holds crayon or marker between first two fingers and thumb (tripod grasp), not in a fist as

earlier. Can turn pages of a book one at a time.

Image:Preschoolchild.jpg Three-year-olds are capable of stacking blocks.

Enjoys building with blocks. Builds a tower of eight or more blocks. Enjoys playing with clay; pounds, rolls, and squeezes it. May begin to show hand dominance. Carries a container of liquid, such as a cup of milk or bowl of water, without much spilling;

pours liquid from pitcher into another container. Manipulates large buttons and zippers on clothing. Washes and dries hands; brushes own teeth, but not thoroughly. Usually achieves complete bladder control during this time.

Cognitive development Listens attentively to age-appropriate stories. Makes relevant comments during stories, especially those that relate to home and family

events. Likes to look at books and may pretend to "read" to others or explain pictures. Enjoys stories with riddles, guessing, and "suspense." Speech is understandable most of the time. Produces expanded noun phrases: "big, brown dog." Produces verbs with "ing" endings; uses "-s" to indicate more than one; often puts "-s" on

already pluralized forms: geeses, mices.

Indicates negatives by inserting "no" or "not" before a simple noun or verb phrase: "Not baby."

Psychology 10 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Answers "What are you doing?", "What is this?", and "Where?" questions dealing with familiar objects and events.

Social development Stacks objects in sized order and can make a pyramid Seems to understand taking turns, but not always willing to do so. Friendly; laughs frequently; is eager to please. Has occasional nightmares and fears the dark, monsters, or fire. Joins in simple games and group activities, sometimes hesitantly. Often talks to self. Uses objects symbolically in play: block of wood may be a truck, a ramp, a bat. Observes other children playing; may join in for a short time; often plays parallel to other

children. Defends toys and possessions; may become aggressive at times by grabbing a toy, hitting

another child, hiding toys. Engages in make-believe play alone and with other children. Shows affection toward children who are younger or children who get hurt. Sits and listens to stories up to ten minutes at a time; does not bother other children listening to

story and resents being bothered. May continue to have a special blanket, stuffed animal, or toy for comfort.

4. Four year old

Motor Development Walks a straight line (tape or chalk line on the floor). Hops on one foot. Pedals and steers a wheeled toy with confidence; turns corners, avoids obstacles and oncoming

"traffic." Climbs ladders, trees, playground equipment. Jumps over objects 5 or 6 inches high; lands with both feet together. Runs, starts, stops, and moves around obstacles with ease. Throws a ball overhand; distance and aim improving. Builds a tower with ten or more blocks. Forms shapes and objects out of clay: cookies, snakes, simple animals. Reproduces some shapes and letters. Holds a crayon or marker using a tripod grasp. Paints and draws with purpose; may have an idea in mind, but often has problems

implementing it so calls the creation something else. Becomes more accurate at hitting nails and pegs with hammer. Threads small wooden beads on a string. Can run in a circle

Cognitive

Can recognize that certain words sound similar Names eighteen to twenty uppercase letters. Writes several letters and sometimes their name. ` A few children are beginning to read simple books, such as alphabet books with only a few

words per page and many pictures. Likes stories about how things grow and how things operate. Delights in wordplay, creating silly Language.

Psychology 11 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Understands the concepts of "tallest," "biggest," "same," and "more"; selects the picture that has the "most houses" or the "biggest dogs."

Rote counts to 20 or more. Understands the sequence of daily events: "When we get up in the morning, we get dressed,

have breakfast, brush our teeth, and go to school." When looking at pictures, can recognize and identify missing puzzle parts (of person, car,

animal).

Language Uses the prepositions "on," "in," and "under." Uses possessives consistently: "hers," "theirs," "baby's." Answers "Whose?", "Who?", "Why?", and "How many?" Produces elaborate sentence structures: "The cat ran under the house before I could see what

color it was." Speech is almost entirely intelligible. Begins to correctly use the past tense of verbs: "Mommy closed the door," "Daddy went to

work." Refers to activities, events, objects, and people that are not present. Changes tone of voice and sentence structure to adapt to listener's level of under-standing: To

baby brother, "Milk gone?" To Mother, "Did the baby drink all of his milk?" States first and last name, gender, siblings' names, and sometimes own telephone number. Answers appropriately when asked what to do if tired, cold, or hungry. Recites and sings

simple songs and rhymes.

Social development Outgoing; friendly; overly enthusiastic at times. Moods change rapidly and unpredictably; laughing one minute, crying the next; may throw

tantrum over minor frustrations (a block structure that will not balance); sulk over being left out.

Imaginary playmates or companions are common; holds conversations and shares strong emotions with this invisible friend.

Boasts, exaggerates, and "bends" the truth with made-up stories or claims of boldness; tests the limits with "bathroom" talk.

Cooperates with others; participates in group activities. Shows pride in accomplishments; seeks frequent adult approval. Often appears selfish; not always able to take turns or to understand taking turns under some

conditions; tattles on other children. Insists on trying to do things independently, but may get so frustrated as to verge on tantrums

when problems arise: paint that drips, paper airplane that will not fold right. Enjoys role-playing and make-believe activities. Relies (most of the time) on verbal rather than Physical aggression; may yell angrily rather than

hit to make a point; threatens: "You can't come to my birthday party" Name-calling and taunting are often used as ways of excluding other children. Establishes close relationships with playmates; beginning to have "best" friends.

Psychological

Initiative Vs. Guilt. During this third stage, the "play age," or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily developing child learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs

Psychology 12 Ages and Stages of Child Development

on the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.

