Agency: Revitalization Management FEMArdaniels/DanielsClarkDanielsFEMA.pdf · Transforming the...
17
Transforming the Federal Emergency Management Agency: The Renewal and Revitalization of FEMA R. Steven Daniels Professor and Chair Department of Public Policy and Administration California Sate University, Bakersfield Carolyn L. Clark-Daniels Bakersfield, California
Transcript of Agency: Revitalization Management FEMArdaniels/DanielsClarkDanielsFEMA.pdf · Transforming the...
Tran
sfor
min
g th
e Fe
dera
l E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy:
Th
e R
enew
al a
nd R
evita
lizat
ion
of
FE
MA
R. S
teve
n D
anie
ls
Pro
fess
or a
nd C
hair
Dep
artm
ent
of P
ublic
Pol
icy
and
Adm
inis
trat
ion
Cal
iforn
ia S
ate
Uni
vers
ity,
Bak
ersf
ield
Car
olyn
L.
Cla
rk-D
anie
ls
Bak
ersf
ield
, Cal
iforn
ia
58
R.
Ste
ven
Dan
iels
and
Car
olyn
L. C
lark
-Dan
ies
Less
ons
Lear
ned
From
the
Tran
sfor
mat
ion
of t
he F
eder
al E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy
(FE
MA
)
Intr
od
ucti
on
An
exc
elle
nt e
xam
ple
of a
bes
t pra
ctic
e in
age
ncy
tran
sfor
mat
ion
is th
e re
vita
lizatio
n o
f th
e F
eder
al E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy
(FE
MA
) un
de
r th
e le
ader
ship
of
Direct
or
Jam
es L
ee W
itt.
FEM
A s
erve
s as
an
inst
ruct
ive
ca
se
stud
y of
h
ow
to t
rans
form
a t
rouble
d o
rga
niz
atio
n.
Man
y p
ub
lic
adm
inis
trat
ion
acad
emic
s an
d pra
ctiti
oners
hav
e st
udie
d th
e c
hang
es i
n FE
MA
un
der
Direct
or
Witt
to
un
ders
tand
ho
w
orga
niza
tions
c
an
be
re
new
ed a
nd r
evi
taliz
ed.
Less
on 1
: E
xpe
rie
nce
Co
un
ts-R
ecr
uit
the
Be
st
Rec
ruitm
ent
lead
ersh
ip m
ay b
e o
ne o
f th
e pr
esid
ent's
an
d th
e ag
encv
di
rect
or's
m
ost
criti
cal
deci
sion
s at
the
star
t of
an
a
dm
inis
tra
tion
. Th
e ap
poin
tmen
t of
com
pete
nt a
nd e
xper
ienc
ed s
enio
r ag
ency
offic
ials
wit
h a
st
rong
int
eres
t in
the a
genc
y's
polic
ies
can
over
com
e ev
en
inte
rmitt
en
t at
tent
ion
by th
e pr
esid
ent.
As l
ong a
s ih
e s
enio
r offic
ials
lave
the
dire
ct a
nd
cons
tant
sup
port
of t
he p
resi
dent
, ex
perie
nce,
com
pete
nce,
an
d in
tere
st c
an
prod
uce
succ
essf
ul p
olic
y im
ple
menta
tion.
Mu
ch o
f th
e su
cces
s of
the
Fed
eral
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent
Ag
en
cy
unde
r Jam
es L
ee W
itt
cam
e fr
om P
resi
dent
Clin
ton'
s co
niid
en
ce in
his
lea
d-
ersh
ip a
nd c
ompe
tenc
e, a
fx
t th
at w
as e
vident t
o t
he p
resi
dent
's s
taff
and
mem
bers
of
Con
gres
s. A
sen
ior
White
H
ouse
off
icia
l ar
gued
tha
t fu
ture
pr
esid
ents
sho
uld
"pic
k as
clo
se a
s po
ssib
le to
the
Jam
es L
ee W
itt m
od
el"
in
sel
ectin
g ag
ency
hea
ds,
emph
asiz
ing
"pro
fess
iona
lisn,
em
path
y, a
rtic
u-
late
ness
with
the
media
and
dis
aste
r vi
ctim
s, n
on
-po
litic
al
man
agem
ent,
2nd
a s
tron
g re
latio
nsh
ip w
ith t
he
'resi
dent
."
Unf
ortu
nate
ly,
cons
iste
nt
recr
uitm
ent i
s often th
e p
oor
stepch
ild o
f pre
side
ntia
l and
age
ncy
ma
na
ge
- m
ent.
Wea
k ap
poin
tees
can
underm
ine im
ple
men
tatio
n o
f th
e p
resi
dent
's
prog
ram
and
dam
age
the
public
imag
e o
f th
e adm
inis
tr-t
' ion
. M
any
of
the
pro
ble
ms
in d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent u
nder
th
e a
dm
inis
tra
- to
n o
f P
resi
dent
Georg
e H
. W.
Bus
h ca
n be tr
ace
d to
its
failu
re to
ap
po
int
com
pete
nt,
exp
erience
d
indiv
iduals
to
the se
nior
po
sitio
ns
in
FE
MA
. U
nder
Pre
side
nt G
eorg
e H
. W
. B
ush,
co
ngre
ssio
nal
inve
stig
ator
s co
n-
cluded t
hat
FE
MA
w
as
a "d
um
pin
g g
round"
for
po
litic
,ll
,lpp
oin
t(~
cs.
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y 5 9
Ma
ny
of
FEM
A's
seni
or o
ffic
ials
were
tra
nsfe
rs tr
om o
ther
agen
cies
, often
as
pu
nis
hm
en
t fo
r p
olit
ica
l in
fract
ions.
B
ush,
s o
nly
pe
rman
ent
FE
MA
d
ire
cto
r w
as a
n as
soci
ate
of
Chie
f o
f S
taff
John S
unun
u w
ho s
erve
d as
N
ew
Ham
pshi
re's
tra
nsp
ort
atio
n d
irect
or.
Con
vers
ely,
Pre
side
nt C
linto
n's
FE
MA
ap
po
intm
en
ts w
ere
all
offic
ials
wit
h c
onsi
dera
ble
expe
rienc
e in
em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent.
Tw
o se
rved
as
stat
e em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent
di-
ect
ors
. T
wo
serv
ed
as
FEM
A
regio
nal
direct
ors
. O
ne
se
rved
as
G
ove
rno
r C
linto
n's
lia
ison w
ith
the A
rkan
sas
emer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t ag
ency
. The
ir b
ack
gro
und in
em
erge
ncy
man
ag-m
ent
allo
we
d F
EM
A o
ffi-
ci
als
to r
esi
ruct
ure
the
agen
cy's
mis
sion
and o
rg n
iza
tion
with
in a
yea
r o
f 7
the
ap
po
intm
en
t o
f th
e n
ew
direct
or.
The
cum
u at
ive
exp
erience
of
the
seni
or p
olit
ica
l em
ploy
ees
impro
ved t
he i
nte
gra
tion o
f th
e a
genc
y's
vari
- ou
s d
ire
cto
rate
s, a
critic
al
com
ponent
of r
espo
nse
and r
ecov
ery
to c
ata
- st
rop
hic
dis
aste
rs.
Le
sso
n 2
: C
lari
fy Y
our
Mis
sio
n
Age
ncie
s n
ee
d a
cle
ar m
issi
on a
nd w
ell-
defin
ed ta
rget
popula
tion. O
ne
o
f th
e k
ey w
eakn
esse
s of
the
"re
inve
nrin
g go
vern
men
t" m
ovem
ent's
atte
n-
tion
to
cus
tom
er s
ervi
ce a
nd a
genc
y pe
rfor
man
ce i
s th
e of
ten
unsp
oken
as
sum
ptio
n th
at
pu
blic
ag
enci
es,
like b
usin
esse
s,
have
a s
ingl
e,
we
ll-
de
fine
d g
oal,
such
as
pro
fit,
and
clea
rly i
de
ntifitd
cus
tom
ers.
Most
pu
blic
ag
enci
es,
spe
cial
ly s
ocia
l se
rvic
e ag
enci
es,
have
mu
ltip
le p
urpo
ses
and
cl e
nts.
Not
all
of
thes
e go
als
and
clie
nts
are
com
patib
le.
Mos
t ag
enci
es
reso
lve
thes
e co
nfli
cts
by e
mph
asiz
ing
one
goal
or
popula
tion m
ore
than
othe
rs. T
he c
ho
ice
ot g
oals
and
popula
tions
is c
ritic
al.
To p
erf
orm
effect
ively
an
d e
ffic
ien
tly,
the
age
ncy
mus
t defin
e it
s m
issi
on a
nd ta
rget
popula
tion t
o
mak
e th
e m
ost
cons
iste
nt u
se o
f its
per
sonn
el a
nd r
esou
rces
. Thi
s ch
oic
e
can
no
t be
un
ilate
ral;
it r
equi
res
the
supp
ort
of
both
the
adm
inis
tratio
n a
nd
the
agen
cy's
au
tho
riza
tion a
nd a
ppro
priatio
ns
subc
omm
ittee
s an
d co
mm
it-
tees
in
Con
gres
s.
Du
rin
g m
ost
of
Pre
side
nt G
eorg
e H
. W
. B
ush'
s ad
min
istr
atio
n, F
EM
A
was
a s
chiz
op
hre
nic
age
ncy
forc
ed to
res
pond
to c
atas
trop
hic
disa
ster
s w
ith
tw
o
inco
mp
atib
le m
issi
ons-
pres
ervi
ng
the
gove
rnm
ent
during nu
clea
r at
:ack
a
nd
pro
vid
ing
sup
port
to
sta
te a
id lo
cal g
over
nmen
ts fo
llow
ing
nat
- ur
al d
isas
ters
. The
lac
k of c
oopera
tion L
mon
g FE
N1A
's ke
y di
rect
orat
es m
ade
effe
ctiv
e re
spon
se a
nd r
ecov
ery
diff
icu
lt.
Jam
es le
e W
itt
and
his
seni
or s
taff
refo
cuse
d FE
MA1s
mis
sion
on e
mer
- ge
ncy
man
agem
ent ra
ther
tha
n na
tiona
l pr
epar
edne
ss. Th
e natio
nal
pre
- pa
redn
ess
fun
( tio
ns
wer
e no
t ab
ando
ned,
but
wer
e in
tegr
ated
with
the
m
ore
basi
c cv
iic.r)
;cbl
lc y
ni.~
n.ig
cment fu
nct
ions.
The
cha
nge
in fo
cus
rede
-
60
R.
Ste
ven
Dan
iels
and
Car
olyn
L. C
lark
-Dan
iels
fined th
e ag
ency
's p
rim
ary
targ
et p
opula
tion a
s di
sast
er v
ictim
s, r
athe
r th
an
ex
ecut
ive
bra
nch
off
icia
ls c
entr
al t
o t
he s
urv
ivabili
ty o
f n
atio
na
l deci
sion-
maki
ng c
apaci
ty f
ollo
win
g a
nucl
ear w
ar.
Less
on 3
: S
truc
ture
You
r A
genc
y to
Ref
lect
the
Age
ncy'
s M
issi
on
Most
public
off
icia
ls
reco
gniz
e t
he i
mport
ance
of
ma
tch
ing
age
ncy
stru
ctur
e to
age
ncy
po
licy
goal
s. Im
ple
mentin
g a
pro
gra
m u
sin
g e
xist
ing
ag
ency
str
uctu
res
and p
roce
dure
s in
vite
s p
olic
y co
nfli
ct a
nd t
he
in
effic
ien
t us
e o
f pe
rson
nel a
nd r
esou
rces
. O
ne
o' t
he l
eadin
g c
ause
s o
f th
e p
rolif
era
- tio
n o
f gove
rnm
ent a
genc
ies
is th
e r
eco
gniti
on th
at
ma
tctin
g a
genc
y st
ruc-
tu
re t
o a
genc
y m
issi
on i
s ea
sier
in
a n
ew
age
ncy
tha
n a
n o
ng
oin
g o
ne.
Ongoin
g a
genc
ies
usu
ally
are
exp
ect
ed to
pro
vide a
t le
ast s
ome
of t
he n
ew
pr
ogra
m
funct
ions
from
exi
stin
g
resw
rces.
N
ever
thel
ess,
an
on
go
ing
ag
ency
with
po
litic
al
supp
ort,
stro
ng p
resi
dentia
l and
age
ncy
lead
ersh
ip,
a
clea
r m
issi
on,
and a
well-
defin
ed c
liente
le g
enera
lly c
an f
ind
the
wh
ere
- w
tha
l to
im
ple
men
t a n
ew
pro
gram
. FE
MA
's st
ruct
ure
under P
resi
dent
Geo
rge
H. W
. Bus
h re
flect
ed its
div
ide
d
mis
sion
. The
age
ncy'
s prim
e m
issi
ons
wer
e div
ided
be
the
en
th
e N
atio
na
l P
repa
redn
ess
Direct
ora
te a
nd t
he S
tate
and
Loc
al P
rognm
s a
nd
Sup
port
D
irect
ora
te.
Under
Direct
or
Witt
, FE
lvlA
re
solv
ed t
he c
on
flict
be
twee
n natio
nal
prep
ared
ness
and
dis
aste
r as
sist
ance
by
rede
sign
ing
the
age
ncy
stru
ctur
e to
em
phasi
ze t
he l
atte
r. D
irect
or
Witt
sepa
rate
d th
e o
pera
tional
ccm
pone
nts
of
the
Sta
te a
nd L
ocal
Pro
gram
s an
d S
uppo
rt D
irect
ora
te i
nto
se
3ara
te P
repa
redn
ess,
Miti
gatio
n, and R
espo
nse
and R
ecov
ery
Dire
ctora
tes.
Th
e fu
nct
ions
of
the
Natio
nal
Pre
pare
dnes
s D
irect
ora
te
were
sp
read
th
roughout
the
agen
cy.
In a
dditi
on,
Witt
ass
igne
d ev
ery
em
plo
yee o
f th
e
agen
cy c
ritic
al
role
s during r
espo
nse
ard
reco
very
ope
ratio
ns,
rega
rdle
ss o
f th
eir
norm
al a
genc
y fu
nct
ions
Less
on 4
: Le
vera
ge th
e P
resi
denc
y
Effe
ctiv
e p
olic
y im
ple
menta
tion re
quire
s pre
sid
en
tial s
upport
. U
nfo
rtu
- na
tely
, suc
h su
pport
is a
lim
ited c
om
modity
. The
dem
ands
d th
e o
ffic
e o
fte
n
focu
s th
e a
ttentio
n o
f the p
resi
dent
on
cris
is d
ecis
ions
, sy
mb
olic
lead
ersh
ip,
and
pri
ori
ty s
ettin
g at
the e
xpen
se o
f ro
utin
e d
ecis
ions
, c
~a
liti
on
bu
ildin
g,
and
imple
menta
tion.
Pre
side
nts
frequently
shift
the
ir a
tte
ntio
n f
rom
on
e
pcl
icy
priority
to a
noth
er
once
legis
latio
n h
as b
een
sigfie
d i
nto
law
. The
ab
senc
e of
pre
side
ntia
l sup
port
allo
ws
othe
r fo
rces
to s
hape
tht
, irn
plc
me
n-
tatio
n o
f pre
sidentia
l polic
y, f
requently
with
contr
ad
icto
ry r
cwrl
t\.
I'rvs
i-
Tra
nsfo
min
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y 61
dent
s need n
ot
follo
w a
dm
inis
trativ
e p
erf
orm
arc
e in
deta
il. N
ever
thel
ess,
fa
ilure
to
pro
vid
e c
onsi
sten
t p
olic
y le
aders
h~
p and a
ppoin
t sy
mpath
etic
adm
inis
trato
rs c
an
lead
to p
olic
y im
ple
menta
tion th
at
underm
ines
the
ori
g-
inal
inte
nt
~f t
he
sta
tute
. O
ne
of
the
malo
r diff
ere
nce
s betw
een the
Geo
rge
H.
W.
Bus
h and
C in
ton
adm
inis
tratio
ns
was
the l
eve
l of
supp
ort
pro
vided b
y th
e pre
sident
to d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent.
Bus
h's
disa
ster
res
pons
e w
as l
arg
ely
react
ive a
nd
bypa
ssed
{h
e e
xist
ing d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
sLru
cture
. Clin
ton'
s di
sast
er
man
agem
ent
po
licy
was
m
ore
pro
act
ive a
nd p
olit
ically
sen
sitiv
e. C
linto
n
also
imp
rove
d F
EM
A's
po
litic
al s
tatu
re b
y em
phasi
nin
g th
e le
ad d
isas
ter
role
ot
th
e a
genc
y a
nd
its
dire
ctor
, and b
y ra
isin
g th
e FE
MA
direct
or
to c
abin
et
s~
tus
. One f
orm
er
stat
e em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent
off
icia
l ar
gued
, "W
itt's
gr
eate
st i
mp
act
was
the
fact
that
he lin
ked F
EM
A t
o t
he e
xecu
tive b
ranch
, th
e E
xecu
tive
Off
ice
of
the
Pre
side
nt,
and
the r
eside
nt. W
itt
had
acce
ss."
Giv
en
the
incr
easi
ng v
uln
era
bili
ty o
f the
Un
ited
Sta
tes
popula
tion to
natu
ral
and
man-m
ade d
isas
ters
and
the r
ud
ine
nta
ry s
teps
tak
en t
ow
ard
sust
ain
- able
de
vel~
pm
en
t, ac
cess
to t
he p
resi
dent
anc
the
ele
vatio
n o
f FE
MA
to
ca
bin
et
le~
el se
em to
be c
ritic
al f
irst
ste
ps i
n e
nsur
ing
pre
sidentia
l support
in
to th
e futu
re.
Less
on 5
: U
se Y
our
Car
eer
Sta
ff
No
ne
of th
e c
hang
es o
utli
ned a
bove
will
be s
ucce
ssfu
l unl
ess
the
po
liti-
ca
l an
d c
aree
r st
affs
of t
he a
genc
y ar
e e
ll in
tegr
ated
. Effe
ctiv
e re
cruitm
ent o
f ex
perie
nced
an
d c
ompe
tent
age
ncy
lead
ers
and p
rogr
am d
irect
ors
pro
vides
a
basi
s fo
r th
is in
tegra
tion. O
f eq
ual
impo
rtan
ce,
how
ever
, is
the
deg
ree
to
wh
ich
th
e p
olic
y go
als
of
the
adm
inis
~ra
tion an
d th
e ca
reer
sta
ff m
esh.
