African music, which is nearly always coupled with some other art form, expresses the feelings and life of the entire community. The sound of feet pounding the ground becomes the rhythm of the music whose notes are in turn transformed into dance steps.

-Francis Bebey (African Musician and Scholar)

African Music and the African Diaspora

What is the African Diaspora? It is the forced and brutal dislocation of millions of Africans into foreign lands during the African Slave Trade; it is the global community of Africans and their descendants living outside the African continent that make up what is known today as the African Diaspora.

Before you begin this part, please take a picture tour from Zimbabwe in the South to Morocco in the North to get a sense of the African continent.

Additionally, see a slide movie in preparation for reading this information on African music. Music is from the CD Album, Chaminuka , Music of Zimbabwe by Dumisani Maraire, and photographs are from African Music, A People's Art, by African Musicain and Scholar, Francis Bebey.

African Music is best understood by rejecting the notion that it is "primitive" music. This "ear opening" allows a person to discover African Music on its own terms without applying Western standards and values where, in many cases, those standards and values are inappropriate. For a page of Africa-Related Music, Dance, and Cultural Resources on the Web produced by Richard Hodges and C. K. Ladzekpo, click here.

Broadly speaking, there are both similarities and differences between Western music and African music and it is in this domain of diversity that African music is best discovered. The elements of African music (rhythm , melody , harmony , musical instruments , meter , and timbre , et al.) are, broadly speaking, those of Western music. However, the unique features of each element of African music contains the essence of what makes African music unique in the World.

Although it has been the writer's experience that the West responds very positively to African music and art, it is equally true that Westerners are frequently bewildered by the subject since the objectives of the two cultures, in many cases, differ. If the definition of music is read from a dictionary in the West, the concept of music reflecting an "aesthetic of beauty" or a "sense of the beautiful" is apparent. For example, the 1969 edition of The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines music as "1. The art of organizing tones to produce a coherent sequence of sounds intended to elicit an aesthetic response in a listener. . . 6. Any aesthetically pleasing or harmonious sound or combination of sounds. . ." Second, the objective of African music is not to make sounds which are pleasing to the ear but rather to "express life in all of its aspects through the medium of sound." If an understanding of African music is to be developed, it is this point of departure that should be taken.

Comparing African and Western education, the French ethnomusicologist Herbert Pepper, having spent eleven years with the forest-dwellers of the Congo and Gabon, wrote: "I had the impression that I learnt more about my art in the African school than in the Western school. The latter certainly taught me to appreciate the quality of the finished article, but it sometimes seemed so far removed from the everyday world that I began to wonder if it bore any relationship to it. The African school, on the other hand, has taught me that what matters is not the quality of the music itself, but its ability to render emotions and desires as naturally as possible."

The following lullaby, which might have been rendered in Pepper's "African School" demonstrates the African attitude toward music - it renders natural sounds as a part of the music and provides the listener with an African attitude toward the real world by first, providing comfort to a crying child and second, teaching a lesson as to why the child should not cry:

Ye ye ya ye - Do not cry Think of our friends who are childless Hush, do not cry Think of those who have no children Think of my married brother Who has no children yet And then look at me I have a mother too But I don't cry Think of our friends who are childless Think of my brother Who married a Bacanda girl What an idea, to marry a Bacanda And they are still without children Don't cry, my darling Think of your unhappy father

Music and Children's Games

African music is an integral part of daily life. Unlike music in the West, African music is a functional part of a child's natural development. In the West, a child might express an interest in music from an early age and promptly be enrolled in private music lessons or in one or more musical activities such as choir, band, or orchestra if the child has reached a mature enough age to take part. An African child experiences music as an integral part of life from the very moment of birth. Since there is little distinction between art and life in Black African culture, children's play often consists of activities involving music such as taking an empty tin, an old window frame and a piece of animal hide and constructing a 'frame-drum' as a musical toy.

Black African children often construct musical instruments as a part of play; however, the "play" most often has significance and in many cases demonstrates a stage in the development of the child in preparation for a time when the child will participate in all areas of adult activity - from weddings and funerals to fishing and hunting.

A very simple musical instrument which might be constructed by an African child is a bull-roarer. It is made from a rectangular piece of wood or metal approximately one foot in length. A small hole is cut in one end of the rectangle and to it is attached a piece of string. The instrument is then swung in a circle so that the stick revolves vertically and a sound is generated which is like a bull roaring or a panther growling. Indeed, upon an African child sounding this musical instrument, the parents might reply "stop calling the panther like that". The child, therefore, is not only at play "calling the panther" but is learning to take her/his place among the adult population as a hunter. The Dogon of Mali accept the sound of the bull-roarer as symbolic of the "revelation of speech to mankind."