5.Five year old

Physical Gains 1.8-2.3 kg per year; weighs an average of 17.3-20.5 kg. Grows an average of 5-6.5 cm per year; is approximately 106.7-116.8 cm tall. 90 to 110 bmp. Respiratory rate ranges from 20-30 minute. Head size is approximately that of an adult's. May begin to lose "baby" (deciduous) teeth. Body is adult-like in proportion. Requires approximately 1,800 calories daily Visual acuity is 20/20 using the Snellen E chart. Visual tracking and binocular vision are well developed.

Most five-year-old children are able to use a pencil to trace letters and numbers

Motor development Walks backwards, heel to toe. Walks unassisted up and down stairs, alternating feet. May learn to turn somersaults (should be taught the right way in order to avoid injury). Can touch toes without flexing knees. Walks a balance beam. Learns to skip using alternative feet. Catches a ball thrown from 3 feet away. Rides a tricycle or wheeled toy with speed and skillful steering; some children Learning to ride bicycles, usually with training wheels. Jumps or hops forward ten times in a row without falling. Balances on either foot with good control for ten seconds. Builds three-dimensional structures with small cubes by copying from a picture or model. Reproduces many shapes and letters: square, triangle, A, I, O, U, C, H, L, T. Demonstrates fair control of pencil or marker; may begin to colour within the lines. Cuts on the line with scissors (not perfectly). Hand dominance is fairly well established.

Psychology 13 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Cognitive Forms rectangle from two triangular cuts. Builds steps with set of small blocks. Understands concept of same shape, same size. Sorts objects on the basis of two dimensions, such as color and form. Sorts a variety of objects so that all things in the group have a single common feature

(classification skill: all are food items or boats or animals). Understands the concepts of smallest and shortest; places objects in order from shortest to tallest, smallest to largest. Identifies objects with specified serial position: first, second, last. Rote counts to 20 and above; many children count to 100. Recognizes numerals from 1 to 10. Understands the concepts of less than: "Which bowl has less water?" Understands the terms dark, light, and early: "I got up early, before anyone else. It was still

dark." Relates clock time to daily schedule: "Time to turn on TV when the little hand points to 5." Some children can tell time on the hour: five o'clock, two o'clock. Knows what a calendar is for. Recognizes and identifies coins; beginning to count and save money. Many children know the alphabet and names of upper- and lowercase letters. Understands the concept of half; can say how many pieces an object has when it's been cut in

half. Asks innumerable questions: Why? What? Where? When? Eager to learn new things.

Language development Vocabulary of 1,500 words plus. Tells a familiar story while looking at pictures in a book. 9 Defines simple words by function: a ball is to bounce; a bed is to sleep in. Identifies and names four to eight colours. Recognizes the humor in simple jokes; makes up jokes and riddles. Produces sentences with five to seven words; much longer sentences are not unusual. States the name of own city or town, birthday, and parents' names. Answers telephone appropriately; calls person to phone or takes a brief message Speech is almost entirely intelligible. Uses "would" and "could" appropriately. Uses past tense of irregular verbs consistently: "went," "caught," "swam." Uses past-tense inflection (-ed) appropriately to mark regular verbs: "jumped," "rained,"

"washed."

Social development Enjoys and often has one or two focus friendships. Plays cooperatively (can lapse), is generous, takes turns, shares toys. Participates in group play and shared activities with other children; suggests imaginative and

elaborate play ideas. Shows affection and caring towards others especially those “below” them or in pain Generally subservient to parent or caregiver requests. Needs comfort and reassurance from adults but is less open to comfort. Has better self-control over swings of emotions. Likes entertaining people and making them laugh. Boasts about accomplishments.

Psychology 14 Ages and Stages of Child Development

5 years or more

Physical Height increases 5-7cm a year to a height of 105-117 cm. 2kg a year weight increases: weight is about 17-22kg. Weight gains reflect significant increases in muscle mass. , Heart rate and respiratory rates are close to adults. Body may appear lanky as through period of rapid growth. Baby teeth beginning to be replaced by permanent ones, starting with the two upper front teeth 20/20 eyesight; if below 20/40 should see a professional. Its not uncommon for the children to be farsighted Uses 1,600 to 1,700 calories a day.

Motor development Gains greater control over large and fine motor skills; movements are more precise and

deliberate, though some clumsiness persists. Enjoys vigorous running, jumping, climbing, and throwing est. Has trouble staying still. Span of attention increases; works at tasks for longer periods of time, though Can concentrate effort but not always consistently. Understands time (today, tomorrow, yesterday) and simple motion (things go faster than

others). Recognizes seasons and major activities done in the times. Has fun with problem solving and sorting activities like stacking, puzzles and mazes Enjoys the challenge of puzzles, counting and sorting activities, paper-and-pencil mazes, and

games that involve matching letters and words with pictures. Recognizes some words by sight; attempts to sound out words In some cases the child may be reading well. functioning which facilitates learning to ride a bicycle, swim, swing a bat, or kick a ball. Making things is enjoyed. Reverses or confuse certain letters: b/d, p/g, g/q, t/f. Able to trace objects. Folds and cuts paper into simple shapes. Can Tie Laces, string (like shoes). Can identify right and left hands fairly consistently. Holds onto positive beliefs involving the unexplainable (magic or fantasy) Arrives at some understanding about death and dying; often expresses fear that parents may

die.

Language Talks a lot. Loves telling jokes and riddles; often, the humor is far from subtle. Experiments with slang and profanity and finds it extremely funny. Enthusiastic and inquisitive about surroundings and everyday events. Able to carry on adult-like conversations; asks many questions. Learns 5 to 10 words a day; vocabulary of 10,000-14,000. Uses appropriate verb tenses, word order, and sentence structure. Uses Language rather than tantrums or Physical aggression to express displeasure: "That's

mine! Give it back, you dummy." Talks self through steps required in simple problem-solving situations (though the "logic" may

be unclear to adults).