The
m
ore
com
mo
n th
e p
olic
y id
eas
that a
rc s
hare
d b2
twee
n an
age
ncy'
s p
olit
ica
l an
d ca
reer
sta
ff, t
he g
reat
er w
ill be
the li
kelih
ood o
f co
opera
tion.
Mo
st o
f th
e b
urde
n of
purs
uin
g c
oopera
tion b
etw
een p
olit
ica
l and
care
er s
taff
wil
l re
st w
ith t
he a
genc
y dire
ctor.
Suc
cess
ful d
irect
ors
ach
ieve
p
olic
y u
nity
th
rou
gh
one
of
two m
eth
~d
s: polit
ical
man
agem
ent o
r sh
ared
exp
erie
nce
. The
po
litic
al m
anag
ers
enfo
rce
adm
inis
tratio
n p
olic
y direct
ives
by i
ssu
ing
cle
ar,
cons
iste
nt,
and p
reci
se i
nst
ruct
ions.
The
mor
e co
here
nt,
the
mo
re c
ongr
uous
, an
d th
e m
ore
exa
ct t
he m
essa
ge,
the m
ore
difficu
lt i
t be
com
es l
or
care
er s
taff
to i
gnore
or
dis
tort
the
inte
nt
of
the p
olic
y. T
he
Rea
gan
ad
min
istr
atio
n c
hang
ed th
e d
irect
ion o
f fe
dera
l go
vern
men
t p
olic
y in
many
agen
cies
by
appoin
ting s
ecre
tarie
s or
dire
ctors
with
cle
arly
defin
ed
con
serv
atit
c philo
sophie
s pro
motin
g s
mal
ler
gove
rnm
ent.
Ma
n,lp
.r\
wh
o rc
dy o
n s
hare
d exp
erience
mos
t often l
ead b
y exa
m-
ple
. ('
oo
p.r
,lti
o~
l I)c
-tw
cw p
olit
ica
l and c
aree
r st
aff
aris
es f
rom
share
d
62
R.
Ste
ven
Dan
iels
and
Car
olyn
L.
Cla
rk-D
anie
ls
prof
essi
onal
st
anda
rds
an
d g
ener
al
agre
emen
t o
n p
olic
y go
als
ari
sin
g
fro
m t
hose
sta
ndar
ds.
Suc
cess
ful m
anag
ers
ofte
n kn
ow
as
mu
ch o
r m
ore
ab
out
the
curr
en
t p
olic
y fu
nct
ion
s of
th
e a
genc
y as
th
e c
aree
r st
aff.
Exp
erie
nced
man
ager
s al
so a
ct a
s ef
fect
ive
two
-wa
y co
mm
un
ica
tio
n c
on
- du
its b
etw
een
the
pre
side
nt a
nd t
he
car
eer
staf
f. T
he C
linto
n a
dmin
istr
a-
tio
n c
lea
rly
chos
e th
e s
hare
d ex
peri
ence
str
ateg
y in
ap
po
inti
ng
Jam
es L
ee
Wit
t as
FE
MA
dir
ecto
r.
Less
on 6
: D
on
't B
e A
frai
d of
th
e Pr
ess
For
a m
oder
n go
vern
men
t ag
ency
the
pu
blic
affa
irs d
ire
cto
r pl
ays
a cr
itica
l ro
le i
n d
efi
nin
g s
ucce
ssfu
l ag
ency
per
form
ance
. A
lthou
gh
mos
t m
oder
n jo
urna
lists
are
not
inv
estig
ativ
e re
port
ers,
the
sta
ndar
ds o
f in
ves-
tig
ativ
e jo
urna
lism
hav
e pe
rmea
ted
med
ia c
over
age
of
gove
rnm
ent.
A s
ub-
stan
tial
pro
po
rtio
n o
f P
ulitz
er P
rizes
for
jou
rnal
ism
ha
ve g
one
ro
new
s o
r~a
niz
ati
on
s tha
t ha
ve e
xpos
ed g
over
nmen
t m
alfe
asar
ce,
mis
feas
ance
, an
d no
nfea
sanc
e. T
here
fore
, ag
enci
es t
hat
can
enlis
t th
e m
edia
in
the
pu
r-
suit
of a
genc
y go
als
wil
l be
tter
man
age
the
flo
w o
f in
form
atio
n c
once
rnin
g ag
ency
suc
cess
. M
an
y of
FE
MA
's d
iffic
ulti
es
un
de
r :h
e G
eorg
e H
. W.
Bus
h ad
min
istr
a-
tio
n
aros
e fr
om
its
al
read
y ne
gativ
e p
ub
lic
ima
ge
in
th
e
me
dia
. C
ongr
essi
onal
rep
orts
cha
rged
th
at
the
agen
cy w
as a
"p
olit
ica
l d
um
pin
g
grou
nd"
for
un
qu
alif
ied
and
ma
rgin
al
appo
inte
es.
New
s st
orie
s h
igh
- lig
hted
ten
sion
s b
etw
ee
n p
olit
ica
l an
d ca
reer
em
ploy
ees,
pro
mp
tin
g t
he
cr
eatio
n o
f a
FE
MA
cha
pter
of
the
Am
eri
can
Fed
erat
ion
of
Go
vern
me
nt
Em
ploy
ees.
FE
MA
off
icia
ls a
ggra
vate
d th
e a
genc
y's
med
ia p
robl
ems
by
tryi
ng
to
for
ce a
gay
em
ploy
ee t
o i
de
ntif
y ot
her
gay
en
plo
yee
s b
efo
re
rele
asin
g hi
s tr
avel
fu
nd
s fo
r an
ove
rsea
s tr
ip.
The
se a
dm
inis
tra
tive
faili
ng
s pr
epar
ed t
he W
ash
ing
ton
and
na
tion
al
me
dia
to
lo
ok
for
exam
ples
of
FEM
A i
nco
mp
ete
nce
. D
ire
cto
r W
itt
an
d P
ublic
Aff
airs
D
irec
tor
Mo
rrie
Go
od
ma
n q
uic
kly
reco
gniz
ed t
hat
FE
MA
und
er P
resi
den:
Geo
rge
H.
W.
Bus
h h
ad
fai
led
a cr
itica
l po
litic
al t
est.
Eve
n th
ough
FE
MP
, pe
rfo
rme
d w
ell
in s
ome
area
s d
ur-
in
g H
urr
ica
ne
Hug
o, t
he L
oma
Prie
ta E
arth
quak
e, a
nd
Hu
rric
an
e A
ndre
w,
the
fires
torm
of
me
dia
cri
ticis
m d
row
ne
d m
uch
of
this
pos
itive
inf
orm
a-
tion.
FE
MA
was
use
d to
ope
ratin
g in
ano
nym
ity,
an
d h
ad n
o e
ffec
tive
pla
n
for
invo
lvin
g th
e m
ed
ia a
nd,
by e
xten
sion
, th
e p
ub
lic in
FE
MA
ope
ratio
ns.
As
a re
sult,
man
y in
itia
l re
port
s o
f FE
MA
res
pons
e w
ere
bas
ed o
n in
acc
u-
rate
and
in
com
ple
te
info
rmat
ion.
U
rde
r W
itt,
Pu
blic
Aff
airs
D
ire
cto
r G
oodm
an a
nd
sub
sequ
ent
pu
blic
affa
irs d
irec
tors
re
sh
np
d F
I-M
A'\
c om
- m
unic
atio
ns t
o a
ctiv
ely
eng
agr
thr
mcr
iia t
hrou
ghou
t th
v ~
.~
~)
OI
IV
~
.lnd
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y 63
reco
very
per
iod.
By
mak
ing
the
agen
cy m
ore
acc
essi
ble
and
by
pro
vid
ing
th
e m
ed
ia w
th
pro
mp
t ans
wer
s a
nd
infc
~rm
atio
n, FE
MA
dis
arm
ed m
uch
of
the
ine
vita
ble
cri
tici
sm th
at a
rose
in
the
imm
edia
:e a
fterm
ath
of a
dis
aste
r.
Mo
-e s
igni
fican
tly,
the
agen
cy o
pe
ne
d a
tw
o-w
ay c
hann
el f
or i
nfo
rma
tion
be
twee
n its
elf
an
d th
e di
sast
er v
ictim
s it
was
ser
bing
.
I I Le
sson
7:
Pro
vide
Gov
ernm
enta
l and
Non
gove
rnm
enta
l Par
tner
s I
a S
take
in
the
Ou
tco
me
\
Sta
te a
nd l
oca
l gav
ernm
ents
, no
npro
fit a
genc
ies,
and
pri
vate
org
aniz
a-
tio
rs im
ple
me
nt
mos
tfed
eral
dom
estic
pol
icy.
The
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
the
fe
dera
l go
vern
men
t an
d th
e ot
her
orga
niza
tions
is u
sual
ly a
s p
rin
cip
al a
nd
ag
ent.
The
fed
eral
go
vern
men
t pr
ovid
es i
ncen
tives
to
th
e i
mp
lem
en
ting
or
gani
zatio
n to
ind
uce
them
to
pro
vide
fed
eral
goo
ds a
nd
ser
vice
s; a
nd
im
pose
s pe
nalti
es (
usua
lly th
e re
du
ctio
n o
r e
limin
atio
n o
f fed
eral
fun
ds)
for
coap
erat
ing
orga
niza
tions
tha
t fa
il to
follo
w fe
dera
l gui
delin
es.
The
abs
ence
of
dire
ct a
uth
ori
ty b
etw
een
the
fede
ral
g0ve
rnm
en.t
an
d
its g
over
nmen
tal
an
d n
ongo
vern
men
tal
part
ners
inc
reas
es t
he l
ike
liho
od
th
at t
he
po
licy
goal
s o
f p
rin
cip
al
an
d a
gent
will
be
inc
ompa
tible
. T
he
natu
re a
nd
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
the
fed
eral
inc
entiv
es a
nd p
enal
ties
beco
mes
cr
itica
l to
the
ov
eral
l su
cces
s o
f th
e p
olic
y. T
he f
un
din
g p
enal
ties
are
la
rgel
y b
lun
: in
stru
men
ts w
hose
ove
ruse
und
erm
ines
the
ir e
ffect
iven
ess.
Th
e m
ost
eff
ectiv
e in
cent
ives
are
thos
e ti
at
reco
giiz
e th
e d
iffe
rin
g g
oals
of
the
fede
ral
agen
cy's
par
tner
s an
d ac
tivel
y en
list
the
stat
e, l
ocal
, no
npro
fit,
or
priv
ate
orga
niza
tions
in
the
dev
elop
men
t, pl
anni
ng,
and
imp
lem
en
ta-
tion
of
fede
ral
resp
onse
. A
ltho
ug
h t
he
fede
ral r
ole
has
bee
n in
crea
sing
ste
adily
, th
e in
terg
over
n-
me
ita
l con
text
of
disa
ster
man
agem
ent i
s ea
sy t
o fo
rget
. O
nly
the
affe
cted
lo
cal j
uri
sdic
tion
s ca
n p
rovi
de
the
kin
d o
f d
ire
ct ~
ssis
tan
ce that
mos
t dis
as-
ter
vict
ims
req
uir
e i
mm
edia
tely
afte
r a
disa
ster
. S
tate
and
fed
eral
effo
rts
rem
ain
larg
ely
supp
ortiv
e an
d fin
an
cia
l. M
itig
atic
n a
nd
pre
pare
dnes
s p
oli
- ci
es a
re o
nly
as
effe
ctiv
e as
the
loca
l ecc
tnom
ic d
evel
opm
ent
polic
ies
mak
e th
en
. U
nder
bo
th G
eorg
e H
. W.
Bus
h a
id C
linto
i, t
he p
olit
ica
l re
aliti
es o
f di
sast
er a
ssis
tanc
e st
eadi
ly i
ncre
ased
the
sco
pe o
f fe
dera
l in
terv
entio
n.
Ovs
r th
e l
on
g r
un,
bow
ever
, su
ch f
eder
aliz
atio
n do
es n
ot
guar
ante
e th
e
kin
d o
f p
rom
pt
resp
onse
that
com
es f
rom
ade
quat
ely
prep
ared
sta
te a
nd
lo
cal
juri
sdic
tions
. D
irec
tor
Wit
t ha
s at
tem
pted
to
bu
ck t
he t
rend
to
wa
rd
fede
raliz
atio
n b
y em
phas
izin
g th
e im
port
ance
of
gove
rnm
ent,
nonp
rofit
, an
d pr
ivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
ps.
R. S
teve
n D
anie
ls a
nd C
arol
yn L
. C
lark
-Dan
ies
The
FEM
A C
ase
Stud
y
Taki
ng O
ver:
FE
MA
Und
er P
resi
dent
Geo
rge
H. Mr. Bus
h
At
the
star
t o
f th
e G
eorg
e H
. h. B
ush
adm
inis
trat
ion,
FE
MA
was
an
agen
cy
with
se
rious
org
aniz
atio
nal
prob
lem
s th
at f
un
stio
ne
d a
dequ
atel
y th
roug
h th
e C
arte
r an
d R
eaga
n ad
min
istr
atio
ns o
nly
bec
ause
the
dis
aste
rs
betw
een
1979 a
nd
1988
wer
e not
cata
stro
phic
en
ough
to
ex
ceed
th
e ag
ency
's lim
ited c
apac
ity.
Unf
ortu
na:e
ly,
the
his
torica
l exp
erie
nce
of
the
agen
cy u
nder
the
prev
ious
adm
inis
trat
ions
pro
vided
Pre
s de
nt G
eorg
e H
. W.
Bus
h w
ith l
ittle
inc
entiv
e to
ove
rcom
e FE
MA's
orga
niza
tiona
l w
eakn
esse
s.
Pre
side
nt B
ush
did
not
appo
int
a p
erm
anen
t ag
ency
dire
ctor
un
til A
ugus
t 19
90,
19 m
onth
s af
ter
his
inau
gura
tion.
Pre
side
ntia
l atte
ntio
n to
dis
aste
r ma
n-
agem
ent
issu
es l
arge
ly w
as r
eact
ive,
res
pond
ing
to a
ser
ies
of
cata
stro
phic
di
sast
ers
thro
ugho
ut th
e ad
min
istr
atio
n.
The
disa
ster
age
ncy
that
Pre
side
nt G
eorg
e H
. W
. B
ush
inh
erite
d w
as
unde
r-fu
nded
, lo
ose
ly s
truc
ture
d, p
oorly
inte
grat
ed,
over
ly s
pe
cia
lize
d i
n
natio
nal s
ecur
ity p
repa
redn
ess,
and w
eakl
y le
d b
y a
suc
cess
ion
of p
olit
ica
l ap
poin
tees
with
little
em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent e
xper
ienc
e. F
EM
A w
as a
de-
quat
e fo
r th
e ty
pic
al d
isas
ters
con
fron
:ed
du
rin
g th
e R
eaga
n a
nd
Geo
rge
H
W.
Bus
h adm
inis
tratio
ns
whe
re
stat
e an
d lo
cal
gove
rnm
ents
pro
vid
ed
si
gnifi
cant
res
ourc
es. H
owev
er,
the a
genc
y pro
ved
en
tire
ly u
npre
pare
d fo
r ca
tast
roph
ic d
isas
ters
lik
e H
urric
anes
Hugo a
nd A
ndre
w a
nd
the
Lom
a P
rieta
Ear
thqu
ake,
wh
ich
sha
ttere
d st
ate
and
loca
l ca
pa
bili
ties.
Pro
blem
s to
be
Fixe
d: T
he F
EM
A L
egac
y
In t
he w
ake
of
Hur
rican
e A
ndre
w,
pu
blic
an
d c
ongr
essi
onal
resp
onse
ts2
FEM
A's
perf
orm
ance
was
ext
rem
ely
criti
cal.
In 1
99
3, s
ever
al o
rga
niz
a-
tions
co
nduct
ed
form
al
eva
luatio
ns
of
FEM
A's
pe
rfo
rma
nce
d
uri
ng
H
urric
ane
Andre
w i
ncl
udin
g th
e FE
MA
Ins
pect
or G
ener
al's
Off
ice
([F
EM
A-
IC]
1993
), th
e U
nite
d S
tate
s G
ener
al A
ccountin
g O
ffic
e (
[US
GA
O]
1993
),
and
the
Natio
nal A
cade
my
of P
ublic
Adm
inis
tratio
n (
[NA
PA
] 19
93).
Bo
th
the
info
rmal a
nd fo
rmal c
ritic
ism
s of
FE
MA
hig
hlig
hte
d f9
ur c
ritic
al
org
an
i-
zatio
nal p
robl
ems.
Pro
blem
1: T
he I
ncon
sist
ency
of
Pre
sidentia
l Supp
ort
D
uring m
uch
of
the
hist
ory
of
fede
ral
inte
rven
tion,
em
crgc
Bnc
y m
'lnag
e-
men
t co
exis
ted
unea
sily
with
the
in
s-itu
tionaliz
ed
pro
tirlc
w y
. I)
~rr
ing
the.
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Ern
er~e
ncy M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy
65
Col
d W
ar,
the
natio
nal se
curit
y co
ncer
ns o
f em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent
(civ
il de
iens
e an
d co
ntin
uity
of g
over
nmen
t) s
eem
ed m
ore
criti
cal a
nd c
onsi
sten
tly
im~
ort
an
t tc p
resi
dent
s th
an r
espo
nse
and
reco
very
to
natu
ral d
isas
ters
. The
m
ore
form
ally
org
aniz
ed a
nd w
ell-
defin
ed fu
nctio
ns o
f co
mm
ande
r-in
-chi
ef
rein
forc
ed th
is fo
cus.