"This curious little instrument (the bull-roarer) provides a great deal of invaluable information about the importance of the symbol in African life. It is also interesting to note that in different contexts and regions the bull-roarer invariably symbolizes power of one kind or another: the power of the males, jealously protected against the panther; the power of the ancestor whose death has been transmitted down from generation to generation; the power of speech whose revelation has given man supremacy over all the other creatures on earth. Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of this ritual is the attitude of the male; when the panther - the real panther - roars, everyone hides, leaving the panther to prowl outside the huts in solitary splendour. When the bull-roarer is heard, on the other hand, the women and children disappear and it is only then that the men who wear the masks begin their nocturnal parade through the village. In other words, the male seizes this opportunity to display the power which, in other circumstances, the panther could dispute. Here we have another symbol."2

The training of musicians in black Africa has not been accomplished (until very recently) in a formal, institutional manner. The African belief that a person will develop according to his/her own ability dominates musical training. Exposure to music and musical situations occurs by children observing and interacting with parents until the child develops and demonstrates or does not demonstrate a capacity for music as a specialty.

Mothers sing to their children in the cradle as they introduce their children to rhythm through rocking them to the beat of music. The mother's songs often imitate drum rhythms by singing using nonsense syllables. At a certain age, children learn by rote to imitate complex rhythms and find their ability level. "By the time a child reaches adolescence, he may have learned to play on toy instruments by imitation, or to play minor instruments in adult ensembles. One sometimes comes across sever-year-old boys playing in drum ensembles or playing rattles for a lute player singing in a chorus, or taking quite a prominent part in a public dance."

African Musical Instruments

A comprehensive survey of the musical instruments of Africa is outside the scope of this section; therefore, a general overview of the vast variety of African instruments, with mention of individual instruments for purposes of illustration, follows.

First, the classification that will be used consists of five groups (after C. Sachs): idiophones - instruments made of naturally sonorous material not needing additional tension to create sound; examples, percussion or concussion instruments; membranophones - instruments creating sound be stretching a membrane over an opening; example, drums; aerophones - instruments usually referred to by the term 'wind instruments' and most often needing the breath of the player to create sound; examples, trumpets and horns; chordophones - instruments creating sound by the action of a stretched string in vibrating motion; example, any string instrument; electrophones - instruments creating sound by the oscillation of electric circuits; example, music synthesizers.

Idiophones

Idiophones are the most abundant instruments to be found anywhere in Africa.

Idiophones (self-sounding instruments) are instruments that may be sounded without the aid of a vibrating string, a stretched, vibrating membrane or a vibrating reed. Idiophones may be played as rhythm instruments or may be used as melodic instruments depending upon the type of idiophone.

Rattles are principally rhythm instruments and are shaken to create sound. Of the many rattles found in Africa, two categories may be observed: (1) those rattles that are played by the hands and (2) those that are worn on the body and shaken by the movements of the player's body.

Those rattles that are played by the hands include the gourd variety which may be either container in nature (objects such as pieces of bone, bamboo shoots or metal placed inside a gourd) or may be surrounded by nets of objects such as sea shells or beads.

Friction idiophones, such as pieces of notched bamboo, are played by scraping another stick across the bamboo. Other idiophones such as bracelets of metal or a notched stick being passed through a dried fruit shell also exist and are used to create rhythmic sound.

Stamped sticks and stamped tubes also form another category of idiophones (in this case concussion idiophones). These sticks and tubes are held in the player's hand and performed by being held at an angle and striking the ground or a slab of stone at an angle. On occasion three tubes are played at the same time each of which is playing a different rhythm. The adenkum (a long gourd with one end cut open to allow for resonance) is a stamped idiophone usually played in the vertical position by hitting the ground.

All of the above idiophones are rhythm instruments and play no melodic function. They may, however, be tuned to a complex of pitches or even to a specific pitch in some cases; for example, the adenkum. However, no attempt is made to use these instruments melodically by creating a graduated scale of pitches.

There are two basic types of tuned idiophones: (1) the mbira or sansa ("hand piano") and the xylophone.