Psychology 15 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Has mood swings towards primary caregiver depending on the day Friendship with parent is less depended on but still needs closeness and nurturing. Anxious to please; needs and seeks adult approval, reassurance, and praise; may complain

excessively about minor hurts to gain more attention. Often can't view the world from another’s point of view Self-perceived failure can make the child easily disappointed and frustrated. Can't handle things not going their own way Does not understand ethical behaviour or moral standards especially when doing things that

have not been given rules Understands when he or she has been thought to be "bad"; values are based on others enforced

values. May be increasingly fearful of the unknown like things in the dark, noises anim

References

1. ̂ Seminars in child and adolescent psychiatry (second edition) Ed. Simon G. Gowers. Royal College of Psychiatrists (2005) ISBN 1-904671-13-6

Psychology 16 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Ages and Stages of Child DevelopmentIt is one of the most spectacular things to watch your child going through the early ages and stages of development. Besides, the complete understanding of stages of child development is the core of better parenting.

Enlarge Image

If you think that your newborn baby doesn’t do much more than eat, sleep and cry, then you are absolutely wrong. The newborn babies display some remarkable signs of their unique individualities. The glimpses of their behavior may be ephemeral for you at first, but take time to value those tiny movements accompanied with budding character and abilities and enjoy the stages of your child’s development.

Being a proud parent, it one of the greatest and most spectacular thing to watch your child going through his/her early ages of development. With active participation and interaction with your child during the different stages of development, you can ensure his/her proper nourishment in all spheres of life inculcating the desired qualities and values in him/her.

So, as a parent, it is of immense importance that you should have the proper knowledge and understanding of the different stages of the development of child. You should know the average age at which the average child will be able to carry out all of the skills involved in growing up--everything from rolling, crawling and, sitting to smiling, talking, and toilet training. The better understanding of this will help you to assess the development of your child.

Milestones Milestone is a parenting term used as a standard level of achievement of the average child at the particular stage. However, it is important to know that although milestones are proven as the great tool to assess the development of your child, they are not fixed and hard estimates but only rough ones as children vary in the progress of their development. They may be early on some and may be late in some other aspects.

Newborn Babies 1 Month During first weeks, they can see the objects at the distance of 12 inches, while at the end of first month; their vision improves up to 3 feet. They can even recognize certain smells like their mother’s breast milk. They can hear the sound and even start recognizing the voices of dear ones by end of month. At this stage, they are also able to move their heads. Moreover, you may find yourself enjoying and cherishing her first smile at this stage!

Early on, they gain a great amount of weight--on average, half an ounce to 1 ounce a day! The circumference of their heads is also on increase. Baby’s principal jobs are to eat, sleep, and grow. And due to their fast growth in the first weeks of life, it requires both a lot of eating and a lot of sleeping. They urinate 6-10 times a day which is a healthy sign of proper functioning of their kidneys. However the frequency may be less in case of breastfed babies.

1 to 3 Months After one month of initial stage of parenthood, its time to enjoy your baby’s growing personality. Your

Psychology 17 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Baby will start to respond to sounds in more specific way. You can find her changing facial expression, cooing and gurgling as a response to the sound heard. You can even find her to track the objects and her attempts to locate the sound. She will start raising her head and chest and pushing herself up on her forearms while lying on stomach. Physical growth continues in the same fashion. Generally, all babies stared to sleep more at night and less during the daytime.

3 to 6 Months This period is quite a fun for all parents as the behavior of babies start to become more predictable. Your simple interaction with your baby will be returned with smiles, hilarity, and the appealing babble. It’s a time for greater mobility for your child. You will witness the rolling of your child from front to back and then back to front. Some more bright babies will start to crawl, or in fact drag themselves on bellies. Some of them even can sit if propped up.

Generally, the birth weight gets double by the 4th month. Their movements become more coordinated. They try to explore the objects near them by their mouths. They often start to actually emulate sounds. They started linking the sound with specific object, the sound is associated with. Generally, teeth start making their first appearance. In a typical pattern of teething, the bottom, center teeth are erupting first, then the two upper front teeth followed by the two on sides.

6 to 9 Months This is the time when your baby’s intellectual and physical activities are on a great increase. Your baby can sit without any support. Children before age of 9 months can sustain weight on their legs, and afterwards, some of them even go further to stand while taking supports. They start to stand and start crawling. You can also notice muscle and motor development at this stage. Most of them start vocalizing a lot more babble other than crying.

They are also tending to develop more anxiety towards their surroundings and strangers. You’ll see the eruption of several teeth during this time period. This is the time when your baby will start using a variety of solid foods, like infant cereal, fruits. Your baby's interest in play increases significantly at this age, and you have to be very cautious as they are prone to minor accidents during this period.

9 to 12 Months They are entering into their tooddlerhood from infancy and you will be rewarded by hearing their first words uttered and can watch their first steps during this time. This period is marked by a growing curiosity about the people and things all around. Babies between 9 and 12 months display their skill to pick up small objects using their thumbs and pointer fingers. They start to improve their ability of communication.

Your baby begins to discover the surroundings--making connections, applying new skills, and learning how things work together. It is important to let your baby to play with objects of varying sizes, shapes, and textures.

12 to 18 Months This is the toddler stage which includes the first attempt of your child at independence. Children start categorizing the objects, people and actions. They start walking independently or may even start running. They begin uttering words like "mama". They develop finer motor skills. By the age of one year, most children have tripled their birth weight and grown about 10 inches. There are series of changes in body proportion. These changes are aimed at hardening bones, strengthening muscles to offer more balance on two feet.