On
the
othe
r ha
nd, e
ffect
ive
man
agem
ent o
f the
dom
es-
tic e
lem
ents
of
emer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t (d
isas
ter
prep
ared
ness
, m
itiga
tion,
re
spon
se,
and
reco
very
) suf
fere
d fr
om
the
hig
h im
pact
and
low
pro
babili
ty o
f m
ost
disa
skr
even
ts,
the
resu
lting
fl~
ctu
ati
on
of
pres
iden
tial
atte
ntio
n b
ew
ee
n c
risis
an
d i
ndiff
eren
ce,
and
the
need
cf
the
pres
iden
t to
pro
vide
psyc
holo
gica
l sup
port
to th
e p
ub
lic b
ut m
aint
ain
adm
inis
trat
ive
dist
ance
from
th
e di
sast
er a
genc
y's
deci
sion
s (N
AP
A 1
993:
21
-23)
. T
he c
on
solid
atio
n o
f nu
mer
ous
fede
ral
emer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t pro
- gr
ams
into
FE
MA
in
197
9 of
fere
d th
e pr
omis
e of
enh
ance
d au
thor
ity. "T
he
agen
cy th
usc
rea
ted
cam
e cl
oser
to h
avin
g th
e s
ize
and
subs
tanc
e ne
eded
to
succ
essf
ully
sta
nd o
utsi
de th
e in
stitu
tiora
l pr
esid
ency
and
to
be o
f su
ffic
ient
inp
ort
an
ce t
o w
arra
nt t
he a
ttentio
n a
nd s
uppo
rt o
f th
e pr
esid
ency
when
need
ed (
NA
PA
19
93
23)
." D
espi
te th
e co
nsol
idat
ion,
how
ever
, a r
ela
tively
sr
rall
agen
cy l
ike
FE
MA
found i
t diff
icult
to c
omm
and
and
coor
dina
te m
uch
la
rger
age
ncie
s w
itho
ut
the C
old
War
connect
ior.
The
Pre
side
nt's
exe
cutiv
e po
wer
pro
ved
less
use
ful t
han
his
com
man
der-
in-c
hief
pow
er i
n th
e de
vel-
opm
ent
of e
mer
gen.
cy m
anag
emen
t aut
horit
y in
the
inst
itutio
naliz
ed p
resi
- de
ncy.
In
fore
ign
po
ky
cris
es,
FEM
A c
ould
dra
w o
n th
e pr
esid
ent's
mili
tary
a
uth
ority
to
ass
ure
com
plia
nce
by
othe
r ag
enci
es.
In d
isas
ters
, FE
MA
had
le
ss r
elia
ble
acc
ess
to t
he p
resi
dent
's e
cecu
tive
auth
ority
to g
uara
ntee
per
- fo
~m
an
ce. T
he e
nd
of
the
Co
ld W
ar i
n 1989 f
urth
er c
om
plic
ate
d F
EM
A's
au
tho
rity
pro
ble
m.
One
for
mer
FE
MA
and s
tate
em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent
ofii
cia
l no
ted
to t
he a
utho
rs t
hat
"the
Geo
rge
H.
W.
Bus
h adm
inis
tratio
n
bro
ug
ht a
n en
d to
the
Cold
War
, b
ut
FEM
A w
as s
low
to
resp
ond.
"
Pro
blem
2:T
he "
Sto
vepi
ping
" of
FE
MA
T
he
unpr
eced
ente
d sc
ope
of
the
disa
ster
s (H
urric
anes
H
ugo
and
And
rew
and
th
e L
oma
Prie
ta E
arth
quak
e) c
onfr
ontin
g t
he G
eorg
e H
. W
. B
ush
ad
min
istr
atio
n o
verw
helm
ed b
oth
the
limite
d r
esou
rces
and
the
dis
- jo
inte
d o
rga
niz
atio
na
l str
uctu
re o
f FE
M.4
. The
var
ious
funct
ions
and
org
ani-
zatio
ns w
ith
in F
EM
A n
ever
fu
lly i
nteg
rate
d af
ter t
he c
reatio
n o
f th
e ag
ency
in
19
79
. O
le fo
rmer
sen
ior
off
icia
l at
FE
MA
not
ed th
at t
he a
genc
y w
as i
n
"to
tal o
rga
niz
atio
na
l cha
os. T
he d
irect
or w
as i
sola
ted
from
the
dire
ctor
ates
an
d he
was
iso
late
d fr
om
the
regi
ons.
" N
AP
A c
oncl
uded
that
FE
MA
lack
ed 3
coh
eren
t set
of g
over
ning
idea
s. T
he
abse
nce
of v
isio
n an
d m
issi
on p
reve
nted
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f co
re o
rgan
iza-
tio
nal v
nluc.b
, w
liic
I1 in
turn
pre
clud
ed th
e ag
ency
's co
nstit
uent
par
ts fr
om c
on-
sdid
atin
g iu
lo ,I
wc
tlh,~
l)lc
. or)
:,irli~
,itio
n (N
AP
A 1
993:
42-4
3).
The
lack
of
core
66
R. S
teve
n D
anie
ls a
nd C
arol
yn L
. C
lark
-Dan
iels
valu
es o
nly
rei
nfor
ced
the
"sto
vepi
ping
" of
age
ncy
func
tions
, th
e di
visi
on o
t' th
e ag
ency
int
o in
depe
nden
t and
poo
rly
sync
hron
ized
dire
ctor
ates
(F
EM
A,
' 99
3-1 9
94).
Sev
eral
cur
rent
and
form
er F
EM
A o
ffici
als,
som
e o
f who
m s
erve
d in
FE
MA
und
er th
e C
arte
r, R
eaga
n, G
eorg
e H
. W.
Bus
h, a
nd C
linto
n ad
min
is-
b-at
ions
, spe
cific
ally
ide
ntifi
ed th
e ke
y ag
ency
pro
blem
as
stov
epip
ing.
T
he
wor
st
orga
niza
tiona
l se
para
tion
and
the
w
orst
te
nsio
ns
aros
e be
twee
n th
e N
atio
na
l P
repa
redn
ess
Dire
ctor
ate
and
tte
Sta
te a
nd L
ocal
P
rogr
ams
and
Sup
port
Dire
ctor
ate.
The
se d
irect
orat
es p
erio
rmed
the
prim
ary
prep
ared
ness
and
dis
aste
r as
sist
ance
func
tions
of t
he
age
ncy
and
wer
e co
n-
tinua
tions
of
the
Fed
eral
Pre
pare
dnes
s A
genc
y a
nd
the
F
eder
al D
isas
ter
Ass
ista
nce
Adm
inis
trat
ion,
re
spec
tivel
y. T
he t
wo
dire
ctor
ates
wer
e in
tend
ed
t83 be
the
co
re o
f th
e du
al
use
stra
tegy
en
visi
oned
by
the
P
resi
dent
's
Reo
rgan
izat
ion
Pro
ject
in
197
8 (M
clnt
yre,
Ma
y 25
, 19
78).
How
ever
, th
e hi
gh l
evel
of
secr
ecy
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
the
pre
pare
dnes
s fu
nctio
n m
ade
the
tra
nsfe
r of
info
rmat
ion
and
tech
nolo
gy a
cros
s di
rect
orat
es n
earl
y im
poss
ible
. As
a r
esul
t, ev
en 1
0 y
ears
afte
r th
e cr
eatio
n of
FE
MA
, d
ud
use
was
ho
no
red
n
ore
in th
e br
each
tha
n in
pra
ctic
e.
Pro
blem
3: T
he C
ircu
mve
ntio
n o
f FE
MA
T
he o
rgan
izat
iona
l in
stab
ility
an
d i
mit
ed
reso
urce
s of
th
e d
isas
ter a
ssis
- ta
nce
agen
cy o
ften
pro
mpt
ed e
arlie
r pr
esid
ents
to
byp
ass
the
age
ncy
alto
- ge
ther
du
rin
g c
atas
trop
hic
disa
ster
s. F
ollo
win
g th
e A
las<
an E
arth
quak
e in
19
64,
the
John
son
adm
inis
trat
ion
and
Con
gres
s cr
eate
d th
e A
lask
an
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
Com
mis
sion
(A
RC
) to
fu
nd
the
re
bu
ildin
g o
f th
e A
lask
an
die
s a
nd t
owns
de
stro
yed
by
th
e e
arth
quak
e a
nd
sub
sequ
ent t
suna
mi.
Plth
ough
the
dir
ect
or o
f the
Off
ice
of E
mer
genc
y P
lann
ing
(OE
P) w
as o
n th
e
com
mis
sion
, O
EP
ha
d l
ittle
res
pons
ibili
ty f
or
the
reco
vecy
ope
ratio
n. A
fter
the
colla
pse
of t
heT
eton
Dam
in 1
976,
the
For
d ad
min
istr
atio
n q
uic
kly
con
- cl
uded
tha
t th
e fe
dera
l gov
ernm
ent
had
po
litic
al,
if n
ot
lega
l, re
spon
sibi
lity
and
used
lnte
rior
Dep
artm
ent
auth
oritv
to
com
pens
ate
fclr
pri
vate
dam
ages
(L
ynn,
Jun
e 5,
1
97
6).
The
fu
nd
ing
was
pro
vid
ed
by
a su
pple
men
tal
ap
pro
- pr
iatio
n an
d ad
min
iste
red
by
the
Dep
artm
ent o
f th
e ln
terio
r ra
ther
than
the
F
eder
al D
isas
ter A
ssis
tanc
e A
dmin
istr
atio
n (F
DA
A).
Th
e G
eorg
e H
. W.
Bus
h ad
min
istr
atio
n co
ntin
ued
this
trad
ition
af b
ypas
s-
ing
FEM
A d
urin
g pa
rtic
ular
ly d
evas
tatin
g di
sast
ers.
Afte
r H
urri
cane
Hug
o's
land
fall
in S
outh
Car
olin
a, P
resi
dent
Bus
h se
nt S
ecre
tary
of t
he l
nte
ria
Ma
nu
el
Luja
n to
ass
ess
dam
ages
in
the
Vir
gin
Isla
nds
and
Pue
rto
Ric
o (B
ates
, Sep
tem
- be
r 27,
198
9). I
n th
e af
term
ath
of th
e La
ma
Pr~
eta E
arth
quak
e o
n O
ctob
er 1
7,
1989
, th
e pr
esid
ent
appo
inte
d S
ecre
tary
of T
rans
port
atio
n S
amue
l Ski
nner
to
over
see
the
reco
very
ope
ratio
n in
Cal
iforn
ia (
Ski
nner
, N
ovem
ber 1
6, 1
98
9).
In
the
wak
e of
Hur
rica
ne A
ndre
w P
resi
dent
Geo
rge
H. W
. B
ush
wm
'I q' f
ur-
ther
and
app
oint
ed a
task
for
ce h
eade
d by
Sec
reta
ry o
fTra
ns~
n)r
t,~
llorl
A1
1c1r
c.w
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
rcy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y 67
Car
d to
co
ord
ina
te
fede
ral
effo
rts
(Bus
h,
Aug
ust
26,
1 992
).
The
b
ypa
ssin
g
of
the
o
ffic
ial
disa
ster
ag
ency
by
va
rio
us
pre
sid
en
ts
had
a nu
mbe
r o
f se
rious
co
nse-
qu
ence
s. T
he
first
w
as
the
ine
vita
ble
d
up
lic
ati
on
o
f ef
fort
. D
esp
ite
pres
iden
tial
inte
rven
tion,
F
EM
A
and
its
pre
cece
sso
rs
ne
vert
he
less
re
tain
ed b
oth
the
in
clin
atio
n
an
d
the
st
atut
ory
requ
ire-
m
ent
to i
nter
cede
on
beh
alf
of
disa
ster
vic
tims.
The
sep
a-
rate
pre
sid
en
iial
an
d a
genc
y re
spon
se e
ffort
s un
avoi
dabl
y w
aste
d re
sour
ces.
The
se
c-
on
d c
onse
quen
ce
was
th
e m
an
ag
em
en
t o
f d'
isas
ter
Pre
side
nt S
eorg
e H
. W B
ush
at
site
of t
he L
orna
re
spon
se
and
reco
very
b
y P
rieta
Ear
thqu
ake,
hn
Fra
ncis
co M
arin
a D
istr
ict.
less
qu
alif
ied
per
sonn
el. T
he
Whi
:e H
ou
sest
aff
inv
aria
bly
had
mu
ch le
ss e
mer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t exp
e-
rienc
e th
an
pe
rma
ne
nt a
genc
y em
ploy
ees.
As
a re
sult,
eac
h ad
min
istr
atio
n th
at r
elie
d h
ea
vily
on
pre
side
ntia
l pr
eem
ptio
n o
f di
sast
er r
ecov
ery
ha
d a
m
uch
lon
ge
r le
arn
ing
cur
ve t
ha
n a
dmin
istr
atio
ns th
at r
elie
d o
n a
per
ma-
n
en
t dis
aste
r ag
ency
, su
ch a
s F
DA
A o
r F
EM
A.
The
thir
d s
erio
us s
ide
effe
ct o
f pr
esid
entia
l pr
eem
ptio
n o
f di
sast
er r
elie
f w
as p
olit
iciz
ati
on
. W
hite
Hou
se i
nter
vent
ions
ge
iera
lly h
ad m
ore
dir
ect
an
d sh
ort-
term
po
litic
al
goal
s th
an r
elie
f ef
fort
s m
ount
ed b
y FE
MA
an
d
othe
r di
sast
er r
elie
f ag
enci
es.
The
fin
al
serio
us s
ide
effe
ct o
f pr
esid
entia
l in
terv
entio
n in
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t was
fede
raliz
atio
n. T
he c
entr
aliz
atio
n of
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t in
the
Wh
ite
Hou
se u
sual
ly e
mph
asiz
ed r
espo
nse
and
reco
very
ove
r m
itiga
tion
and
prep
ared
ness
. Com
bine
d w
ith
the
shor
t-
term
, p
olit
ica
l fo
cus
ot m
ost W
hit
e H
ouse
dis
aste
r ef
fort
s, t
he o
utc
om
e o
f th
e fe
dera
l dis
aste
r pro
gram
has
bee
n th
e gr
adua
l shi
ft of
res
pons
ibili
ty fr
om
th
e st
ate
an
d l
oca
l gov
ernm
ents
to th
e na
tiona
l gov
ernm
ent.
Pro
blem
4:
Rea
ctiv
e ve
rsus
Pro
activ
e R
espo
nse
Du
rin
g t
h* (
;c*o
r):c*
t I. W
. R
ush
adm
inis
trat
ion,
fede
ral
law
, FE
MA
reg
u-
I,~tio
ns, a
nd I IM
A IM
III~ v
III
III~
~~
th
v ,ig
cwcy
's a
bili
ty to
ant
icip
ate
disa
ster
s fo
r
68
R.
Ste
ven
Dan
iels
and
Car
olyn
L. C
lark
-Dan
els
wh
ich
ther
e w
as a
dequ
ate
war
ning
. Alth
ough
FE
MA
offi
cial
s w
ere
in p
lace
24
hour
s p
rio
r to
lan
dfal
l of
both
Hur
rican
es H
ug
o a
nd A
rdre
w,
reso
urce
s to
ok
muc
h lo
nger
to
dep
loy.
Suf
ficie
nt q
uant
ities
of
foo
d a
nd c
loth
ing
did
not
ar
rive
in C
harle
ston
un
til s
ix d
ays
afte
r H
ugo'
s la
ndfa
ll ("
Cha
rlest
on B
egs
Gov
ernm
ent
for
Hel
p,"
Sep
tem
ber
28,
19
89
). fo
llow
in^ H
urri
cane
And
rew
, FE
MA
fou
nd i
tsel
f una
ble
to r
espo
nd q
uick
ly d
espi
te a
dmin
istr
ativ
e ch
ange
s.
The
bu
lk o
f the
fede
ral a
id e
ffort
did
not
arr
ive
un
til A
ugus
t 29,
aga
in s
ix d
ays
afte
r th
e di
sast
er (
Cla
ry, A
ugus
t 29,
199
2).
Thes
e de
lays
ser
ious
ly d
amag
ed F
EM
A's
po
litic
al r
eput
atio
n an
d its
sup
- p
ort
bas
e in
Con
gres
s. P
art o
f th
e d
iffic
ulty
res
ted
wit
h F
EM
A's
coo
rdin
atin
g
fun
ctio
n. T
he S
taffo
rd A
ct r
equi
red
FEM
A t
o c
oord
inat
e th
e a
ctiv
ities
of
26
fede
ral a
genc
ies
(in
clu
din
g F
EM
A) a
nd th
e A
me
rica
n R
ed C
ross
. Mo
st o
rga-
ni
zatio
ns r
esis
ted
such
out
side
dir
ectio
n. W
ith
ou
t to
p-le
vel
pres
iden
tial
supp
ort,
FE
MA
fo
un
d i
t d
iffi
cult
to
ach
ieve
ra
pid
res
pons
e. C
au
ple
d w
ith
th
e le
vel o
f da
mag
e in
Sou
th C
arol
ina
in 1
98
9 a
nd S
auth
Flo
rida
in 1
992,
FE
MA
's a
bili
ty to
act
was
str
ictly
lim
ited.
Nev
erth
eles
s, to
mos
t po
litic
al a
nd
med
ia o
bser
vers
, FE
MA'
s p
erf
orr
na
n~
e was
unn
eces
saril
y bu
reau
crat
ic a
nd
dila
tory
(A
ndre
ws,
Aug
ust
27,
1992
; Li
ppm
an,
Aug
ust 2
8, 1
992)
.
FEM
A U
nd
er J
ames
Lee
Wit
t: T
he P
hoen
ix R
ises
The
cri
ticis
m d
irec
ted
at
FE
MA
'j re
spon
se t
o H
ugo,
Lom
a P
rieta
, an
d A
ndre
w d
em
ora
lize
d a
genc
y st
aff a
nd s
erio
usly
com
prom
ised
pu
blic
co
nii-
de
nce
in f
eder
al r
espo
nse
to d
isas
ters
. N
ever
thel
ess,
the
con
trov
ersy
pro
- vi
de
d a
ne
w p
resi
dent
and
a n
ew
FE
MA
dir
ect
or
a un
ique
op
po
rtu
nity
to
rede
fine
agen
cy p
erfo
rman
ce.
The
Ap
po
intm
ent o
f Ja
mes
Lee
Wit
t R
efle
ctin
g P
resi
dent
CIn
tonl
s co
mm
itmen
t to
em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent,
in A
pri
l 1
99
3 J
ames
Lee
Wit
t be
cam
e th
e fir
st d
irect
or o
f F
EM
A w
ho
had
ex
tens
ive
emer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t exp
erie
nce.
Dir
ecto
r W
itt
brou
ght
a di
f-
fere
nt f
ocus
to
th
e a
genc
y. S
ever
al F
EM
A a
nd W
hit
e ;
lous
e st
affe
rs i
nter
- vi
ew
ed
by
the
rese
arch
ers
ind
ica
ted
that
he
arri
ved
at t
he a
genc
y w
ith
a
grea
ter
kno
wle
dg
e o
f ag
ency
fun
ctio
ns,
limita
tions
, an
d po
ssib
ilitie
s th
an
even
long
-ter
m e
mpl
oyee
s o
f th
e a
genc
y.