The mbira is made by arranging a graduated series of strips (wood or metal) on a flat sounding board and placed inside a resonating gourd or box. A unique quality is added to the instrument by the addition of rattling pieces of metal or possibly a chain of sea shells or other small articles to create noise. This aesthetic differs considerably from the melodic instruments of the West which are constructed to avoid noise and thereby create pure tones. Mbiras may consist of from one to three manuals and range from five to twenty keys per manual. The Gogo of Tanzania construct mbiras with four to forty-five keys and appear to allow for sympathetic vibration among the keys of the middle row. Listen to Dumisani Mariare sing and play the mbira, accompanied by the hosho, a gourd-rattle.

As with all Black African melodic instruments, the tuning is anything but uniform. African musicians purposely avoid uniformity in the construction of instruments. Whereas in the West, musical instruments are viewed as extensions of the body, African musical instruments are often viewed in much the same manner as another person might be viewed, and; therefore, as no two

people are alike, so too are no two African musical instruments alike - more about this follows in the section on aerophones.

Hugh Tracey's measurements4 indicate that tunings of mbiras fall into three main patterns: (1) pentatonic (five-tone), (2) hexatonic (six-tone) or heptatonic (seven-tone).

There are three main forms of tuned xylophones found in Africa: (1) wooden slabs arranged in a graduated scale are mounted over a resonance box (a pit, a clay pot or an open trough may be used). Iboland in Nigeria and the Zaramo of Tanzania make xylophones of this type; (2) In the Kissi country in Guinea and in the Ivory Coast, xylophones are made by laying keys over two pieces of banana stems; (3) Gourd resonators are used to resonate keys placed above the open gourd and mounted in a wooden frame. These gourd resonating xylophones are found in west, central and east Africa.

The xylophones with curved keyboards from Upper Volta have calabash resonators which amplify the sound of the curved wood blocks. Xylophone recordings which range from solo recordings to large xylophone orchestras exist in many regions of Black Africa. The xylophone is found performing with a variety of other instruments such as the beautiful Bagandu music (Central African Republic) consisting of a xylophone and Sanza duet.

Xylophones may be played by themselves or in combination with other xylophones or with other combinations of instruments. It is common among the Vatapa (Shona) of Zimbabwe to hear large ensembles involving as many as ten to fifteen players performing in large xylophone ensembles consisting of xylophones ranging in size from small (those that are strapped over the back and carried) to large (those that are large enough to have the player stand on a riser to reach).

Membranophones

The highest expression of percussive instruments in African music is in the music for membranophones (drums). Many drums (usually the largest) are carved out of a solid log. Often the head of an animal is carved on the end of this log and viewed by the African as a living being.

As with all other musical instruments in Africa, the specific design of the drum (hourglass drums, log drums, earthenware drums, friction drums, hand drums, et al) is usually suggestive of the region from which the drum originates. "The Ugandan drum, for example, is peculiar to eastern Africa. Outside of Uganda, versions of it are found in Ethiopia, as well as in Kenya and Burundi. Similarly, other varieties of small hand drums are found in different parts of eastern Africa. In Ethiopia, the atamo is held in the hand and played with the fingers or palm of the free hand, or held under the armpit and played with both hands. In Uganda, a version of this drum (called ntimbo) is similarly held under the arm. . . Among the Nyisansu of Tanzania, it is held in one hand and beaten with the free hand or with a leather thong. Likewise, drums that look very much alike are played in the savannah belt of west Africa."5

Many African societies arrange drums in "families". A family of drums (father, mother, son, daughter) from Ghana may consist of four different sizes of drums all of which have been

constructed from similar material. For the casual observer outside of Africa, drums are the most important instruments in Africa; and indeed, Africans feel that drums are the most representative African instruments.

In Africa drums are not only considered musical instruments. In many societies drums "speak" actual languages. "The Yoruba of Dahomey and Nigeria, for example, use a small, two-headed hour-glass drum. The instrument is held under the armpit and is struck with a hammer-shaped stick. Variations in the tension of the skins are obtained by exerting pressure with the forearm on the longitudinal thongs that connect the skins; this gives different sonorities which can reproduce all the tones of speech. This hour-glass drum (Tama to the Wolof, Kalengu to the Hausa) sends actual spoken messages; that is, the musician regulates the pressure with his forearm so as to reproduce notes that correspond to the register of the word that he is transmitting. This method of playing spoken phrases on a drum is particularly appropriate in the case of tonal languages, such as Yoruba or certain Bantu languages. Thanks to the varying pressure of the forearm, it is possible to reproduce all the nuances of the spoken language - including slurred notes and onomatopoeias."

Aerophones

Many African societies utilize a number of instruments falling into the group known as aerophones. In Africa three broad groups of aerophones are recognized: (1) flutes, (2) reed pipes and (3) trumpets and horns.