Look for your child's new abilities while choosing toys for him. A light weight pull toy attached with a string or objects that can be disengaged and then assembled together or stacked toys are always the great toys to nourish his activities. The child can take immense pleasure in reading picture book.

18 to 24 Months Children start increasing their vocabulary. They develop better sense of understanding among them. This can be ideal age for their toilet training. They start to become more aware of peoples different emotions around them. Your child can be accustomed to brushing his teeth. Their eating habits are marked by decreased requirement of milk and they can be given a try to eat independently.

Their sleeping behavior also change to just a one nap at day time. At this stage, children still prefer to play alone rather than to interact with other children, so make sure that you are spending enough time with your child.

Psychology 18 Ages and Stages of Child Development

2 to 3 years Now your child will start displaying new abilities- to perform, to communicate, and to exert his independence. Children’s different personalities and skills definitely shine through this stage. He will start talking in sentences; start to understand common rules and mannerism. The motor skills like jumping, climbing, and running really improve over the year. He can name and categorize different objects and people.

Practice usually results in their newly acquired ability of dressing himself. The growth rate will slower than previous years characterized by few physical changes—there will be loss of baby fat to longer limbs giving a leaner, taller appearance. Let them play games like puzzles and shape sorters—to refine their motor skills. Don’t forget that children acquire verbal and motor skills at their own paces.

3 to 4 Years This is the period when activities and play grow more complex. They have had enough personal knowledge to master the simple concepts of life. They acquire more improvised self help skills like zipping or buttoning the dress. Their language skills are improved greatly and entered a new stage of development which is marked by asking numerous questions. They can now recognize letters, different colors; can draw different shapes. Between 3 and 4 years of age, the playing habits of children go through a big transition. They begin to switch from parallel play towards a much more interactive play with other children.

Psychology 19 Ages and Stages of Child Development

[edit] Stages of development

[edit] Prenatal

The prenatal development of human beings is viewed in three separate stages:

1. Germinal (conception through week 2) 2. Embryonic (weeks 3 through 8) 3. Fetal (week 9 through birth)

These stages are not the same as the trimesters of a woman's pregnancy.

The germinal stage begins when a sperm penetrates an egg in the act of conception (normally the result of sexual intercourse between a man and a woman). At this point a zygote is formed. Through the process of mitosis the cells divide and double.

The embryonic stage occurs once the zygote has firmly implanted itself into the uterine wall. It is in this stage that the vital organs are formed, and while the external body is still extremely dissimilar from an adult human, some features such as eyes and arms, and eventually ears and feet become recognizable.

The fetal period is when the brain most substantially forms, becoming more and more complex over the last few months.

During pregnancy the risk to the developing child from drugs and other teratogens, spousal abuse and other stress on the mother, nutrition and the age of the mother are quite acute.

A baby in its mother's womb, viewed in a sonogram

Three methods of determining fetal defects and health include the ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling.

Ultrasound uses sound waves and a computer monitor, and is non-invasive, thus minimizing potential harm to fetus and mother. Unfortunately its ability to determine potential defect is also far less comprehensive than more risky methods.

Chorionic villus sampling is a form of prenatal diagnosis to determine genetic abnormalities in the fetus. It entails getting a sample of the chorionic villus (placental tissue) and testing it. It is generally carried out only on pregnant women over the age of 35 and those who have a higher risk of Down syndrome and other chromosomal conditions.

Psychology 20 Ages and Stages of Child Development

The advantage of CVS is that it can be carried out at 10-12 weeks of pregnancy, earlier than amniocentesis (which is carried out at 15-18 weeks). However, it is more risky than amniocentesis, with a 1 in 100 to 200 risk that it will cause a miscarriage.

Amniocentesis is another medical procedure used for prenatal diagnosis, in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is extracted from the amnion around a developing fetus. It is usually offered when there may be an increased risk for genetic conditions (i.e. Down syndrome, sickle-cell disease, cystic fibrosis, etc) in the pregnancy. Amniocentesis done in the second trimester is often said to have a risk of fetal death between about 1 in 400 and 1 in 200.[citation needed] Often, genetic counseling is done before amniocentesis, or other types of genetic testing, is offered.

Although difficult, some methods of treating fetal disorders have been developed, both surgical and drug based. Genetic testing prior to pregnancy is also increasingly available.

[edit] Infancy

From birth until the onset of speech, the child is referred to as an infant. Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it, but certain aspects are relatively clear.

While no agreement has yet been reached regarding the level of stimulation an infant requires, we are well aware that a normal level of stimulation is very important, and that a lack of stimulation and affection can result in retardation and a host of other developmental and social disorders[citation needed]. Some feel that classical music, particularly Mozart is good for an infant's mind. While some tentative research has shown it to be helpful to older children, no conclusive evidence is available involving infants.

The majority of an infant's time is spent in sleep[citation needed]. At first this sleep is evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal.

Infants can be seen to have 6 states, grouped into pairs:

quiet sleep and active sleep (dreaming, when REM occurs) quiet waking, and active waking fussing and crying

Infants respond to stimuli differently when in these different states. Habituation is frequently used in testing psychological phenomenon. Both infants and adults look less and less as a result of consistent exposure to a particular stimulus. The amount of time spent looking to a presented alternate stimulus (after habituation to the initial stimulus) is indicative of the strength of the remembered percept of the previous stimulus, or dishabituation.

Habituation is used to discover the resolution of perceptual systems, for example, by habituating a subject to one stimulus, and then observing responses to similar ones, one can detect the smallest degree of difference that is detectable by the subject.