Wit
t to
ok
over
FE
MA
wit
h s
ever
al o
rgan
izat
iona
l ch
ange
s in
min
d:
The
rees
tabl
ishm
ent
of F
EM
A's
auth
ority
in
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t T
he a
pp
oin
tme
nt o
f se
nior
exe
cutiv
es w
ith
ext
ensi
ve e
mer
genc
y m
an-
agem
ent e
xper
ienc
e Th
e re
de
finiti
on
of
FEM
A's
mis
sion
s an
d go
als
The
rest
ruct
urin
g of
the
agen
cy a
long
fu
nct
ion
al
lines
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y 69
The
red
esig
n an
d re
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
th
e S
taff
xd A
ct a
nd s
uppo
rtin
g le
gisl
atio
r T
he c
reat
ion
of
effe
ctiv
e m
edia
and
po
litic
al
linka
ges
The
de
velo
pm
en
t of
a pr
oact
ive
stra
tegy
fo
r di
sast
er r
espo
nse
The
Ree
stab
lishm
ent o
f FE
MA
's D
isas
ter A
uth
ori
ty
Cri
tical
to
FE
MA
's t
rans
form
atio
n w
as p
resi
dent
~al
conf
iden
ce in
FE
MA
's a
bili
ly t
o p
er'o
rm
its s
tatu
tory
fun
ctio
ns.
Pre
sid
e~
t Geo
rge
H.
W.
Bus
h by
pass
ed th
e ag
ency
and
est
ablis
hed
inde
pend
ent
task
for
ces
for
the
Lom
a P
rieta
E
arth
quak
e an
d H
urric
anes
H
ugo
and
h.nh
rew
, re
lyin
g o
n
his
Sec
reta
ries
of T
rans
port
atio
n (S
amue
l Ski
nner
an
d A
ndre
w C
ard)
for
lead
er-
ship
. B
y co
ntra
st,
Pre
side
nt
Clin
ton
pl
aced
pr
imar
y re
spon
sibi
lity
for
resp
onse
a
nd
rec
over
y w
ith
F
EM
A
Dire
ctor
Ja
mes
Lee
Witt
. P
resi
dent
C
linto
n ra
ised
th
e F
EM
A d
irec
tors
hip
to c
abin
et-le
vel
stat
us i
n F
ebru
ary
1996
. Int
ervi
ews
wit
h W
hite
Hou
se p
erso
nnel
con
duct
ed b
y th
e re
sear
cher
s su
gges
ted
that
th
e O
ffic
e o
f th
e S
ecre
tary
of
the
Cab
inet
pla
ced
a p
rio
rity
st
atus
on
co
mn
un
ica
tio
ns
from
Dir
ecto
r W
itt.
The
Off
ice
had
mor
e co
ntac
ts
wit
h F
EM
Ats
dir
ecto
r th
an w
ith
any
oth
er c
abin
et p
ost.
Jam
es L
ee W
itt
Jam
es -
ee W
itt
was
app
oint
ed b
y P
resi
dent
Clin
ton
and
con
firm
ed b
y th
e U
.S.
Sen
ate
as d
irect
or o
f th
e Fe
dera
l E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t A
genc
y in
19
93. H
e m
as th
e fi
rst a
genc
y he
ad w
ho
c;m
e to
the
posi
tion
with
exp
erie
nce
in
emer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t, ha
ving
pre
vi-
ousl
y se
rved
as
th
e di
rect
or
of
the
Ark
ansa
s O
ff ic
e o
f E
mer
genc
y S
ervi
ces
for
four
yea
rs.
Mr.
W
itt's
pr
ofes
sion
al c
aree
r in
clud
es
tte
for
mat
ion
of
Wit
t C
onst
ruct
ion,
a c
omm
erci
al a
nd r
esid
entia
l b
uild
ing
com
pany
. A
fter
12 y
ears
as
a su
cces
sful
bus
ines
sman
and
co
mm
un
ity le
ader
, he
was
el
ecte
d co
un
ty ju
dge
for
Yel
l C
ount
y, s
ervi
ng a
s th
e ch
ief
elec
ted
off
i-
cial
of
the
cou
nty,
with
ju
dic
ial
resp
onsi
bilit
ies
for
cou
nty
and
juve
- n
ile c
ou
rt.
Aft
er b
eing
re-
elec
ted
six
t mes
to
tha
t po
sitio
n, M
r. W
itt
was
tap
pec
by
then
-Gov
erno
r B
ill C
linto
n to
ass
Arn
e le
ader
ship
of t
he
Ark
ansa
s ( M
ic o
of
Imer
genc
y S
ervi
ces.
70
R.
Ste
ven
Da
n~
els
and
Car
olyn
L. C
lark
-Dan
iels
The
Ap
po
intm
ent o
f E
xper
ienc
ed E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Exe
cutiv
es
Un
like
Pre
side
nt G
eorg
e H
. W
. B
ush,
P
resi
dent
Clin
ton
had
a st
rong
in
tere
st i
n d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent.
On
Witt
's r
ecom
men
datio
n, t
he P
resi
dent
fil
led
the
man
y p
olit
ica
lly a
ppoi
nted
pos
ition
s in
FE
MA
with
ind
ivid
uals
wilh
ex
tens
ive
expe
rienc
e in
em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent.
Dep
uty
Dir
ecto
r R
ober
t M.
"Mik
er'
Wal
ker
serv
ed p
revo
usl
y as
und
er s
ecre
tary
of t
he A
rmy.
whe
re,
in
addi
tion
to
his
gene
ral
rnan
agem
eit
resp
onsi
bilit
ies,
he
sup
ervi
sed
the
Def
ense
Dep
artm
ent's
res
pons
e to
dom
estic
dis
aste
rs.
Exe
cutiv
e A
ssoc
iate
D
irect
or f
or R
espo
nse
and
Rec
over
y La
cy E
. S
uite
r w
orke
d in
the
Tenn
esse
e E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t A
genc
y fo
r 30
yea
rs,
the
lag
12 a
s its
dire
ctor
. A
ssoc
iate
Dir
ecto
r fo
r M
itiga
tion
Mic
hael
1. A
rmst
rong
wo
rke
d a
s R
egio
nal
Dir
ecto
r of R
egio
n V
III,
afte
r wo
rkin
g to
r m
ore
than
10 ye
ars
in C
olor
ado
stat
e an
d lo
cal g
over
nmen
t sp
ecia
lizin
g in
con
serv
atio
n, la
nc u
se,
and
pers
onne
l m
atte
rs.
Kay
Gos
s,
the
asso
ciat
e di
rect
or f
or p
repa
redn
ess,
wo
rke
d f
or 1
2 ye
ars
as t
hen-
Gov
erno
r B
ill C
linto
n4 s
enio
r as
sist
ant f
cr i
nter
gove
rnm
enta
l re
latio
ns,
ofte
n a
ctin
g a
s lia
ison
wit
h th
e S
tate
Off
ice
of
!mer
genc
y S
ervi
ces.
The
Red
efin
itio
n o
f FE
MA
's M
issi
on
and
Go
als
Dir
ecto
r W
itt's
exp
erie
nce
and
the
on
go
ing
crit
icis
m o
f F
EM
A p
erfo
r-
man
ce l
ed
him
to
stra
tegi
es t
o m
ake
FEM
A f
unct
ion
mo
re p
rodu
ctiv
ely.
R
elyi
ng o
n i
nput
fro
m F
EM
A e
mpl
oyee
s, e
mer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t par
tner
s,
and
an in
tern
al r
eass
essm
ent o
f pr
iorit
ies,
the
age
ncy
deve
lope
d its
firs
t ne
w
mis
sion
sta
tem
ent
in 10 y
ears
: "T
he
mis
sion
of
the
Fed
eral
E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy
is to
pro
vide
the
lead
ersh
ip a
nd s
uppo
rt t
o re
duce
the
loss
of
life
and
pro
pert
y an
d pr
otec
t our
ins
titut
ions
fro
m a
ll ty
pes
of
haza
rds
thro
ugh
a co
mpr
ehen
sive
, ris
k-ba
sed,
all-
haza
rds
man
agem
ent
prog
ram
of
miti
gatio
n, p
repa
redn
ess,
res
pons
e, a
nd r
ecov
ery"
(F
EW
19
94
).
Und
er W
itt's
dir
ectio
n, t
he
age
ncy
base
d fu
ture
ma
iag
em
en
t de
cisi
ons
and
prog
ram
s o
n s
ix g
oals
rel
ated
to
the
ne
w m
issi
on:
Cre
ate
an e
mer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t par
tner
ship
with
oth
er fe
dera
l age
n-
cies
, st
ate
an
d lo
cal g
over
nmen
ts,
volu
ntee
r or
gani
zatio
ns,
and
the
prl
- va
te s
ecto
r.
Est
ablis
h, i
n c
once
rt w
ith F
EMA1
s par
tner
s, a
nat
iona
l em
erge
ncy
man
- ag
emen
t sy
stem
tha
t is
com
prel
-ens
ive,
ris
k-ba
sed,
and
all-
haza
rds
in
appr
oach
. M
ake
haz
ard
miti
gatio
n th
e fo
unda
tion
of t
he
nat
iona
l em
erge
ncy
man
- ag
emen
t sys
tem
. P
rovi
de a
ra
pid
and
effe
ctiv
e re
spon
se to
any
dis
aste
r. S
tren
gthe
n st
ate
and
loca
l em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent.
Rev
italiz
e th
e ag
ency
and
dev
elcp
a m
ore
effe
ctiv
e an
d in
volv
ed
cad
re
of F
EM
A m
anae
ers.
Der
man
ent e
m~
love
es,
and
disa
ster
rc*s
cvvi
sts (
FE
MA
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e F
eder
al E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy
7 1
The
goa
l; re
flect
ed a
shi
ft in
age
ncy
fxu
s fr
om n
atio
nal p
repa
redn
ess
to
disz
ster
ass
ista
nce.
The
dom
inan
t ph
iloso
phy
beca
me
one
of c
usto
mer
ser
- vi
ce. A
ll s
enio
r m
anag
ers
in th
e ag
ency
par
ticip
ated
in
a re
trea
t to
ou
tlin
e th
e cu
stom
er s
ervi
ce s
trate
gy. T
he m
anag
ers
then
had
to s
ell t
he p
hilo
soph
y to
FE
MA
em
ploy
ees
an
d im
plem
ent t
rain
ing
prog
ram
s.
The
Reo
rgan
izat
ion
of
FEM
A
To b
ette
r st
ruct
ure
the
agen
cy t
o p
ursu
e its
mis
sion
, F
EM
A u
nder
took
an
ext
ensi
ve re
orga
niza
tion.
Ma
xim
izin
g in
pu
t fro
m a
ll le
vels
of t
he a
genc
y,
FEM
A r
estr
uctu
red
itsel
f ove
r a s
ix-m
on
tt p
eri
od
in.2
993.
The
new
str
uctu
re
refle
cted
th
e c
hang
es in
the
mis
sion
sta
tem
ent a
nd h
igh
ligh
ted
the
agen
cy's
co
mm
itm
en
t to
a c
ompr
ehen
sive
, al
l-haz
ards
app
roac
h to
dis
aste
r m
an-
agem
ent.
The
ne
w a
genc
y di
rect
orat
es w
ere
orga
nize
d ar
ound
th
e b
asic
fu
nctio
ns o
f em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent:
miti
gatio
n, p
repa
redn
ess,
res
pons
e,
and
reco
very
. T
he r
eorg
aniz
atio
n en
sure
d ra
pid
and
effe
ctiv
e re
spon
se to
any
dis
aste
r.
FEM
A a
lso
over
haul
ec t
he D
isas
ter A
ssis
lanc
e pr
ogra
m to
take
adv
anta
ge o
f de
velo
ping
tech
nolo
gy (
Nat
iona
l Per
form
ance
Rev
iew
, 19
96).
It s
trea
mlin
ed
the
disa
ster
ap
plic
atio
n pr
oces
s th
roug
h te
lere
gist
ratio
n,
com
pute
rize
d ap
plic
atio
n fo
rms,
co
mpu
teri
zed
insp
ectio
n th
roug
h th
e us
e of
pa
lm-p
ad
co
mpu
ters
, an
d ce
ntra
lized
pro
cess
ing
a1 t
wo
loca
tions
. P
art o
f th
e pr
oces
s of
reo
rgan
izat
ion
was
Dire
ctor
Witt
's c
om
mitm
en
t to
im
pro
vin
g a
genc
y m
oral
e. H
e a
ctiv
ely
soug
ht e
mpl
oyee
in
pu
t o
n t
he
reo
r-
gani
zatio
n. H
e m
ade
all
agen
cy p
erso
nnel
cri
tical
ele
men
ts i
n th
e di
sast
er
assi
stan
ce e
ffort
. In
add
ition
, Wit
t in
stitu
ted
exte
nsiv
e cr
oss
tra
inin
g o
f F
EM
A
pers
onne
l. U
nd
er
his
auth
ority
FE
MA
con
duct
ed
num
erou
s w
orks
hops
, re
treat
s, a
nd
con
fere
nces
to e
duca
te F
Ehl
A s
taff
in th
e re
vise
d m
issi
on a
nd
72
R
. S
teve
n D
anie
ls a
nd C
arol
yn L
. Cla
rk-D
an
k
-
-- -.
P
resi
dent
Clrnto
n m
Dave
nport
, Iow
a, a
t sr
te o
f G
reat M
rdw
est
ern
Flo
ods
goal
s of
the
age
ncy.
He
em
pow
ered
em
ploy
ees
wit
h m
ore
resp
onsi
bilit
ies
and
oblig
atio
ns (
Sch
neid
er 1
998)
, an
d s
ough
t to
impr
ove
labo
r-m
anag
emen
t e
latio
ns b
y cr
eatin
g th
e La
bor-
Man
agem
ent P
artn
ersh
ip C
ou
nci
l to
mai
ntai
n st
rong
rela
tions
hips
bet
wee
n se
nior
offi
cial
s a
nd
FE
MA
sta
ff.
The
Red
esig
n an
d R
eint
erpr
etat
ion
of th
e S
taff
ord
Act
B
efor
e Ja
mes
Lee
Wit
t be
cam
e dr
ecto
r,
FE
MA
had
alr
eady
beg
un th
e pr
oces
s o
f im
pro
vin
g c
oord
inat
ion
amon
g th
e va
rious
ele
men
ts o
f di
sast
er
resp
onse
an
d re
cove
ry.
In A
pri
l 19
92,
FE
MA
ne
goria
ted
the
Fed
eral
R
espo
nse
Pla
n w
ith
oth
er fe
dera
l age
ncie
s an
d th
e A
mer
ican
Red
Cro
ss. T
he
fires
torm
of
criti
cism
tha
t fo
llow
ed
H
urr
ica
ne
And
rew
re
veal
ed s
erio
us
wea
knes
ses
in t
he
P
lan.
The
m
ost
serio
us w
ere
FE
Ms
bel
ief
that
the
S
taffo
rd A
ct (
for
mo
re i
nfor
mat
ion
abou
t the
Sta
fford
Act
, se
e A
ppen
dix
II)
prev
ente
d fe
dera
l in
terv
entio
n u
nti
l af
ter
the
disa
ster
, an
d FE
MA1
s as
sum
p-
tion
that
fed
eral
, st
ate,
and
lo
cal
agen
cies
wo
uld
coo
pera
te w
ith
ou
t p
rio
r pl
anni
ng (
Sch
neid
er 1
998)
. O
ne
of
Dir
ect
or
Witt
's f
irst
actio
ns i
n c
oope
ratio
n w
ith h
is s
enio
r st
aff
was
to
broa
den
the
age
ncy'
s in
terp
reia
tion
of
the
Sta
fford
Act
to
allo
w fo
r th
e pr
epos
ition
ing
of
pers
onne
l a
nd
res
ourc
es w
he
n a
dequ
ate
wa
rnin
g
exis
ted.
The
dire
ctor
's p
lan
als
o in
clu
de
d th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
mul
ti-ag
ency
E
mer
genc
y R
espo
nse
Team
s,
Em
erge
ncy
Su
pp
ort
Te
ams,
an
d F
ield
A
sses
smen
t Tea
ms
wit
h th
e a
bili
ty t
o r
espo
nd to
dis
aste
rs w
ith
in fo
ur h
ours
of
occ
urre
nce
(FE
MA
199
6; S
chne
ider
199
8). T
he d
irec
tor
wo
rke
d d
ose
ly
with
the
int
erag
ency
Cat
astr
ophi
c D
isas
ter
Res
pons
e G
KX
J~
t
I~
1t
wv
vc
~l ,is
I T
ran
sfo
rmin
g th
e F
eder
al E
mer
genc
y M
an
ag
me
nt A
genc
y 7
3
the
foca
l p
oin
t fo
r th
e F
eder
al R
espo
nse
Pla
n. H
e al
so p
rom
oted
a r
isk-
ba
sed,
al
l-ha
zard
s em
erge
ncy
man
agem
ent
syst
em w
ith
sta
te a
nd
lo
cal
gove
rnm
ents
an
d d
irect
ed r
egio
nal o
ffice
s to
wor
k m
ore
clo
sely
wit
h t
heir
st
at?
an
d l
oca
l cou
nter
part
s o
n a
reg
ular
bas
is (
FEM
A 1
99
4).
The
Est
ablis
hmen
t of a
n E
ffec
tive
FEM
A M
edia
and
Pol
itica
l Pre
senc
e O
ne
of
FEM
A's
m
ost
criti
cal
faili
ngs
unde
r P
resi
dent
Geo
rge
H.
W.
/ B
ush,
how
euer
, w
as i
ts l
ack
of
pu
blic
vsi
bili
ty a
nd s
uppo
rt.
In t
he p
eri
od
1
follo
win
g H
urr
ica
ne
Hug
o an
d Lo
ma
Prie
ta, s
ever
al F
EM
A o
ffic
ials
cite
d th
e ag
ency
's
rela
tive
obsc
urity
as
an
in
dic
atio
n t
hat<
he
agen
cy f
un
ctio
ne
d
smoo
thly
und
er m
ost c
ircum
stan
ces
beca
use
it d
id n
ot r
ecei
ve e
ither
mu
ch
atte
ntio
n o
r cr
itici
srr
(McA
llist
er,
Oct
. 6,
19
89).
By
com
paris
on,
Wit
t ag
gres
sive
ly in
crea
sed
the
agen
cy's
att
entio
n o
n it
s p
ub
lic e
duca
tion
fun
c-
tion.
He
co
ntin
ue
d t
he R
ecov
ery
Tim
es, a
new
slet
ter f
irst
deve
lope
d d
uri
ng
H
urr
ica
ne
An
dre
w t
hat
pro
vid
ed
dir
ect
info
rmat
icn
on
FE
MA
dis
aste
r re
lief
effc
rts.
Un
de
r hi
s le
ader
ship
, FE
MA
int
rodu
ced
The
Rec
over
y C
hann
el,
a sa
telli
te-d
eliv
ered
tele
visi
on p
rod
uct
ion
that
bro
adca
sts
over
pu
blic
tele
vi-
sion
sta
tions
an
d c
able
net
wor
ks i
n a
reas
wh
ere
dis
aste
rs a
re d
ecla
red.
U
nli
ke m
any
earl
er
dire
ctor
s o
f FE
MA
, Wit
t w
as e
spec
ially
sen
sitiv
e to
m
edia
an
d p
olit
ica
l im
plic
atio
ns o
f th
e ag
ency
's d
ecis
ions
. S
enio
r F
EM
A
staf
f cr
edite
d FE
MA
's p
ub
lic a
ffairs
dir
ecto
r at
the
sta
rt o
f W
itt's
te
nure
, M
orr
ie G
oodm
an,
wit
h a
sig
nific
ant
role
in
cha
ngin
g th
e ag
ency
's p
ub
lic
imag
e. U
nd
er
Wit
t an
d G
oodm
an,
FEM
A s
ou
gh
to
mak
e th
e m
edia
an
activ
e pa
rtne
r in
th
e d
isse
min
atio
n of
cis
aste
r in
form
atio
n. G
ive
n F
EM
A's
poor
h
isto
ry w
ith
Con
gres
s, W
itt
also
agg
ress
ivel
y pu
rsue
d co
nnec
tions
w
ith C
ongr
ejs.
He
test
ified
num
erou
s ti
ne
s be
fore
con
gres
sion
al c
om
mit-
te
es,
do
ing
so
1 5 t
imes
in
his
firs
t ye
ar a
lon
e (
FEM
A 1
99
4).
The
Off
ice
of
cong
ress
iona
l a
nd
Gov
ernm
enta
l A
ffairs
ser
ved
as
a tw
o-w
ay
con
du
it o
f in
form
atio
n b
etw
ee
n t
he a
genc
y an
d co
ngre
ssio
nal
offic
es.
FEM
A u
sed
info
rma
tion
iro
m th
ese
exch
ange
s to
im
prov
e d
iszt
er
resp
onse
in th
e fie
ld.
The
Dev
elop
men
t o
f a
Pro
activ
e S
trat
egy
The
lon
g-te
rm g
oal o
f a
ll of
the
cha
nges
was
to d
ecre
ase
disa
ster
cos
ts
by
refo
cusi
ng t
he
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t sy
stem
on
miti
gatio
n, d
efin
ed a
s m
inim
izin
g t
he p
rob
ab
ility
and
sco
pe o
f fu
ture
dis
aste
rs. W
itt
purs
ued
the
miti
ga
tion
st
rate
gy
on
seve
ral
fron
ts.
The
cr
eatio
n of
th
e M
itig
ati
on
D
irec
tora
te
com
bin
ed
fo
r th
e
first
tim
e th
e
Flo
odpl
ain
Man
agem
ent,
Ear
thqu
ake
Haz
ards
Red
uctio
n, N
atio
nal
Hur
rican
e, N
atio
na
l D
am
Saf
ety,
an
c po
st-d
isas
ter
miti
gatio
n pr
ogra
ms.
11
resp
onse
to W
itt's
urg
ing
follo
w-
ing
th
e
Grc
at
Mid
we
ste
rn
Flo
ods,
C
ongr
ess
exp
an
de
d
the
Ha
zard
M
itig
atio
n C
;r.~n
l I'ro
gr,im
fro
m 1
5 pe
rcen
t of
publ
ic a
ssis
tanc
e fu
nds
to 1
5
pcrs
cnt
of
,111
cli\,
~rt
or f
unds
, in
crea
sing
m
itiga
tion
reso
urce
s fiv
efol
d.
74
R.
Ste
ven
Dan
iels
anc
Car
olyn
L.
Cla
rk-D
anie
ls
Fo
llow
ing
the
N
ort
hri
dg
e E
arth
quak
e,
FE
MA
re
info
rmze
d th
e r
ole
of
the
Fed
eral
Co
ord
ina
ting
Off
icer
(F
CO
) in
fut
ure
disa
ster
s b
y
intr
oduc
ing
a de
puty
FC
O fo
r m
itiga
tian.
T
he m
ost
sig
nif
ica
nt
mit
iga
tio
n a
ctiv
ity
tha
t F
EM
A a
nd
Dir
ect
or
Wit
t in
itiat
ed,
how
ever
, w
as P
roje
ct I
mpa
ct.
Pro
ject
Im
pact
atte
mpt
ed t
o b
uild
di
sast
er-r
esis
tant
com
mun
i:ies
by
deve
lopi
ng p
ub
lic-p
riva
te-n
on
pro
fit p
art-
ne
rshi
ps i
n l
oca
l co
mm
uniti
es,
by
exam
inin
g th
e co
mm
unity
's r
isk
of
and
vuln
era
bili
ty to
nat
ural
and
man
-mad
e di
sast
ers,
by
ide
ntif
yin
g a
nd r
anki
ng
risk
-red
uctio
n ac
tions
in
the
com
m~
nit
y, an
d b
y co
mm
un
ica
ting
the
bene
- fit
s an
d re
spon
sibi
litie
s of
miti
gatia
n to
the
dis
aste
r ee
sist
ant
com
mun
ity
(FE
MA
, Ju
ly 1
99
8).
Cha
lleng
es A
head
for
the
Nex
t Adm
inis
trat
or
Des
pite
th
e
laud
able
cha
nges
in
FE
MA
1s m
issi
on,
oper
atio
ns,
and
pu
blic
im
age,
th
e a
genc
y is
stil
l no
t fr
ee o
f pr
oble
ms.
Pre
side
nt C
linto
n's
deci
sion
to
inc
reas
e th
e p
olit
ica
l p
rofil
e o
f di
sast
er m
anag
emen
t pro
babl
y co
ntri
bute
d to
th
e in
crea
se i
n r
eque
sts
and
decl
arat
ions
du
rin
g h
is a
dmin
- is
trat
ion
(see
Fig
ure
3.1)
. Mo
re s
erio
usly
, F
EM
A w
as s
low
to d
evel
op e
xplic
it or
mor
e st
ringe
nt c
rite
ria
for
pro
vid
ing
maj
or d
isas
ter
assi
stan
ce (F
EM
A-I
C,
Ma
rch
199
9; U
SG
AO
, M
arch
26,
199
8).
Bot
h G
AO
and
th
e F
EM
A-I
G c
rit-
ic
ize
d s
tate
gov
erno
rs, t
he p
resi
dent
, and
FE
MA
for
faili
7g
to m
atch
req
uest
s an
d fin
ding
s to
fac
tual
dat
a o
r pu
blis
hed
crite
ria.
In
fairn
ess,
muc
h o
f th
is
diff
icu
lty r
este
d w
ith
the
rel
ucta
nce
of
mem
bers
of
Con
gres
s to
aba
ndon
th
eir
role
s as
dis
aste
r om
buds
men
for
the
ir d
istr
icts
and
sta
tes.
Figu
re 3
.1 : N
umbe
r of
Maj
or D
isas
ter D
ecla
ratio
ns a
nd T
urnd
owns
, 19
53-1
998
Year
Dec
lara
tion
s / Tu
rrd
ow
nr
So
ua
r Il
MA
, lul
r *
1'1~
1~1
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Ma
na
gm
en
t Age
ncy
75
Bey
ond
ambi
guity
in
the
decl
arat
ion
proc
ess,
FE
MA
's fin
an
cia
l sy
stem
w
as n
ot o
pera
ting
up
to f
eder
al s
tand
ards
un
til
1995
. An
au
dit
by th
e F
EM
A-
lG o
f th
e D
isas
ter
Rel
ief
Fun
d in
Ju
ly 1
995
reve
aled
un
relia
ble
fun
d f
inan
- ci
al d
ata,
unc
lear
sta
ndar
ds o
f app
ropr
iate
ness
fore
xpen
ditu
res,
in
adeq
uate
gr
ants
man
agem
ent,
irreg
ular
and
in
con
ple
te l
oan
data
, an
d,
in s
ever
al
inst
ance
s, i
ne
ffic
ien
t an
d un
econ
omic
al f
ield
ope
ratio
ns (
FE
MA
-IG
, Ju
ly
1945
).
FE
MA
did
no
t us
e ap
prop
riat
e co
st-e
ffect
iven
ess
crite
ria
to e
valu
ate
Pro
ject
Im
pact
pro
gram
s. S
tate
and
loc
al g
over
nmen
ts d
id n
ot a
lway
s su
b-
mit'
eva
lua
tion
dat
a w
hen
ap
ply
ing
for
haz
ard
mti
ga
tio
n g
rant
s. A
lthou
gh
FE
hlA
rep
orte
d co
st-b
enef
it an
alys
is a
s th
e ba
sis
for
gran
t re
com
men
da-
tiors
, fu
lly o
ne
-th
ird
of
all
haza
rd m
itiga
tion
proj
scts
wer
e ex
empt
ed f
rom
co
st-b
enef
it an
alys
is b
y FE
MA
pol
icy.
The
cri
teri
a f3
r th
ese
exem
ptio
ns w
ere
rare
ly c
lear
. O
vera
ll,
mos
t o
f FE
MA
's cu
rren
t pr
oble
ms
a-os
e fr
om
Dir
ecto
r W
itt's
de
cisi
on t
o b
alan
ce th
e d
ilem
ma
of
"wo-
ks b
ette
r-nd
"c
osts
les
s" i
n fa
vor
of
prod
uctiv
ity.
In
prac
tice,
pu
rsui
ng
bo
th
goal
s p
rove
d
unw
orka
ble.
"W
ork
ing
be
tter
" su
gges
ted
elim
ina
ting
str
uctu
res
and
proc
edur
es t
hat
inh
bit
ed
the
cre
ativ
e us
e of
res
ourc
es b
y FE
MA
off
icia
ls.
"Cos
ting
less
" im
plie
d c
on
stra
inin
g th
ose
sam
e of
ficia
ls w
ith
str
itegi
c pl
ans
and
dem
and-
in
g th
e a
chie
vem
ent,
of m
easu
rabl
e ou
tcom
es. W
tt c
lea
rly
chos
e to
"w
ork
be
tter."
The
ben
efits
of
this
app
roac
h w
ere
shor
t te
rm a
nd w
ere
evid
ent
in
FEhl
A1s
mo
re r
ap
id r
espo
nse
and
impr
oved
pub
1 c
imag
e. T
he c
osts
wer
e lo
nger
term
and
res
ulte
d in
poo
rer e
valu
atio
n pr
oced
ures
an
d w
eake
r fin
an
- ci
al m
anag
emen
t. A
sen
ior
cong
ress
iona
sta
ff m
embe
r in
vest
igat
ing
Pro
ject
Im
pact
fou
nd
it "
diff
icu
lt to
mea
sure
bef
cre
and
afte
r. S
ome
peop
le c
onsi
der
it [P
roje
ct I
mpa
ct]
to b
e a
po
litic
al s
lush
fund
."
Dir
ect
orW
ittls
sta
ture
wit
hin
the
Clin
ton
adm
inis
trat
ion
defle
cted
mu
ch
of t
he c
ritic
ism
tha
t m
ight
oth
erw
ise
ress
~lt fr
om
thes
e fin
an
cia
l an
d ev
alu-
at
icn
conc
erns
. T
he d
irect
or h
as p
rove
1 t
o b
e a
dept
at
an
ticip
atin
g a
nd
mir
imiz
ing
dis
satis
fact
ion
wit
h F
EM
A p
olic
y an
c op
erat
ions
. H
e h
as a
lso
unde
rtak
en s
ubst
antia
l fin
an
cia
l re
form
s si
nce
the
pu
blic
atio
n o
f th
e 1
99
5
FE
hlA
-IG
rep
ort.
A f
utur
e di
rect
or w
ith
wea
ker
conn
ectio
ns t
o t
he W
hit
e
Hou
se
ma
y fi
nd
th
ese
conc
erns
to
be
m
ore
cri
tica
l. P
ress
ures
fro
m
Con
gres
s,
the
Off
ice
o
f M
anag
emen
i a
nd
B
udge
t, a
nd
th
e G
ener
al
Acc
ou
ntin
g O
ffic
e m
ay f
orce
the
age
ncy
to s
hift
the
bala
nce
back
fro
m
pro
du
ctiv
ity (
"wo
rks
bette
r")
to c
ost-
effe
ctiv
enes
s ("c
osts
less
").
R. S
teve
n D
anie
ls a
nd C
arol
yn L
. C
lark
-Dan
iels
Bib
liogr
aphy
And
rew
s,
Edm
und
L. A
ugus
t 27
, 19
92.
"Hurr
ica
ne
And
rew
; S
torm
Pos
es
Test
for
a M
uch
-Bla
med A
genc
y.''
New
Yor
k T
imes
, Sec
tion
8, p
. 8,
Col
. 3,
N
atio
nal
Des
k.
Acc
essi
ble
by
Lexi
s-N
exis
Aca
dem
ic
Uni
vers
e D
ocum
ent.
Bat
es,
Davi
d Q
. S
epte
mbe
r 27
, 19
89.
"Inte
rio
r D
epar
tmen
t R
epor
t on
H
urr
icane H
ugo.
" M
emor
andu
m fo
r th
e P
resi
dent
. Wh
ite
Hou
se O
ffic
e
of R
ecor
ds M
anag
emen
t (W
HO
RM
), D
l-002,
082'
06S
S,
Geo
rge
Bus
h P
resi
dent
ial L
ibra
ry.
Bus
h, G
eorg
e. A
ugus
t 26
, 19
92.
"Rem
arks
on
Hu
rric
zne
And
rew
an
d t
he
Situ
atio
n in
Iraq a
nd a
n E
xcha
nge
with
Rep
orte
rs." '
Wee
kly
Co
mp
ilatio
n
of
Pre
side
ntia
l Doc
umen
ts 2
8: 1
5 1 2.
"Cha
rlest
on
Beg
s G
over
nmen
t fo
r H
elp.
" S
epte
mbe
r 28
, 19
89.
St.
Loui
s P
ost
-Dis
pa
tch
, p.
IDA
. A
cce
ssib
le
by
Le
xij-
Ne
xis
Aca
de
mic
U
nive
rse
- D
ocu
ment.
C
lary
, M
ike
. A
ugus
t 29
, 19
92.
"Fed
eral
D
isas
ter
Rel
ief
Buo
ys B
atte
red
Flo
rida;
H
urr
icane:
Loca
l O
ffic
ials
' A
nim
osi
ty
Fade
s as
T
roop
s an
d S
uppl
ies
Arr
ive.
The
Tal
l o
f H
onele
ss R
ises
to
251
3,00
0."
Los
Ang
eles
T
imes
, P
art
A,
p.
1,
Colu
mn 2
, N
atio
nal
Des
k. A
cces
sibl
e by
Lex
is-
Nex
is A
cade
mic
Uni
vers
e -
Doc
umen
t. F
eder
al
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent
Age
ncy
[FE
MA
]. 1
99
4.
Rei
nven
ting
Dis
aste
r R
espo
nse
1994
: No
rth
rdg
e E
arth
quak
e - T
he F
irst F
ive
Wee
ks.
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.: U
.S
Gov
ernm
ent P
rintin
g O
ffic
e.
. Ap
ril
1994.
Ren
ewal
of
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent:
The
FE
MA
O
ne-Y
ear
Rep
ort,
Ap
ril
7993-A
pril
1994. W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.:
FE
MA
. . J
anua
ry 2
4, 1
997.
"M
idw
est
Flo
ods
19
93
(W
eb
sire
)." V
irtu
al
Libr
ary
and E
lect
roni
c R
eadi
ng R
oom
. Acc
essi
ble
on
th
e W
orl
d W
ide
W
eb a
t ht
tp://
ww
w.fe
ma.
gov/
I ibr
ary/
mw
.htm
. . S
epte
mbe
r 30
, 1997. S
trate
gic
Pla
n FY
19
98 th
roug
h FY
2007
wit
h O
pe
ratio
na
l O
bje
ctiv
es
thro
ugh F
Y 20
03:
Pa
rtn
ers
hip
fo
r a
Saf
er
Futu
re
(We
b
s~te
). (h
ttp:
//w
ww
.fem
a.go
\~/li
brar
y/sp
lan.
pdf)
. W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.:
FEM
A.
. Ju
ly 1
998.
Pro
ject
Im
pact
: B
uild
ing
a
D
isas
ter
Res
ista
nt
Com
munity
. Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.: FE
MA
. . A
pri
l 19
99.
Fed
eral
Em
erge
ncy
Res
pons
e P
lan.
Was
hing
ton,
D
.C.:
F
EM
A.
Ac
ce
ss
ible
o
n
the
W
orl
d
Wid
e
We
b
at
http
://w
ww
.fem
a.go
v/r-
I-r/fe
dl
.t-tm
. . J
uly
7,
1999. "
Dec
lara
:ions
and T
urnd
owns
(D
eta
l)."
DA
RlS
R
un. W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.:
FE
MA
.
I T
rans
form
ing
the
Fede
ral E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy
77
I
. D
ecem
ber
23,
1999
. "F
EM
A
Org
aniz
atio
n."
Was
hing
ton,
D
.C.:
F
EM
A.
Ac
ce
ss
ible
o
n
the
V
Lo
rld
W
ide
W
eb
a
t http
://w
ww
.fern
a.g
ov/
about/f
em
aorg
.htm
. F
eder
al E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy,
Off
ice
of
the
lnsp
ecto
r G
ener
al,
Au
dit D
ivis
ion
. Ja
nuar
y 1993.
FEM
A's
Dis
aste
r M
anag
emen
t P
rogr
am:
A P
erfo
rman
ce A
udit
afte
r H
urr
icane A
ndre
w (
H-0
1-9
3).
Was
hing
ton,
D
.C.:
FE
MA
-IG
. . J
uly
199
5. A
udit
of
FEM
Af
Dis
ast
e R
elie
f F
und
(H-1
6-9
5).
W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.
FE
MA
-IC
. F
eder
al E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy,
Off
ice
oh
he
lnsp
ecto
r G
ener
al,
lnsp
ect
icn
s D
ivis
ion.
Marc
h
19
99
. R
evie
w o
f G
over
nor's
Dis
aste
r R
eque
sts.