Infants have a wide variety of reflexes, some of which are permanent (blinking, gagging), and others transient in nature. Some with obvious purposes, some are clearly vestigial and some do not have obvious purposes. Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions. Namely, neurological conditions like dementia, traumatic lesions, etc. A partial list of infantile reflexes includes:

Moro reflex or startle reflex:

Psychology 21 Ages and Stages of Child Development

1. Startle 2. spreading out the arms (abduction) 3. unspreading the arms (adduction) 4. Crying (usually)

Tonic neck reflex or fencer's reflex Rooting reflex , sucking reflex, suckling reflex: can be initiated by scratching the infant's cheek;

the reaction is pursing of the lips for sucking. Stepping reflex , step-up reflex: can be initiated if you support the infant upright from its

armpits below a given surface so the baby lifts its foot and steps up on the surface (like climbing a stair).

Grasp reflex : can be initiated by scratching the infant's palm. Parachute reflex : the infant is suspended by the trunk and suddenly lowered as if falling for an

instant. The child spontaneously throws out the arms as a protective mechanism. The parachute reflex appears before the onset of walking.

Plantar reflex or Babinski reflex: a finger is stroked firmly down the outer edge of the baby's sole; the toes spread and extend out.

Infants have significantly worse vision than older children. Infant sight, blurry in earl stages, improves over time. Infants less than 2 months old are thought to be color blind[citation needed].

Hearing is well-developed prior to birth, however, and a preference for the mother's heartbeat is well established. Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction from which a sound comes, and by 18 months their hearing ability is approximately equal to that of adults.

Smell and taste are present, with infants having been shown to prefer the smell and taste of a banana, while rejecting the taste of shrimp. There is good evidence for infants preferring the smell of their mother to that of others.

Infants have a fully developed sense of touch at birth, and the myth believed by some doctors even today that infants feel no pain is inaccurate. Doctors are slowly becoming aware of the need for pain prevention for newborns.

Piaget felt that there were several sensorimotor stages within his broader Theory of cognitive development.

The first sub-stage occurs from birth to six weeks and is associated primarily with the development of reflexes. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over these first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping. (Gruber and Vaneche, 1977[3]).

The second sub-stage occurs from six weeks to four months and is associated primarily with the development of habits. Primary circular reactions or repeating of an action involving only ones own body begin. An example of this type of reaction would involve something like an infant repeating the motion of passing their hand before their face. Also at this phase, passive reactions, caused by classical or operant conditioning, can begin (Gruber et al., 1977).

The third sub-stage occurs from four to nine months and is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and prehension. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends and family. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object occur begin; for

Psychology 22 Ages and Stages of Child Development

example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between means also occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important stages of a child's growth as it signifies the dawn of logic (Gruber et al., 1977). Towards the late part of this sub-stage infants begin to have a sense of object permanence, passing the A-not-B error test.

The fourth sub-stage occurs from nine to twelve months and is associated primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between means and ends. This is an extremely important stage of development, holding what Piaget calls the "first proper intelligence." Also, this stage marks the beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective (Gruber et al. 1977).

The fifth sub-stage occurs from twelve to eighteen months and is associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the "young scientist," conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges (Gruber et al. 1977).

The sixth sub-stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage.

Special methods are required to study infant behavior.

When studying infants, the habituation methodology is an example of a method often used to assess their performance. This method allows researchers to obtain information about what types of stimuli an infant is able to discriminate. In this paradigm, infants are habituated to a particular stimulus and are then tested using different stimuli to evaluate discrimination. The critical measure in habituation is the infants' level of interest. Typically, infants prefer stimuli that are novel relative to those they have encountered previously. Several methods are used to measure infants' preference. These include the high-amplitude sucking procedure, in which infants suck on a pacifier more or less depending on their level of interest, the conditioned foot-kick procedure, in which infants move their legs to indicate preference, and the head-turn preference procedure, in which the infant's level of interest is measured by the amount of time spent looking in a particular direction. A key feature of all these methods is that, in each situation, the infant controls the stimuli being presented. This gives researchers a means of measuring discrimination. If an infant is able to discriminate between the habituated stimulus and a novel stimulus, they will show a preference for the novel stimulus. If, however, the infant cannot discriminate between the two stimuli, they will not show a preference for one over the other.

Object permanence is an important stage of cognitive development for infants. Numerous tests regarding it have been done, usually involving a toy, and a crude barrier which is placed in front of the toy, and then removed, repeatedly. In sensorimotor stages 1 and 2, the infant is completely unable to comprehend object permanence. Jean Piaget conducted experiments with infants which led him to conclude that this awareness was typically achieved at eight to nine months of age. Infants before this age are too young to understand object permanence, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone. "Out of sight, out of mind." A lack of Object Permanence can lead to A-not-B errors, where children reach for a thing at a place where it should not be. (see also: Infant metaphysics)

[edit] Stages of development

Psychology 23 Ages and Stages of Child Development

[edit] Prenatal

The prenatal development of human beings is viewed in three separate stages:

1. Germinal (conception through week 2) 2. Embryonic (weeks 3 through 8) 3. Fetal (week 9 through birth)

These stages are not the same as the trimesters of a woman's pregnancy.

The germinal stage begins when a sperm penetrates an egg in the act of conception (normally the result of sexual intercourse between a man and a woman). At this point a zygote is formed. Through the process of mitosis the cells divide and double.

The embryonic stage occurs once the zygote has firmly implanted itself into the uterine wall. It is in this stage that the vital organs are formed, and while the external body is still extremely dissimilar from an adult human, some features such as eyes and arms, and eventually ears and feet become recognizable.

The fetal period is when the brain most substantially forms, becoming more and more complex over the last few months.

During pregnancy the risk to the developing child from drugs and other teratogens, spousal abuse and other stress on the mother, nutrition and the age of the mother are quite acute.