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.: F
EM
A-IG
. K
ettl,
D
on
ald
F.
Sep
tem
ber
1 998.
Rei
nven
ting
Gov
ernm
ent:
A F
ifth-
Yea
r R
epor
t C
ard
(CP
M 9
8-1
). W
ashi
ngto
n,
D.C
.: B
roo
kin
g
Inst
itutio
n.
Acc
essi
ble
on
th
e W
orl
d
Wid
e
Web
at
ht
tp://
ww
w.b
rook
.edu
/gs/
cp
m/g
over
nmen
t.pdf
. Li
ppm
an,
Tho
mas
W.
Aug
ust
28,
1992.
Wo
un
de
d A
genc
y H
opes
to H
eal
Itsel
f b
y H
elp
ing
Hurr
icane V
ictim
s."
Wash
hgto
n P
ost,
1 st
Sec
tion,
p.
A
21,
The
F
eder
al
Pag
e.
Acc
essi
ble
by
Lexi
s-N
exis
Aca
dem
ic
Uni
vers
e -
Do
cum
ent.
Lo
tt
Ne
al.
Sep
tem
ber
1993
. "T
he
Sunm
er
of
1993:
Flo
odin
g i
n t
he
Mid
we
st a
nd
Dro
ught i
n th
e S
outh
east
(TR
93-
04).
" W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.:
Na
tion
al O
cean
ogra
phic
and
Atm
osph
eric
Adm
inis
trat
ion.
Acc
essi
ble
on
th
e
Wo
rld
W
ide
Web
at
th
e N
atio
nal
Virtu
al
Dat
a S
yste
m
http
://nn
dc.n
oaa.
gov/
?http
://ol
s.nn
dc.n
oaa.
gov:
7777
/plo
lsto
re/p
lsql
/ ol
stor
e.pr
odsp
ecifi
c?pr
odnu
m=
C00
487-
PU
B-0
00
. Ly
nn,
Jam
es T
. Ju
ne
5,
1976.
"Handlin
g
of
Dam
ages
for
Tet
on
Dam
."
Me
mo
ran
du
m fo
rth
e P
resi
dent
. Dom
estic
Counci
l. F.
Lynn
May
. Box
9.
Fol
der:
FD
AA
Tet
on D
am
Dis
aste
r lu
ne
5,
1976
(1).
Ger
ald
R. F
ord
Pre
side
ntia
l Lib
rary
. M
cAlli
ster
, B
II. O
cto
ber 6
, 19
89. "
FE
MA
Off
icia
lsA
dm
it R
espo
nse
to H
ug
o
Was
Slo
w."
Was
hing
ton
Pos
t, 1s
t S
ectio
n, p
. A29
, Th
e F
eder
al P
age.
A
cces
sibl
e b
y Le
xis-
Nex
is A
cade
mic
Uni
vers
e.
. Ju
ly 3
1, 1
992.
"A
ppro
pria
tions
Rep
0.t
Cal
ls F
EM
A 'a
Polit
ical
Du
mp
ing
Gro
und.
'" W
ashi
ngto
n P
ost,
1 st
sect
ion,
p. A
2 1,
The
Fed
eral
P
age.
Acc
essi
ble
by L
exis
-Nex
is A
cade
mic
Uni
vers
e.
Mcln
tyre
, Ja
me
s T.
Ma
y 2
5,
19
78
. 'R
eo
rga
niz
atio
n
of
Em
erg
ency
P
rep
are
dn
ess
an
d
Resp
onse
Pro
gra
ms.
" M
em
ora
nd
um
fo
r th
e
Pre
side
nt. S
taff
Offi
ces.
Off
ice
of
the
Sta
ff S
ecre
tary
. H
an
dw
ritin
g F
ile.
Box
89.
Fol
dcv
0/?
/78. J
imm
y C
arte
r P
resi
dent
ial L
ibra
ry.
73
R. S
teve
n D
anie
ls a
nd C
arol
yn L
. C
lark
-Dan
iels
McL
ough
lin,
Da
vid
. 1
98
5.
"A
Fra
mew
ork
for
Inte
grat
ed
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent."
P
ublic
Adm
inis
trat
ion
Rev
iew
45
(J
anua
ry,
Spe
cial
Is
sue)
: 165
-1 7
2.
hlil
eti,
Den
nis
S.
19
99
. D
isas
ters
by
Des
ign:
A R
eass
essm
ent
of N
atu
ral
Haz
ards
in
the U
nite
d S
tate
s. W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.:
Jose
ph H
en
ry P
ress
. N
atio
nal
Aca
dem
y o
f P
ublic
Adm
inis
trat
ion.
C
op
ing
wit
h C
atas
trop
he:
Build
ing a
n E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Sys
tem
to
Mee
t P
eopl
e's
Nee
ds in
N
atu
ral a
nd M
anm
ade D
isas
ters
. Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.: N
AP
A.
Nat
iona
l Arc
hive
s a
nd
Rec
ords
Adm
inis
trat
ion
[NA
RA
I. D
ecem
ber 2
, 1
99
9.
Guid
e to
Fed
eral
Rec
ords
in t
he N
atio
nal A
rchi
ves
oit
he
Un
ited
Sta
tes.
R
ecor
ds o
f th
e F
eder
al E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy
lFE
MA
l (W
eb
S
ite).
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.: N
AR
A.
Axe
ssib
le o
n th
e M
'orld
Wid
e W
eb
at
http
://w
ww
.nar
a.go
v/gu
ide/
rg3
1 1 .
htm
. N
ati
on
al
Pa
rtn
ers
hip
fo
r R
ein
ve
rtin
g
Go
vern
me
nt
[NP
R].
1
99
6.
Was
hing
ton,
D
.C.:
NP
R.
Acc
essi
ble
on
th
e W
orl
d
Wid
e W
eb
at
ht
tp:/
/ww
w.n
pr.g
ov/c
gi-b
in/p
rint
~hi
t~bo
ld.p
l/lib
rary
/npr
rpt/
annr
pt/v
p-
rpt9
6/ap
pend
ix/fe
ma.
htm
l?fe
dera
ltem
erge
ncy+
man
agem
ent+
agen
cy.
Osb
orne
, D
avid
, a
nd
Ted
Gae
bler
. 19
92.
Rei
nven
ting
Gov
ernm
ent:
Ho
w
the
Ent
repr
eneu
rial S
pir
l Is
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e P
ub
lic S
ecto
r. R
eadi
ng,
MA
: Add
ison
-Wes
ley.
F
resi
dent
's C
ou
nci
l o
n S
usta
inab
le D
evel
opm
ent
(PC
SD
). F
ebru
ary
19
96
. S
usta
inab
le A
merica
: A
Ne
w C
onse
nsus
for
P
rosp
erity
O
pp
ort
un
ity
and
a H
ealth
y E
nviro
nmen
t fo
r tn
e F
utur
e. W
ashi
ngto
n,
D.C
.: P
CS
D.
Acc
essi
ble
on
th
e W
orl
d W
ide
Web
at
http
://w
ww
2.w
hite
hous
e.go
v/
PC
SD
/Pub
licat
ions
/Pro
gres
s_R
epor
t.htm
l. . J
anua
ry 1
997.
Build
ing o
n C
onse
nsus
: A P
rogr
ess
Rep
ort
on
S
usta
inab
le A
merica
. W
ashi
ngto
n,
D.C
.: P
CS
D.
~c
ce
ss
ible
on
th
e
Wo
rld
W
ide
W
eb
a
t h
ttp
://w
ww
2.w
hit
eh
ou
se.g
ov/
PC
SD
/ P
ublic
atio
ns/T
F~
Rep
orts
iam
er-t
op htm
. .
Ma
y 1
99
9.
Tow
ards
a
Sus
tain
able
Am
erica
: A
dvan
cing
P
rosp
erity
, O
pport
unity
, and
a
Hea
lthy
Env
ironm
ent
for
the
27
st
Cen
tury
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.: P
CS
D. A
cces
sibl
e o
n th
e W
orl
d W
ide
We
b
at h
ttp://
ww
w2.
whi
teho
use.
gov/
PC
SD
/ P
ublic
atio
ns/ts
a.pd
f. R
yan,
R
icha
rd A
. "P
oliti
cs o
f D
isas
ter
Rel
ief:
Ref
orm
ed A
genc
y Im
prov
es
Ass
ista
nce
as
It R
eaps
Ben
efits
oi
'Buy
ing
Vot
es.'"
Th
e D
etr
oit
New
s,
July
13,
19
97,
Ou
tloo
k, p
. B
5. A
cces
sibl
e b
y Le
xrs-
Nex
is A
cade
mic
U
nive
rse.
kh
ne
ide
r, S
aund
ra K
. 19
95.
Flir
ting w
ith D
isas
ter:
Pu
bk
Man
agem
ent in
C
risis
Situ
atio
ns. A
rmon
k,
NY
: M
. E. S
harp
e.
. 19
98
. "R
einv
entin
g P
ublic
Adm
inis
trat
ion:
A C
ase
Stu
dy o
f the
F
eder
al
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent
Age
ncy.
" P
ub
lic
Aririiir
iistr
atio
n
Qua
rter
ly 2
2 (S
prin
g): 3
6-57
.
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Man
agen
ent A
genc
y 79
Ski
nner
, S
amue
l K
. N
ovem
ber
16,
1989
. "N
orth
ern
Ca
lifo
rnia
Ear
thqu
ake
Re
cove
ry U
pd
ate
."
Me
mo
ran
du
m f
or
the
Pre
sid
en
t. T
hru
: T
he
H
on
ora
ble
Jo
hn
H.
Sun
unu,
C
hie
f o
f S
taff.
WH
OR
M,
D10
02,
9987
64%
. G
eorg
e B
ush
Pre
side
ntia
l Lib
rary
. S
ylve
s, R
icha
rd T
. 19
96. "
Red
esig
ning
and
Adm
inis
leri
ng F
eder
al E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t." C
hapt
er 1
in R
icha
rdT
. Syl
ves
and
Will
iam
L. W
augh
, jr.,
ed
s.,
Dis
aste
r M
anag
emen
t in
th
e U
S.
and
Can
ada:
The
P
oliti
cs,
Pol
icym
akin
g, A
dmin
istr
atio
n and A
mly
sis
of
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent
lpp.
5-2
51. S
prin
gfie
ld,
IL:
Cha
rles
C. T
hom
as,
Pub
lishe
r, Lt
d.
Un
i:e
d
Sta
tes
Ge
ne
ral
Ac
co
un
tin
g
Off
ice
. A
uly
19
93
. D
isa
ste
r M
an
ag
em
en
t:
Imp
rovi
ng
the
Nat
ron'
s R
espo
nse
to
Cata
stro
phic
D
isas
ters
(GA
O/R
CE
D-9
3-18
6).
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.: U
SG
AO
. U
nite
d S
tate
s H
ou
se a
f R
epre
sent
ativ
es. C
omm
ittee
on
Pub
lic W
orks
an
d
Tra
nspo
rkiti
on.
Sub
com
mitt
ee o
n I
nves
tigat
ions
and
Ove
rsig
ht.
19
94
. F
eder
al R
espo
nse
:o M
idw
est
Flo
odin
g (H
.Doc
. 10
3-42
). 1
03
rd C
ong.
, 1 s
t S
ess.
Oct
ob
er
28,
1993
. Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.: U
.S.G
.P.O
. W
ines
, M
ich
ae
l. S
epte
mbe
r 29
, 19
89.
"Con
gres
s V
otes
Sha
rp I
ncre
ase
in
Sto
rm R
elie
f."
The
New
Yor
k T
imes
, Sec
tion
A, p
. 1,
Col
. 5,
N
atio
na
l D
esk.
Acc
essi
ble
by L
exis
-Nex
is A
cade
mic
Uni
vers
e.
30
R.
Ste
ven
Dan
iels
and
Car
olyn
L.
Cla
rk-D
anid
s
App
endi
x I:
An
Inte
rvie
w w
ith
Jam
es L
ee W
itt,
Dir
ecto
r,
Fede
ral
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y
lThe
in
terv
iew
b
elo
w
is
exce
rpte
d fr
om
M
ay/J
une
1998
is
sue
of
The
Sus
ines
s o
f G
over
nmen
t, publis
hed
by
The
P
rice
wa
terh
ou
seC
oo
pe
n
End
owm
ent f
or T
he B
usin
ess
of G
over
nmen
t.)
In y
our
role
as
chie
f ex
ecut
ive
off
icer
of
the
Fede
ral E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy
(FE
MA
), ho
w d
o y
ou d
efin
e yo
ur j
ob?
I found t
hat
the jo
b c
ame
wit
h a
lot o
f re
spon
sibi
lity,
an
d I h
ave
take
n th
e jo
b v
ery
serio
usly
. Sho
rtly
afte
r as
sum
ing
off
ice
, I u
nd
ert
oo
k tw
o m
ajor
~
niti
ativ
es.
Firs
t, I
work
ed w
ithin
the
age
ncy
to s
treng
then
it.
I ,
wan
ted
to
invo
lve
empl
oyee
s in
the
futu
re o
f the a
genc
y. S
econ
d, I re
focu
sed
the
org
a-
niza
tion
on t
he c
usto
mer
by
pla
cin
g e
mph
asis
on
tho
se w
e w
ere
serv
ing
exte
rnal
ly.
As a
new
age
ncy
head
, it
was
my
job
to
desc
ribe
whe
re F
EM
A n
eede
d to
go.
Afte
r desc
ribin
g w
here
we w
ante
d to
go,
it w
as m
y jo
b t
o in
volv
e th
e en
tire
org
aniz
atio
n.
I wan
ted
empl
oyee
input
into
ho
w w
e co
uld
bes
t mee
t ou
r go
als
beca
use
I st
rong
ly b
elie
ve i
n i
nvo
lvin
g o
ur p
eopl
e. I
me
t w
ith
FEM
A's
seni
or m
anag
ers
during a
thr
ee-d
ay r
etre
at i
n w
hic
h I
des
crib
ed
whe
re I
thought t
he a
genc
y w
as h
eadi
ng.
Can
you
tel
l us
mo
re a
bout
you
r ef
fort
s to
in
volv
e yo
ur e
mpl
oyee
s!
I m
ade
a s
peci
al e
ffort
to
vis
it w
ith e
mpl
oyee
s,
both
at
head
quar
ters
an
d in
the
regi
ons.
I a
m c
onst
antly
ask
ing
them
wh
at
they
th
ink
we
sho
uld
be
doi
ng.
I als
o deve
loped a
n op
en-d
oor
po
licy:
An
y em
ploy
ee c
an m
ake
an a
ppoin
tment t
o s
ee m
e on
Tue
sday
s to
dis
cuss
any
mat
ter.
For
thos
e in
th
e re
gion
s, t
hey
can c
all
and
mak
e te
leph
one
appo
intm
ents
to
spe
ak w
ith
me
on T
uesd
ays.
The
ope
n-do
or p
olic
y ha
s be
en v
ery
effe
ctiv
e. I a
lso
star
ted
lunc
h se
ssio
ns w
ith
em
ploy
ees
from
all
over
the
org
an
iza
tion
. I
have
work
ed c
lose
ly w
ith m
embe
rs o
f th
e S
enio
r E
xecu
tive
Ser
vice
(S
ES)
in F
EM
A.
When
I ca
me
in,
I to
ld t
hem
tha
t I
thou
ght
the
agen
cy
need
ed n
ew id
eas
and n
ew fa
ces.
I th
ough
t tha
t the
y c
o~
ld
all
bene
fit fr
om
a ro
tatio
n s
yste
m f
or
SES
mem
bers
. A
ll but
two o
f th
e SE
S m
on
itwrs
wer
e
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Ma
na
gm
en
t Age
ncy
8 1
enth
usia
stic
ab
ou
t as
sum
ing
a n
ew
job
and
new
cha
lleng
es. T
he t
wo
wh
o
wer
e re
luct
ait
turn
ed
out t
o be
hap
py w
ith t
heir n
ew a
ssig
nmen
ts,
and
they
ar
e n
ow
two o
f m
y m
ost e
ffect
ive
seni
or m
anag
ers.
Ho
w d
o y
ou s
pend
you
r ti
me
exte
rnal
ly?
I sp
end
a l
ot
of
time
with
Con
gres
s. S
ince
Pre
side
nt C
linto
n e
leva
ted
the
po
sitio
n o
f F
EM
A d
irect
or t
o c
abin
et s
tatu
s, I
've
spen
t m
ore
time w
ith
ot
her
cab
ine
t mem
bers
and
on
spe
cial
ass
ignm
ents
tfrom
the
White
Hou
se.
For
inst
ance
, F
EM
A w
as p
lace
d i
n c
harg
e of
the
Chu
rch
Ars
on P
rogr
am.
Bei
ng in
the
ca
bin
et
has
also
allo
wed m
e to
sha
re m
y ex
perie
nces
at
FE
MA
w
it1
oth
er
cab
ine
t de
partm
ents
. FE
MA
is
resp
onsi
ble
for
coord
inatin
g 2
7
fede
ral a
genc
ies.
Thi
s ta
kes
time.
Wh
at is
the
best
pre
par
atio
n fo
r th
e po
sitio
n of
dir
ecto
r o
f FE
MA
?
The
re i
s n
o s
hort
cut fo
r ex
perie
nce
in e
mer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t. A
s a
loca
l ele
cted
off
icia
l in
Ark
ansa
s, I
had
the
opporr
unity
to w
ork
with
FE
MA
at
ih
e l
oca
l le
vel.
As
stat
e direct
or
of
;he
Ark
arsa
s O
ffic
e o
f E
mer
genc
y S
ewic
es,
I sa
w h
ow
FE
MA
pro
gram
s co
uld
be
run m
ore
effic
iently
and
effe
ctiv
ely.
In
the
futu
re, I t
hin
k it is
like
ly th
at C
ongr
ess
,will
require th
at a
ll FE
MA
di
rect
ors
have
som
e ex
perie
nce
in e
mer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t. I
thin
k st
ate
and
loca
l exp
erie
nce
pro
vide
s an
ess
entia
l bac
kgro
und
for
this
job.
Ho
w d
id y
ou g
o ab
out
sele
ctin
g yo
ur t
eam
at
FEM
A?
Wh
en
Pre
side
nt C
linto
n a
ppoin
ted m
e, I
ask
ed h
im fo
r th
e opport
unity
to
in
terv
iew
all
the
po
litic
al a
ppoi
ntee
s w
ho m
ight
ser
ve w
ith
me
in F
EM
A.