A baby in its mother's womb, viewed in a sonogram

Three methods of determining fetal defects and health include the ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling.

Ultrasound uses sound waves and a computer monitor, and is non-invasive, thus minimizing potential harm to fetus and mother. Unfortunately its ability to determine potential defect is also far less comprehensive than more risky methods.

Chorionic villus sampling is a form of prenatal diagnosis to determine genetic abnormalities in the fetus. It entails getting a sample of the chorionic villus (placental tissue) and testing it. It is generally carried out only on pregnant women over the age of 35 and those who have a higher risk of Down syndrome and other chromosomal conditions.

The advantage of CVS is that it can be carried out at 10-12 weeks of pregnancy, earlier than amniocentesis (which is carried out at 15-18 weeks). However, it is more risky than amniocentesis, with a 1 in 100 to 200 risk that it will cause a miscarriage.

Psychology 24 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Amniocentesis is another medical procedure used for prenatal diagnosis, in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is extracted from the amnion around a developing fetus. It is usually offered when there may be an increased risk for genetic conditions (i.e. Down syndrome, sickle-cell disease, cystic fibrosis, etc) in the pregnancy. Amniocentesis done in the second trimester is often said to have a risk of fetal death between about 1 in 400 and 1 in 200.[citation needed] Often, genetic counseling is done before amniocentesis, or other types of genetic testing, is offered.

Although difficult, some methods of treating fetal disorders have been developed, both surgical and drug based. Genetic testing prior to pregnancy is also increasingly available.

[edit] Infancy

From birth until the onset of speech, the child is referred to as an infant. Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it, but certain aspects are relatively clear.

While no agreement has yet been reached regarding the level of stimulation an infant requires, we are well aware that a normal level of stimulation is very important, and that a lack of stimulation and affection can result in retardation and a host of other developmental and social disorders[citation needed]. Some feel that classical music, particularly Mozart is good for an infant's mind. While some tentative research has shown it to be helpful to older children, no conclusive evidence is available involving infants.

The majority of an infant's time is spent in sleep[citation needed]. At first this sleep is evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal.

Infants can be seen to have 6 states, grouped into pairs:

quiet sleep and active sleep (dreaming, when REM occurs) quiet waking, and active waking fussing and crying

Infants respond to stimuli differently when in these different states. Habituation is frequently used in testing psychological phenomenon. Both infants and adults look less and less as a result of consistent exposure to a particular stimulus. The amount of time spent looking to a presented alternate stimulus (after habituation to the initial stimulus) is indicative of the strength of the remembered percept of the previous stimulus, or dishabituation.

Habituation is used to discover the resolution of perceptual systems, for example, by habituating a subject to one stimulus, and then observing responses to similar ones, one can detect the smallest degree of difference that is detectable by the subject.

Infants have a wide variety of reflexes, some of which are permanent (blinking, gagging), and others transient in nature. Some with obvious purposes, some are clearly vestigial and some do not have obvious purposes. Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions. Namely, neurological conditions like dementia, traumatic lesions, etc. A partial list of infantile reflexes includes:

Moro reflex or startle reflex:

1. Startle 2. spreading out the arms (abduction) 3. unspreading the arms (adduction)

Psychology 25 Ages and Stages of Child Development

4. Crying (usually)

Tonic neck reflex or fencer's reflex Rooting reflex , sucking reflex, suckling reflex: can be initiated by scratching the infant's cheek;

the reaction is pursing of the lips for sucking. Stepping reflex , step-up reflex: can be initiated if you support the infant upright from its

armpits below a given surface so the baby lifts its foot and steps up on the surface (like climbing a stair).

Grasp reflex : can be initiated by scratching the infant's palm. Parachute reflex : the infant is suspended by the trunk and suddenly lowered as if falling for an

instant. The child spontaneously throws out the arms as a protective mechanism. The parachute reflex appears before the onset of walking.

Plantar reflex or Babinski reflex: a finger is stroked firmly down the outer edge of the baby's sole; the toes spread and extend out.

Infants have significantly worse vision than older children. Infant sight, blurry in earl stages, improves over time. Infants less than 2 months old are thought to be color blind[citation needed].

Hearing is well-developed prior to birth, however, and a preference for the mother's heartbeat is well established. Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction from which a sound comes, and by 18 months their hearing ability is approximately equal to that of adults.

Smell and taste are present, with infants having been shown to prefer the smell and taste of a banana, while rejecting the taste of shrimp. There is good evidence for infants preferring the smell of their mother to that of others.

Infants have a fully developed sense of touch at birth, and the myth believed by some doctors even today that infants feel no pain is inaccurate. Doctors are slowly becoming aware of the need for pain prevention for newborns.

Piaget felt that there were several sensorimotor stages within his broader Theory of cognitive development.

The first sub-stage occurs from birth to six weeks and is associated primarily with the development of reflexes. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over these first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping. (Gruber and Vaneche, 1977[3]).

The second sub-stage occurs from six weeks to four months and is associated primarily with the development of habits. Primary circular reactions or repeating of an action involving only ones own body begin. An example of this type of reaction would involve something like an infant repeating the motion of passing their hand before their face. Also at this phase, passive reactions, caused by classical or operant conditioning, can begin (Gruber et al., 1977).

The third sub-stage occurs from four to nine months and is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and prehension. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends and family. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object occur begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between means also occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important stages of a child's growth as it signifies the

Psychology 26 Ages and Stages of Child Development

dawn of logic (Gruber et al., 1977). Towards the late part of this sub-stage infants begin to have a sense of object permanence, passing the A-not-B error test.