The
pres
iden
t agr
eed,
and
it
has
mad
e e
huge
diff
eren
ce. I
was
abl
e to
pu
t to
geth
er a
tap
-no
tch
tea
m.
It h
as w
orke
d out
very
well.
A
no
the
r fa
cto
r th
at h
as m
ade
a b
ig d
iffer
ence
is t
he "
cras
h" t
rain
ing
pr
ogra
m th
at w
e p
rovi
de to
all
new
polit
ical a
ppo n
tees
. The
train
ing c
ours
e di
scus
ses
all
issu
es,
prog
ram
s, a
nd p
robl
ems
they
wil
l be
dea
ling
with
. It
ha
s m
ade
a d
iffer
ence
. We
try
to tr
ain
them
during th
e tim
e p
eriod p
rior
to
thei
r co
nfir
ma
tion
. W
e ha
ve
also
fo
und
that
ou
r effort
in
pre
paring
appo
inte
es fo
r th
eir c
onfir
matio
n h
earin
gs is
a tr
emen
dous
lear
ning
exp
eri-
ence
by
itsc
f.
82
R. S
teve
n D
anie
ls a
nd C
arol
yn L
. Cla
rk-D
anie
ls
FEM
A h
as d
ram
atic
ally
impr
oved
its
imag
e an
d pe
rfor
man
ce
unde
r yo
ur l
eade
rshi
p. H
ow
did
you
do
it?
As I
mentio
ned b
efor
e, a
majo
r pa
rt o
f th
e tr
ansf
orm
atio
n w
as g
ettin
g all
empl
oyee
s in
volv
ed.
We
work
ed h
ard
at c
rea
ting
a m
ore
cus
tom
er-
focu
sed
agen
cy. A
majo
r in
itiativ
e w
as t
o p
rovi
de
cu
sto
ne
r se
rvic
e tr
ain
ing
to
all
FEM
A e
mpl
oyee
s, i
ncl
ud
ing
sen
ior
man
agem
ert.
Thi
s w
as
a h
uge
unde
rtak
ing.
O
ur
goal
was
to m
ake
FEM
A a
bet
ter
agen
cy,
a b
ette
r p
lace
to
wor
k,
and
an a
genc
y th
at
prov
ided
bet
ter
serv
ice
to i
ts c
usto
mer
s. W
e w
ere
ver
y pl
ease
d th
at
our
late
st c
usto
mer
sur
vey
found t
ha
t ov
er 8
5 pe
rcen
t o
f ou
r cl
ient
s ap
prov
ed o
f ou
r pr
ogra
ms.
A
noth
er a
spec
t of
m
anag
ing
chan
ge
is c
onst
ant
com
mu
nic
atio
n to
em
ploy
ees.
You
hav
e to
kee
p em
ploy
ees
info
rmed
. I h
abe
a d
irect
or's
rep
ort
that
goe
s out
wee
kly.
I h
ave
rece
ived
a v
ery
po
sitiv
e r
espo
nse
to i
t. T
he
repo
rt,
two
to
thr
ee p
ages
in
len
gth,
de
scrib
es w
hat
is g
oin
g o
n i
n t
he
agen
cy a
nd h
ow
we
are
doin
g i
n m
eetin
g our
goal
s fo
r th
e ag
ency
. A
t th
e sa
me
time t
hat
we w
ere
in
volv
ing
em
ploy
ees,
we
we
re a
lso
impro
ving th
e op
erat
ions
oi t
he a
genc
y. W
e de
crea
sed
the
num
ber
of
our
finan
cial
acc
ount
s fr
om 4
5 to
14
. W? s
imply
ha
d to
o m
any
acco
unts
. We
have
als
o m
oved
to
qua
rter
ly s
pend
ing
plan
s, w
hic
h w
as a
ma
jor
chan
ge
from
the
past
whe
n w
e ne
ver q
uite
kne
w h
ow
mu
ch m
oney
we
had
rem
ain-
in
g. I
am
now
ho
ldin
g o
ur s
enio
r m
anag
ers
resp
onsi
ble
for
the
ir s
pend
ing.
In
add
ition
, I'm
wo
rkin
g c
lase
ly w
ith
our
chie
f fin
an
cia
l offic
er
in o
vers
ee
in
g th
e ag
ency
's f
inanci
al
man
agem
ent s
yste
ms.
A
ll of our
chan
ges
at F
EM
A w
ere
base
d on m
y tr
uslin
g m
y m
anag
ers.
I tru
sted
my
people
to
mak
e th
e a
genc
y w
ork
. I
gave
the
m a
uth
ority
to
do
thei
r jo
bs a
nd I re
sist
ed th
e te
mpt
atio
n to
mic
ro-m
anag
e.
We
also
foun
d tha
t we
could
impr
ove
the d
eliv
ery
cf o
ur
serv
ices
. Afte
r th
e N
ort
hridge e
arth
quak
e, w
e fo
und o
urse
lves
faci
ng
long
lin
es
of
pe
op
le
waiti
ng to
apply
for
loan
s. B
ased
on
that
exp
erie
nce,
we
reva
mpe
d o
ur
80
0-
tele
phon
e sy
stem
. W
e al
so w
ork
ed w
ith o
ther
age
ncie
s, s
uch
as t
he
Sm
all
Bus
ines
s A
dm
inis
tratio
n,
in im
pro
ving th
e lo
an p
roce
ss. W
e ha
ve d
ram
ati-
za
lly s
peed
ed u
p th
e p
roce
ss a
nd m
ade
it m
ore
use
r fr
iend
ly. W
e a
lso
gave
ou
r fie
ld i
nves
tigat
ors
the
late
st t
echn
olog
y to
do
th
eir jo
bs.
They
no
w a
ll 7a
ve P
alm
Pilo
t com
pute
rs to
take
thei
r cl
aim
s th
at c
an th
en b
e d
ow
nlo
ad
ed
an
d tr
ansm
itted
. The
sys
tem
use
d to
be
pape
r ba
sed,
with
th
e f
orm
s be
ing
sent
via
Fed
eral
Exp
ress
. All
thes
e ef
forts
hav
e re
du
ced
the
cost
oi a
n a
pp
li-
catio
n fr
om
$1 00
to $
46. T
hs
has
resu
lted
in $
35 m
illio
n i
n s
avin
gs,
as w
ell
as i
mpro
ved c
usto
mer
ser
vice
. A
noth
er m
ajo
r in
nova
tion
was
our
initi
ativ
e t
o c
lose
ou
t ;I
S m
'iny
pre
- vi
ous
disa
ster
s as
we c
ould
. I f
ound th
at w
e w
ere
still
wor
kin)
: o
n t
I~rr
ric.,i
ne
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Man
igem
ent
Age
ncy
83
Hug
o. W
e c
reat
ed s
peci
al c
lose
out t
ask
forc
es a
cros
s th
e natio
n. T
his
was
a
huge
pro
ble
m i
n th
at w
e w
ere
still
hold
ing m
oney
for
thos
e di
sast
ers.
As
a re
sult
of
this
in
itia
tive,
we
have
found $
485 m
illio
n tha
t ca
n now
be
tran
s-
ferr
ed t
o o
ur e
mer
genc
y di
sast
er a
ccou
nt. W
e a
ntic
ipat
e th
at w
e w
ill
fin
d
ober
$8
00
mill
ion
afte
r w
e cl
ose
out
man
y of
our
open a
ccou
nts.
I f
ou
nd
th
3t w
e h
ad o
ver
476
open
dis
aste
rs th
at n
eede
d to
be
clos
ed o
ut.
We
hav
e al
so w
orke
d ha
rd to
cut c
ut a
s m
uch
red
tape
as
poss
ible
and
mak
e th
e a
genc
y m
ore
resp
onsi
ve to
its
cust
omer
s. W
e ar
e now
opera
ting
in a
mu
ch m
ore
bus
ines
s-lik
e en
viro
nmen
t; w
e a
re s
ervi
ng c
usto
mer
s and
taki
ng
re
spo
nsi
bili
tyfo
r how
our
bus
ines
s is
run. a
Mrh
at ha
ve y
ou
lear
ned
abo
ut
publ
ic p
riva
te-s
ecto
r pa
rtne
rshi
ps
from
you
r ex
peri
ence
at
FEM
A?
Ou
r ne
wes
t pro
ject
is P
roje
ct Im
pact
. It i
s b
ae
d o
n c
reat
ing
mor
e p
ub
- lic
-priva
te p
art
ne
rsh
ps.
We
have
fou
nd t
hat
while
we c
an't
prev
ent d
isas
- te
,s,
we
can
do
a m
uch
bette
r job a
t pre
vent
ion.
Inve
stin
g in
pre
ventio
n c
an
imp
rove
the
eco
no
mic
impact
of d
isas
ters
, w
hic
h n
ow
cau
se s
o m
uch
pai
n,
angu
ish,
and
suf
ferin
g by
dis
aste
r vi
ctim
s.
We
hav
e se
lect
ed s
even
pilo
t co
mm
uniti
es lo
r P
roje
ct Im
pact
. In
thes
e co
mm
uniti
es,
busi
ness
CE
Os
and
elec
ted
loca
l offi
cial
s, a
s w
ell
as
FEM
A
staf
f, ar
e w
ork
ing
tog
ethe
r to
und
erta
ke p
reve
nlio
n in
itiativ
es.
Our
goal
is
to b
uild
dis
aste
r-re
sist
ant c
om
muniti
es.
We
have
lea
rned
from
our
exp
eri-
ence
s, s
uch
as t
he
199
3 D
es M
oin
es
flood
s. W
hile
we c
ould
re
bu
ild t
he
wat
er t
reat
men
t fa
cilit
y in
Iow
a a
t a c
ost
of
abou
t $
14
mill
ion,
the
loca
l e
con
om
y lo
st o
ver
$300 m
illio
n.
We n
ow
nee
d to
tak
e m
ore
pre
ventiv
e
mea
sure
s in
adv
ance
of
disa
ster
s. A
noth
er e
xam
ple
is S
eattl
e, w
hic
h h
as a
n im
po
rta
nt p
roje
ct t
o r
etr
ofit
hom
es to
mak
e th
en
mor
e di
sast
er-r
esis
tant
.
Are
you
en
joyi
ng
you
r se
cond
ter
m?
You
now
hav
e th
e lo
nges
t te
nure
of
any
FEM
A d
irec
tor.
Wha
t ar
e th
e ad
vant
ages
of
a se
cond
ter
m?
Afte
r th
e 1
99
6 e
lect
~o
n, I
tho
ught
lo
ng
and
har
d ab
out
retu
rnin
g t
o
Ark
ansa
s. B
ut I
talk
ed to
the
Pre
side
nt a
bout
th
s a
nd h
e as
ked
me
to s
tay
and
finis
h t
he jo
b.
I am
now
lo
oki
ng
forw
ard
to w
ork
ing
with
Con
gres
s in
a
sip
artis
an in
itia
tive
to g
et F
EM
A r
eady
for
the
21st
cen
tury
. We
have
mad
e m
uch
prog
ress
,in
d n
ow h
ave
the
opport
unity
to r
eally
put
FEM
A o
n s
olid
fo
otin
g fo
r th
c- h
rlt~
rcb.
1'111
,11w
cm
joyi
ng o
ur
new
initi
ativ
es,
such
as
Pro
ject
Im
pdct
, w
hic
h I
II~I
IIL I
,111 r
c*.ll
ly m
ake
a d
iffer
ence
.
84
R. S
teve
n D
anie
ls a
nd C
arol
yn L
. Cla
rk-D
anie
ls
App
endi
x 11
: H
isto
ry o
f Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent
Legi
slat
ive
His
tory
The
form
al h
isto
ry o
f fed
eral
dis
aste
r man
agem
ent p
clic
y da
tes
fro
m th
e
Fass
age
of
the
Dis
aste
r R
elie
f Act
of
1950
. P
rior
to 1
950,
fed
eral
res
pons
e to
nat
ural
an
d m
an-m
ade
disa
ster
was
lar
gely
ad
hoc.
Bet
wee
n 18
03 a
nd
19
50,
the
U.S
. C
ongr
ess
enac
ted
12
8 s
epar
ate
law
s to
dea
l wit
h i
~d
ivid
ua
l di
sast
ers
(Syl
ves
1996
). A
fter
19
50
the
fede
ral g
over
nmen
t co
mm
itte
d i
tsel
f to
sup
plem
entin
g st
ate
and
loca
l dis
aste
r re
lief o
n a
mor
e sy
stem
atic
bas
is.
P,t
the
time,
n
o o
ne
rea
lized
th
e p
rece
dent
-set
ting
natu
re o
f th
e p
olic
y ch
ange
. T
he D
isas
ter R
elie
f Act
of
19
50
fort
he
firs
t tim
e p
rovi
ded
a ge
nera
l, fe
d-
eral
-leve
l fr
amew
ork
for
the
pro
visi
or
of e
mer
genc
y re
lief.
The
in
itia
l la
w
prov
ided
on
ly "
pu
blic
ass
ista
nce"
to
res
tore
pu
blic
faci
litie
s a
nd
bu
ildin
gs
to p
re-d
isas
ter
stan
dard
s. O
nce
th
e p
rece
dent
of
fede
ral
inte
rve
ntio
n h
ad
been
est
ablis
hed,
how
ever
, co
nsid
erab
le p
ress
ure
deve
lope
d in
the
syst
em
to e
xpan
d th
e fe
dera
l ro
le (
Sch
neid
er 1
995)
. T
he D
isas
ter
Rel
ief A
ct o
f 1
97
0 in
tro
du
ced
tem
pora
ry h
ousi
ng,
lega
l se
rvic
es,
un
em
plo
yme
nt
insu
ranc
e, a
nd o
the
r in
div
idu
al
assi
stan
ce p
ro-
gram
s.
The
D
isas
ter
Rel
ief
Act
o
f 1
97
4
intr
od
uce
d
the
d
isti
nct
ion
be
twee
n e
me
rge
ncy
and
ma
jor
disa
ster
ass
ista
nce
an
d th
e In
div
idu
al a
nd
F
amily
Gra
nt
pro
gra
m.
Wh
at
is m
ost
imp
ort
an
t, t
he
1974 a
ct b
roa
de
ne
d
fede
ral
emer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t p
olic
y fr
om
th
e
reac
tive
po
licie
s o
f re
spon
se a
nd r
eco
very
to
the
mo
re p
roa
ctiv
e p
olic
ies
of
mit
iga
tio
n a
nd
pr
epar
edne
ss. T
he a
ct a
lso
intr
od
uce
d t
he
co
nce
pt
of
"mu
lti-
ha
zard
" o
r in
tegr
ated
em
erge
ncy
man
zgem
ent:
Na
tion
al,
stat
e, 2
nd l
oca
l p
olic
ies
sio
uld
un
ifo
rmly
ha
nd
le a
ll ty
pes
of
haza
rds
rath
er
than
de
al
wit
h e
ach
disa
ster
as
a u
niq
ue
eve
nt.
Dis
cont
ent
wit
h th
e co
ntin
uin
g a
mbi
guiti
es o
f fe
dera
l di
sast
er p
olic
ies
prom
pted
th
e pa
ssag
e o
f th
e R
ober
t T.
Sta
fford
D
isas
ter
Rel
ief
an
d
Em
erge
ncy
Ass
ista
nce
Act
of
19
88
. Th
e ac
t cl
ari
fied
em
erge
ncy
decl
ara-
tio
ns,
delin
eate
d th
e r
elie
f re
spon
sibi
litie
s of
pu
blic
ins
titut
ions
, re
itera
ted
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f m
itig
atio
n a
nd
pre
pare
dnes
s fu
nctio
ns,
an
d o
utli
ne
d t
he
in
terg
over
nmen
tal
proc
ess
for
relie
f. N
o m
ajo
r le
gisl
ativ
e ch
ange
s ha
ve
occu
rred
sin
ce 1
98
8.
The
net e
ffect
of t
hese
lega
l cha
nges
has
bee
n a
grad
ual i
ncre
ase
in th
e fe
dera
l rol
e in
dis
aste
r ass
ista
nce.
Und
er th
e D
isas
ter
Rel
ief A
ct o
f 10
50,
the
fede
ral
gove
rnm
ent
was
pri
mar
ily r
espo
nsib
le f
or t
he r
csto
r,~
tion
111 ~
)ul)
lic
Tra
nsfa
rmin
g th
e Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y 85
faci
litie
s. W
ith
the
pas
sage
of t
he S
taffo
rd A
ct,
fede
ral a
id e
xpan
ded
to in
clu
de
va
rious
kin
ds o
f in
divi
dual
, no
npro
fit,
2nd
priv
ate
assi
stan
ce.
On
e lo
ng-t
erm
co
nseq
uenz
e (a
s in
dica
ted
in F
igur
e 3.
1) h
as b
een
an u
neve
n b
ut
stea
dy
incr
ease
in
the
num
ber o
f fed
eral
dis
aste
r re
ques
ts a
nd d
ecla
ratio
ns (F
eder
al
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y IF
EM
AI,
July
7,1
999)
.
Org
aniz
atio
nal
and
Adm
inis
trat
ive
Cha
nge
in F
eder
al
Dis
aste
r M
anag
emen
t \
The
gra
du
al
ex3a
nsio
n o
f th
e f
eder
al r
ole
in
dis
aste
r as
sist
ance
was
a
cco
mp
an
ied
by
cons
ider
able
org
an
iza
tion
al
inst
abili
ty. T
he f
un
ctio
ns
of
fede
ral
disa
ster
man
agem
ent
ha
d n
o l
ong-
term
org
an
iza
tion
al
ho
me
for
m
uch
of
:he
1950
s,
1960
5,
an
d
1'37
0s.
Man
y o
f th
e o
rga
niz
atio
na
l ch
ange
s th
at o
ccu
rre
d d
uri
ng
this
pe
rio
d re
flec:
ed t
he u
neas
y co
exis
tenc
e o'
th
e d
isas
ter
assi
stan
ce,
na
tio
na
l pre
pare
dnes
s, a
nd
civ
il d
efen
se f
un
c-
tions
. T
he r
eq
uir
em
en
t th
at t
he
sta
tuto
ry d
isas
ter
agen
cy c
oo
rdin
ate
the
a
ctiv
itie
s of
26
fede
ral
agen
cies
(in
clu
din
g it
self)
and
the
Am
eri
can
Red
G
oss
fu
rth
er
com
plic
ate
d t
he
org
an
iza
tion
al
am
big
uity
of
emer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t. E
xclu
din
g n
ame
chan
ges,
fiv
e d
iffer
ent
agen
cies
coo
rdin
ated
dis
aste
r as
sist
ance
be
twe
en
19
50
and
1
97
9:
the
Hou
sing
and
H
om
e F
inan
ce
Ad
min
istr
atio
n (
HH
FA
), t
he
Off
ice
of
Def
ense
Mo
bili
zati
on
(O
DM
), t
he
Off
ice
of C
ivil
an
d D
efen
se M
ob
iliza
tio
n (O
CD
M),
the
Off
ice
of
Em
erge
ncy
P-e
pare
dnes
s (O
EP
], an
d th
e F
eder
al D
isas
ter
Ass
ista
nce
Adm
inis
trat
ion
([F
DA
A]
Na
tio
na
l A
rchi
ves
an
d
Re
cxd
s A
dmin
istr
atio
n [N
AR
A]
1999
, M
cLo
ug
hlin
19
85
, S
chne
ider
19
95
). A
t va
rious
tim
es,
thes
e ag
enci
es w
ere
oflg
aniz
ed a
s in
depe
nden
t ag
enci
es,
depa
rtm
ents
wit
hin
th
e E
xecu
tive
Off
ice
of
the
Pre
side
nt,
an
d s
ub-c
abin
et a
genc
ies.
Whe
reas
FD
AA
and
H
HF
A e
xerc
ised
onl
y th
e di
sast
er a
ssis
tanc
e fu
nctio
ns,
OD
M a
nd O
EP
per
- fo
rmed
bo:
h di
sast
er a
nd p
repa
redn
ess
assi
gnm
ents
, an
d O
CD
M e
xecu
ted
all t
hree
pri
ma
ry fu
nctio
ns.
Dis
aste
r ass
ista
nce
was
als
o se
rious
ly u
nder
jtaff
ed a
nd u
nder
fund
ed fo
r m
uch
of
its h
isto
ry.
On
e s
enio
r FE
MA
off
icia
w
ho
wor
ked
unde
r O
EP,
FDA
A,
and
FE
MA
not
ed t
hat
du
rin
g H
urri
cane
Ca
mill
e i
n 1
969,
on
ly 1
5 p
sop
le s
taffe
d th
e O
EP
res
pons
e ef
fort
. D
isas
ter
relie
f tr
ad
itio
na
lly w
as
fund
ed w
ith
em
erge
ncy,
off
-bud
get a
ppro
pria
tions
. In
som
e ca
ses,
the
fun
d-
ing
occ
urr
ed
co
mpl
etel
y in
depe
nden
tly o
f ex
istin
g or
gani
zatio
nal
an
d
finan
cial
st
ruct
ures
. F
ollo
win
g t
he
Ala
skan
Ear
thqu
ake
in 1
964,
the
U.S
. C
ongr
ess
was
for
ced
to s
et u
p a
sep
arat
e go
vern
men
t co
mm
issi
on t
o o
ver-
se
e th
e r
ctr)
vt1
ry c
hrt
. The
For
d ad
min
istr
atio
n fo
und
itsel
f con
fron
ted
wit
h
a si
mila
r nt-t t
-wly
JII(*
I th(3
(o
llap
se Of
the
Tet
on D
am
in 1
975.
86
R.
Ste
ven
Dan
iels
and
Car
olyn
L.
Cla
rk-D
anie
ls
The
Ear
ly Y
ears
of
FEM
A
By
1978
, th
e pr
esid
ent,
Con
gres
s,
and
stat
e an
d lo
cal
offic
ials
al
l ex
pres
sed
conc
ern
over
the
sta
te o
f di
sast
er r
elie
f. T
he s
ub-c
abin
et s
tatu
s of
th
e ke
y op
erat
iona
l age
ncie
s fo
r di
sast
er a
ssis
tanc
e, p
repa
redn
ess,
and
civ
il de
fens
e (F
DA
A,
the
Fed
eral
Pre
pare
dnes
s A
genc
y [F
PA
', a
nd
the
Def
ense
C
ivil
Pre
pare
dnes
s A
genc
y [D
CP
A] r
espe
ctiv
ely)
mad
e it
dif
ficu
lt fo
r th
em
to
dire
ct th
e ac
tiviti
es o
f ot
her
high
er-le
vel a
genc
ies.
The
sep
arat
ion
of d
isas
ter
assi
stan
ce,
prep
ared
ness
, an
d ci
vil
defe
nse
func
tions
und
er t
he
Dis
aste
r R
elie
f Act
of
19
74
div
ide
d r
espo
nsib
il ty
and
gen
erat
ed c
on
flict
ove
r ap
pro-
pr
iatio
ns. T
his
divi
sion
lim
ited
the
disa
ster
sys
tem
's a
bilit
y to
pro
du
ce in
te-
grat
ed e
mer
genc
y m
anag
emen
t sys
tem
s. T
he tr
eatm
ent o
f eac
h di
sast
er a
s a
r is
olat
ed e
vent
mad
e th
e en
tire
disa
ster
ass
ista
nce
syst
em s
ensi
tive
to p
olit
i-
cal
ma
nip
ula
tion
. To
re
spon
d to
th
ese
shor
tcom
ings
, th
e
Pre
side
nt's
R
eorg
aniz
atio
n P
roje
ct r
ecom
men
ded
that
Pre
side
nt C
afle
r co
mb
ine
FD
AA
, FP
A,
and
DC
PA
in
to a
sin
gle,
in
depe
nden
t di
sast
er a
ssis
tanc
e ag
ency
, an
ac
tion
he a
ppro
ved
relu
ctan
tly (
Mcl
ntvr
e, M
ay
25,
19
78
6).
FEM
A,
crea
ted
by R
eorg
aniz
atio
n =I
an N
o. 3
and
impl
emen
ted
by
Exe
c-
utiv
e O
rder
s 1
21
27
and
121
48,
had
oper
atio
nal d
iffic
ultie
s fr
om
the
star
t. Th
e FP
A,
DC
PA
, an
d F
DA
A c
ompo
nent
s re
mai
ned
phys
ical
ly s
epar
ated
for
nea
r-
ly tw
o y
ears
. The
tw
o m
ain
dire
ctor
ates
Nat
iona
l Pre
pare
dnes
s (c
reat
ed fr
om
FPA)
and
Sta
te a
nd L
ocal
Pro
gram
s an
d S
uppo
rt (c
reat
ed frm
m F
DA
A),
had
dif-
f?
rent
org
aniz
atio
nal
cultu
res
that
le
d lo
"st
ovep
ipin
g" o
r ver
tical
int
egra
tion
2nd
hori
zont
al
sepa
ratio
n. V
ery
little
co
mm
un
ica
tion
or
supp
ort
pass
ed
betw
een
the
two
dire
ctor
ates
. Thi
s te
nden
cy w
as e
xace
rbat
ed b
y th
e cu
lture
of
sec
recy
in
Nat
iona
l P
repa
redn
ess
and
by
the
Rea
gan
and
Geo
rge
H.
W.
Bus
h ad
min
istr
atio
n's
focu
s on
nat
iona
l pre
pare
dnes
s ov
er d
isas
ter a
ssis
tanc
e.
Des
pite
thes
e pr
oble
ms,
age
ncy
resp
onse
did
no
t ge
nera
te p
ub
lic c
ritic
ism
be
caus
e n
o t
ruly
cat
astr
ophi
c di
sast
er;
occu
rred
bet
wee
n 1
98
1 a
nd 1
988.
Th
e st
rong
est
hurr
ican
e w
as G
lori
a (C
zteg
ory
3) i
n 1
985.
The
mos
t po
we
rfu
l ea
rthq
uake
was
the
Coa
linga
qua
ke i
n 1
983.
Alth
ough
bot
h ca
used
ext
ensi
ve
dam
age,
nei
ther
pro
duce
d th
e le
vel o
f cat
astr
ophi
c da
mag
e th
at w
ou
ld o
ccur
~
nd
er th
e G
eorg
e H
. W.
Bus
h ad
min
isira
tion.
1 T
rans
form
ing
the
Fede
ral E
mw
genc
y M
arag
emen
t Age
ncy
App
endi
x I I
I: M
etho
dolo
gy
Res
earc
h Q
uest
ions
In
this
stu
dy,
the
rese
arch
ers
inve
stig
ated
the
evo
lutio
n o
f th
e di
sast
er
assi
stan
ce p
rogr
ams
of F
EM
A f
rom
th?
Ge
org
e H
. W
. B
ush
adm
inis
tratio
n to
th
e C
linto
n a
dmin
istr
atio
ns.
Pub
lic p
erc
ep
tims
of a
genc
y pe
rfor
man
ce
imp
rove
d b
etw
ee
n th
e tw
o a
dmin
istr
atio
ns (
Sdn
Jeid
er,
1995
). W
e i
nves
ti-
gate
d th
e t
ollo
win
g b
road
res
earc
h qu
estio
ns:
Do
the
im
pro
ved
pe
rce
pti
on
s re
flect
rea
l im
pro
vem
en
ts i
n a
genc
y p
erf
orm
an
ce?
If
rea
l, d
o th
e im
prov
emen
ts a
ppea
r to
be
sio
rt te
rm o
r lo
ng
term
?
I D
o t
he
impr
ovem
ents
re
flect
tec
hnol
ogic
al
brea
kthr
ough
s, c
hang
es
in le
ader
ship
, m
anag
eria
l im
prov
emen
ts, o
r so
me
com
bin
at~
on
of th
ese
fact
ors?
To
ans
wer
the
first
que
stio
n, t
he a
utho
rs e
xam
ined
pre
viou
s ev
alua
tions
cf
age
ncy
perf
orm
ance
by
the
Nat
iona
l A
cade
my
of P
ublic
Adm
inis
trat
ion
(NA
PA
), th
e U
.S.
Gen
eral
Acc
ount
ing
Off
ice
(U
SC
AO
), a
nd t
he
FEM
A
Insp
ecto
r G
ener
al's
(F
EM
A-I
G)
offic
e. W
e al
so m
aly
zed
the
age
ncy'
s 19
97
stra
tegi
c p
an
(FE
MA
, S
ept.
30,
1997
). T
he s
econ
d qu
estio
n re
quire
d an
inve
s-
tlgat
ion
o-
the
ch;
nge
in t
he
agen
q's
orga
niza
tiona
l cu
lture
. T
he t
hir
d
rese
arch
que
stio
n re
qulre
d th
e Id
entif
icat
ion
of th
e so
urce
s of
the
tran
sfor
ma-
tlo
n, w
hic
h c
an
ser
ve a
s a
mo
de
l for
enh
anci
ng th
e bu
sine
ss o
f go
vern
men
t.
Stu
dy M
eth
od
s G
ive
n th
e s
ix-m
onth
pe
rio
d o
f th
e gr
ant,
the
rese
arch
ers
used
the
cas
e st
udy
appr
oach
to
fo
cus
the
inve
s:ig
atio
n.
The
rese
arch
ers
com
pare
d FE
MA
's re
adin
ess
and
resp
onse
to
thr
ee c
atas
rrop
hic
disa
ster
s d
uri
ng
th
e
Geo
rge
H.
W.
Bus
h ad
min
istr
atio
n (H
urr
ica
ne
Hug
o,
the
Lom
a P
rieta
E
arth
quak
e [b
oth
in 1
9891
, an
d H
urri
cane
And
rew
in
199
2) to
the
agen
cy's
rz
actio
n to
tw
o c
atas
trop
hic
disa
ster
s d
uri
ng
the
Clin
ton
adm
inis
trat
ion
(the
G
reat
Mid
we
ste
rn F
lood
s o
f 1
99
3 a
nc t
he N
orth
ridg
e E
arth
quak
e in
19
94
).
Thi
s re
sear
ch a
llow
ed
a c
ompa
riso
n o
f di
sast
er r
espo
nses
for
wh
ich
the
ag
ency
rec
eive
d co
nsid
erab
le c
ritic
ism
to
one
s th
at g
ener
ated
ver
y po
sitiv
e p
ub
lic r
elat
ions
. T
he t
hree
Geo
rge
H. W
. B
ush
adm
inis
trat
ion
disa
ster
s w
ere
eval
uate
d f-
om
dis
aste
r re
cord
s in
the
Wh
ite
Hou
se C
entr
al F
iles
of
the
Bus
h Li
brar
y i~
Col
lege
S
tatio
n, T
exas
, an
d pu
blis
hed
dccu
men
ts.
The
tw
o
Clin
ton
ad
min
istr
atio
n cl
i\.~
itc*r
s wer
e as
sess
ed fr
om
FE
MA
rec
ords
, doc
umen
ts,
and
Inte
rnet
m,ll
vri,~
l, ,~
ritl
irito
rvic
xws
wi:h
F
EM
A s
taff
in W
ashi
ngto
n,
D.C
.,
88
R. S
teve
n D
anie
ls a
nd C
arol
yn L
. C
lark
-Dan
iels
espe
cial
ly t
he M
itigatio
n,
Pre
pare
dnes
s, a
nd t
he
Res
pons
e a
nd
Rec
over
y D
irect
orat
es.
The
pri
nci
pa
l iss
ues
rela
te to
diff
eren
ces
in m
anag
emen
t sty
le,
tech
no
- lo
gic
al
deve
lopm
ents
, an
d pe
rfor
man
ce
enha
ncem
ents
th
at
occ
urr
ed
be
twee
n th
e ad
min
istr
atio
ns. T
his
info
rmatio
n w
ill
allo
w t
he
id
en
tific
atio
n
of b
est p
ract
ices
that
dis
tingu
ish
the
curr
ent
FEM
A e
ffo
rl a
nd
wil
l als
o p
ro-
~id
e
advi
ce to
futu
re p
resi
dentia
l adm
inis
trat
ions
on
the
bro
ad
er q
uest
ions
of
po
licy
imple
menta
tion.
List
of
Inte
rvie
ws
(posi
tions
held
in 2
000)
Rob
Ale
xand
er,
Sen
ior
Leg~
slat
ive A
s:is
tant
, U
.S.
Sen
ator
Bar
bara
B
oxer
(D
) -
Cal
iforn
ia.
Mik
e A
rmst
rong
, A
ssoc
iate
Dire
ctor
, M
itiga
tion
Dire
ctor
ate,
Fe
dera
l E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy.
K
ris B
alde
rsto
n, D
eput
y A
ssis
tant
to
the
Pre
side
nt,
Dep
uty
Cab
inet
Sec
reta
ry,
Clin
ton
adm
inis
trat
ion.
K
eith
Bea
, S
peci
alis
t in
Am
eric
an
Na
tim
al
Gov
ernm
ent,
Con
gres
sion
al R
esea
rch
Ser
vice
. Ja
ne B
ullo
ck, C
hief
of
Sta
ff, F
eder
al E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy.
B
ryan
Gid
ding
s, L
egis
lativ
e A
ssis
tant
, U
.S. S
enat
or B
ob G
raha
m (
D)
- Fl
orid
a.
Mo
rrie
Goo
dman
, D
irect
or,
Off
ice
of
Pub
lic A
ffairs
, O
ffice
o
f th
e S
ecre
tary
, D
epar
tmen
t of
Com
mer
ce.
Kay
G
oss,
A
ssoc
iate
D
irect
or,
Pre
paed
ness
an
d T
rain
ing
Dire
ctor
ate,
Fe
dera
l E
nerg
ency
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y.
Geo
rge
Had
dow
, Dep
uty
Chi
ef o
f S
taff,
Fed
eral
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y.
Ann
H
ears
t, D
irect
or o
f S
peci
al P
roje
cts,
U.S
. S
enat
or D
iann
e F
einr
tein
(D
) -
Cal
iforn
ia.
Ber
ke
Ku
lik,
Ass
ocia
te
Dir
ecto
r of
D
isas
ter
Ass
ista
nce,
S
mal
l B
usin
ess
Adm
inis
tratio
n.
Fran
McC
arth
y, A
ctin
g D
eput
y D
irect
cr,
Off
ice
of
Con
gres
sion
al a
nd
Leg
isla
tive
Affa
irs,
Fede
ral E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
icy.
B
ill M
edig
ovic
h, D
irect
or,
Off
ice
of E
mer
genc
y Tr
ansp
orta
tion,
U.S
. D
epar
tmen
t of
Tran
spor
tatio
n.
Geo
rge
Op
fer,
Ins
pect
or G
ener
al,
Fede
ral E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t Age
ncy.
M
arcu
s P
eaco
ck, S
enio
r P
rofe
ssio
nal S
taff
Mem
ber,
Sub
com
mitt
ee o
n O
vers
ight
, Ir
vest
igat
ions
, an
d E
mer
genc
y M
anag
emen
t, C
omm
ittee
o
n T
rans
port
atio
n an
d Irf
rast
ruct
ure,
U.S
. H
ouse
of
Rep
rese
ntat
ives
. La
cy
Sui
ter,
Ass
ocia
te
Dire
ctor
, R
espo
nse
and
Rec
over
y D
irect
orat
e,
Fede
ral
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y.
Jam
es Le
e W
itt,
Dire
ctor
, Fe
dera
l Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y.
Tran
sfor
min
g the
Fed
eral
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y 89
List
of A
bbre
viat
ions
AR
C
DA
C
DC
PA
FDA
A
FEM
A
FE
MA
-IC
FPA
HH
FA
N AP
A
NA
RA
NP
R
OC
DM
OD
M
OE
P
PC
SD
US
GA
O
'
WH
OR
M
Ala
skan
Reco
nst
uct
ion C
omm
issi
on
Dis
aste
r Ass
ista
nce
Cen
ter
Def
ense
Civ
il P
epar
edne
ss A
genc
y
Fed
eral
~is
ast
er~
ssis
tan
ceh
dm
inis
tra
tio
n
Fed
eral
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y
Fed
eral
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent A
genc
y,
lnsp
ecto
r G
ener
al's
Offic
e
Fed
eral
Pre
pare
dnes
s A
genc
y
Housi
ng a
nd H
ome
Fin
ance
Age
ncy
Natio
nal A
cade
my
of
Pub
lic A
dm
inis
tratio
n
Natio
nal A
rchi
ves
and R
ecor
ds A
dm
inis
tratio
n
Natio
nal
Per
form
ance
Rev
iew
Off
ice
of
Civ
il a
id D
efen
se M
ob
iliza
tion
Off
ice
of
Def
ense
Mo
bili
zatio
n
Off
ice
of
Em
erge
ncy
Pla
nnin
g (P
repa
redn
ess)
Pre
side
nt's
Counci
l on
Sus
tain
able
Dev
elop
men
t
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Gen
eral
Acz
ountin
g O
ff ic
e
Wh
ite H
ouse
Oifi
ce o
f R
ecor
ds M
anag
emen
t