The fourth sub-stage occurs from nine to twelve months and is associated primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between means and ends. This is an extremely important stage of development, holding what Piaget calls the "first proper intelligence." Also, this stage marks the beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective (Gruber et al. 1977).

The fifth sub-stage occurs from twelve to eighteen months and is associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the "young scientist," conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges (Gruber et al. 1977).

The sixth sub-stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage.

Special methods are required to study infant behavior.

When studying infants, the habituation methodology is an example of a method often used to assess their performance. This method allows researchers to obtain information about what types of stimuli an infant is able to discriminate. In this paradigm, infants are habituated to a particular stimulus and are then tested using different stimuli to evaluate discrimination. The critical measure in habituation is the infants' level of interest. Typically, infants prefer stimuli that are novel relative to those they have encountered previously. Several methods are used to measure infants' preference. These include the high-amplitude sucking procedure, in which infants suck on a pacifier more or less depending on their level of interest, the conditioned foot-kick procedure, in which infants move their legs to indicate preference, and the head-turn preference procedure, in which the infant's level of interest is measured by the amount of time spent looking in a particular direction. A key feature of all these methods is that, in each situation, the infant controls the stimuli being presented. This gives researchers a means of measuring discrimination. If an infant is able to discriminate between the habituated stimulus and a novel stimulus, they will show a preference for the novel stimulus. If, however, the infant cannot discriminate between the two stimuli, they will not show a preference for one over the other.

Object permanence is an important stage of cognitive development for infants. Numerous tests regarding it have been done, usually involving a toy, and a crude barrier which is placed in front of the toy, and then removed, repeatedly. In sensorimotor stages 1 and 2, the infant is completely unable to comprehend object permanence. Jean Piaget conducted experiments with infants which led him to conclude that this awareness was typically achieved at eight to nine months of age. Infants before this age are too young to understand object permanence, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone. "Out of sight, out of mind." A lack of Object Permanence can lead to A-not-B errors, where children reach for a thing at a place where it should not be. (see also: Infant metaphysics)

Psychology 27 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Early Adulthood

The person must learn how to form intimate relationships, both in friendship and love. The development of this skill relies on the resolution of other stages. It may be hard to establish intimacy if you haven't developed trust or a sense of identity. If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others.

Middle age

Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 30 to 55. During this period, the middle-aged experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. They may either feel a sense of contributing to the next generation and their community or a sense of purposelessness.

Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience menopause and a sharp drop in the hormone estrogen. Men do not have an equivalent to menopause, but they do experience a decline in sperm count and speed of ejaculation and erection.

Most men and women remain capable of sexual satisfaction after middle age.

Theory of cognitive development

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Cognitive development)Jump to: navigation, search

The Theory of Cognitive Development, one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist (1896–1980). His theory provided many central concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform logical operations on representations of concepts grounded in the world. The theory concerns the emergence and acquisition of schemata—schemes of how one perceives the world—in "developmental stages", times when children are acquiring new ways of mentally representing information. The theory is considered "constructivist", meaning that, unlike nativist theories (which describe cognitive development as the unfolding of innate knowledge and abilities) or empiricist theories (which describe cognitive development as the gradual acquisition of knowledge through experience), it asserts that we construct our cognitive abilities through self-motivated action in the world. For his development of the theory, Piaget was awarded the Erasmus Prize. Piaget divided schemes that children use to understand the

Psychology 28 Ages and Stages of Child Development

world through four main periods, roughly correlated with and becoming increasingly sophisticated with age:

Sensorimotor period (years 0–2) Preoperational period (years 2–7) Concrete operational period (years 7–11) Formal operational period (years 11–adulthood)

Contents

[hide] 1 Sensorimotor period 2 Preoperational stage 3 Concrete operational stage 4 Formal operational stage 5 General information regarding the stages 6 Challenges to Piagetian stage theory 7 Post Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian stages 8 Piagetian and post-Piagetian stage theories/heuristics 9 References

10 Further reading

[edit] Sensorimotor period

According to Piaget, this child is in the sensorimotor period and primarily explores the world with senses rather than through mental operations.

Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in addition to a drive to explore their world. Their initial schemas are formed through differentiation of the congenital reflexes

The sensorimotor period is the first of the four periods. According to Piaget, this stage marks the development of essential spatial abilities and understanding of the world in six sub-stages:

1. The first sub-stage, known as the reflex schema stage, occurs from birth to six weeks and is associated primarily with the development of reflexes.

2. The second sub-stage, primary circular reaction phase, occurs from six weeks to four months and is associated primarily with the development of habits.

3. The third sub-stage, the secondary circular reactions phase, occurs from four to nine months and is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and prehension.

Psychology 29 Ages and Stages of Child Development

4. The fourth sub-stage, called the co-ordination of secondary circular reactions stage, which occurs from nine to twelve months, is when Piaget (1954) thought that object permanence developed.

5. The fifth sub-stage, the tertiary circular reactions phase, occurs from twelve to eighteen months and is associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals.

6. The sixth sub-stage, considered "beginnings of symbolic representation", is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity.

[edit] Preoperational stage

The Preoperational stage is the second of four stages of cognitive development. By observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs.

(Pre)Operatory Thought in Piagetian theory is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The hallmark of the preoperational stage is sparse and logically inadequate mental operations. During this stage the child learns to use and to represent objects by images and words, in other words they learn to use symbolic thinking. Thinking is still egocentric: The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.

The child can classify objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of color. According to Piaget, the Pre-Operational stage of development follows the Sensorimotor stage and occurs between 2–7 years of age. In this stage, children develop their language skills. They begin representing things with words and images. However, they still use intuitive rather than logical reasoning. At the beginning of this stage, they tend to be egocentric, that is, they are not aware that other people do not think, know and perceive the same as them. Children have highly imaginative minds at this time and actually assign emotions to inanimate objects. The theory of mind is also critical to this stage. (Psychology 8th Edition, David Myers) [1]

The Preoperational Stage can be further broken down into the Preconceptual Stage and the Intuitive Stage

The Preconceptual stage (2-4 years) is marked by egocentric thinking and animistic thought. A child who displays animistic thought tends to assign living attributes to inanimate objects, for example that a glass would feel pain if it were broken.

The Intuitive(4-7 years) stage is when children start employing mental activities to solve problems and obtain goals but they are unaware of how they came to their conclusions. For example a child is shown 7 dogs and 3 cats and asked if there are more dogs than cats. The child would respond positively. However when asked if there are more dogs than animals the child would once again respond positively. Such fundamental errors in logic show the transition between intuitiveness in solving problems and true logical reasoning acquired in later years.

(Child Psychology, 1st Canadian Edition, Hetherington, Parke & Schmuckler)

[edit] Concrete operational stage

Psychology 30 Ages and Stages of Child Development

The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget's theory. This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages of 7 and 12 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important processes during this stage are:

Seriation—the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.

Classification—the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another. A child is no longer subject to the illogical limitations of animism (the belief that all objects are alive and therefore have feelings).

Decentering—where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.

Reversibility—where the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 equals 8, 8−4 will equal 4, the original quantity.

Conservation—understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items. For instance, when a child is presented with two equally-sized, full cups they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the quantity and be equal to the other filled cup.

Elimination of Egocentrism—the ability to view things from another's perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box, leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think it's under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer.

[edit] Formal operational stage

The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in Piaget's theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11 years of age (puberty) and continues into adulthood. It is characterized by acquisition of the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available. During this stage the young adult is able to understand such things as love, "shades of gray", logical proofs, and values. Lucidly, biological factors may be traced to this stage as it occurs during puberty (the time at which another period of neural pruning occurs), marking the entry to adulthood in Physiology, cognition, moral judgement (Kohlberg), Psychosexual development (Freud), and psychosocial development (Erikson). Some two-thirds of people do not develop this form of reasoning fully enough that it becomes their normal mode for cognition, and so they remain, even as adults, concrete operational thinkers .[2]

[edit] General information regarding the stages

These four stages have been found to have the following characteristics:

Although the timing may vary, the sequence of the stages does not. Universal (not culturally specific)

Psychology 31 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Generalizable: the representational and logical operations available to the child should extend to all kinds of concepts and content knowledge

Stages are logically organized wholes Hierarchical nature of stage sequences (each successive stage incorporates elements of previous

stages, but is more differentiated and integrated) Stages represent qualitative differences in modes of thinking, not merely quantitative

differences

[edit] Challenges to Piagetian stage theory

Piagetians accounts of development have been challenged on several grounds. First, as Piaget himself noted, development does not always progress in the smooth manner his theory seems to predict. 'Decalage', or unpredicted gaps in the developmental progression, suggest that the stage model is at best a useful approximation. More broadly, Piaget's theory is 'domain general', predicting that cognitive maturation occurs concurrently across different domains of knowledge (such as mathematics, logic, understanding of physics, of language, etc). However, more recent cognitive developmentalists have been much influenced by trends in cognitive science away from domain generality and towards domain specificity or modularity of mind, under which different cognitive faculties may be largely independent of one another and thus develop according to quite different time-tables. In this vein, many current cognitive developmentalists argue that rather than being domain general learners, children come equipped with domain specific theories, sometimes referred to as 'core knowledge', which allows them to break into learning within that domain. For example, even young infants appear to understand some basic principles of physics (e.g. that one object cannot pass through another) and human intention (e.g. that a hand repeatedly reaching for an object has that object, not just a particular path of motion, as its goal). These basic assumptions may be the building block out of which more elaborate knowledge is constructed.

[edit] Post Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian stages

There are three major changes to the number of stages and their definitions. First and foremost, the half stages are now shown to be stages. Pascual Leone discovered this. Almost all Post Piagetians accept this. Second, postformal stages have been shown to exist. Kurt Fischer suggested two, Michael Commons presents evidence for four postformal stages: the systematic, metasystematic, paradigmatic and cross paradigmatic. Fischer has considered a stage suggested by Biggs and Biggs. It is a stage before the early preoperational. Commons and Richards call this stage the sentential because organisms can sequence representations of concepts.

[edit] Piagetian and post-Piagetian stage theories/heuristics

Michael Barnes' stages of religious and scientific thinking Michael Lamport Commons' Model of Hierarchical Complexity Kieran Egan 's stages of understanding Suzy Gablik's stages of art history Christopher Hallpike's stages of moral understanding Lawrence Kohlberg 's stages of moral development Don Lepan's theory of the origins of modern thought and drama Charles Raddings theory of the medieval intellectual development R.J. Robinson's stages of history and theory of the origins of intelligence

[edit] References

Psychology 32 Ages and Stages of Child Development

Piaget, J. (1954). "The construction of reality in the child". New York: Basic Books. Piaget, J. (1977). The Essential Piaget. ed by Howard E. Gruber and J. Jacques Voneche

Gruber, New York: Basic Books. Piaget, J. (1983). "Piaget's theory". In P. Mussen (ed). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th

edition. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley. Piaget, J. (1995). Sociological Studies. London: Routledge. Piaget, J. (2000). "Commentary on Vygotsky". New Ideas in Psychology, 18, 241–259. Piaget, J. (2001). Studies in Reflecting Abstraction. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Seifer, Calvin "Educational Psychology" Cole, M, et al. (2005). The Development of Children. New York: Worth Publishers.

Psychology 33 Ages and Stages of Child Development