Although flutes may be made from a husk of cane or the end of an animal horn or gourd, the most common material in use to make flutes is bamboo. They may be open-ended or closed, they may be played in the vertical or horizontal (transverse) positions. Although most African flutes are made with a number of holes (from two to six), some flutes are made with a single hole. A number of these flutes are made so that the technique of melodic playing known as hocket can be employed. Using the hocket technique melodies are formed by each flute sounding single tones in a melodic chain.

Trumpets and horns are made from the horns of many animals which include elephant tusks and are used in various ensembles. Here again, instruments are often arranged in families. Babembe horns are made in human likeness in the Congo. In the case of the Babembe horns, a dorsal opening is cut in the back of each likeness and the player buzzes his/her lips to create a single tone.

Trumpets are played to convey signals and/or specific verbal messages and are heard alone, in duet or in large ensembles. Compositions for large ensemble very often follow the call and response process; therefore, usually beginning with the sound of a single "call" followed by its musical "response." The call and response process is conversational in nature. It uses lively exchanges of different voices and instrumental parts, which interact with each other based upon

the stating of individual rhythms or melodic phrases and the repetition of those rhythms of phrases by an individual or another musical group.

Chordophones

String instruments (chordophones) are numerous and widespread in Africa. No chordophone, however, is more numerous and widespread than the musical bow. The earth bow, the mouth bow and the resonator-bow are the principle types of musical bows; however, P.R. Kirby lists eight unique varieties.

"The West African Kora is a lute-like instrument made from a natural calabash gourd cut in half, partially covered with cow skin and a hardwood post running through it. 21 fishing line strings run along the instruments length and over a bridge resting on the skin and are split into 2 planes, 22 and 25 string regional variations are often found.

A traditional Djele, or griot, Lankandia plays a fast style of Kora music native to Casamance, Senegal.

The building process takes about a month and is hard work, often taking the strength of several men to stretch the skin over the instrument. The player supports the Kora infront of him with the 3rd, 4th and 5th fingers and plucks the strings with the thumb and forefingers of both hands. The technique used is intricate and almost harp-like mixed with flamenco. The tone produced is brilliant and plucky with a range of just over 3.5 octaves."

The earth bow is made simply. A flexible pole is planted in the ground and bent roughly at an angle to the ground. To the end of the pole is attached a string and the other end of the string is then attached to a stone, a piece of bark or a small piece of wood which is then planted in a hole dug in the ground. The hole in the ground acts as a resonator and the magic sound emanates from the recesses of the earth. This instrument, although considered a toy in northern Ghana and Uganda, is often used in ceremonies involving magic.

The mouth bow is an instrument whereby a string is tied to both ends of a flexible pole and the pole is pulled into an arch shape to form a bow with the string. The string is held in the mouth and the string is struck on a spot along its length. The cavity of the mouth is shaped to emphasize various partials which are produced by the string naturally when the string is struck. The mouth cavity is also the cause of a degree of amplification of the original sound of the struck string.

The resonator-bow is a form of the mouth bow to the middle of which a calabash resonator is attached. In Rwanda this instrument is known as Munahi. In other regions of Africa the resonator-bow is known by other names. In Dahomey it is called Tiepore and in Madagascar it is known as Jejolava.

The zither is a chordophone and there are numerous varieties. Among these are the raft or Inanga zither from Burundi, the tubular or Valiha zither from Malagasy and the harp or Mvet zither

from Cameroon. The distinguishing feature of the zither is the horizontal positioning of the strings.

The Inanga zither is shaped like a raft or an elongated bowl. The strings are strung from end to end and held in place by sharp notches cut in the ends of the "raft". The long, continuous strings are parallel and are wide enough apart so the fingers may pluck the strings using a strong stroke which allows for a rather loud sound.

On the island of Madagascar the Valiha is the most common instrument and is often referred to as the national instrument. The instrument is made by arranging stretched strings longitudinally around a large bamboo tube. "This type of Valiha is made by cutting a length of bamboo with a node at each end. A number of incisions are made along the entire length of the soft outer bark of the tube in order to produce a series of very narrow strips. These are carefully detached from the body of the instrument except at the two ends where they are left attached to the nodes. The whole instrument is then left to dry in the sun. When it is ready, the Valiha is tuned by inserting two small bridges under each string. The distance between the bridges can be regulated to produce different notes."

For purposes of categorization, the Mvet zither may also be considered a harp-zither. The strings of the zither are stretched over a raffia-palm stalk and raised above a bridge placed at the center of the stalk. The performer holds the resonating gourd to the body so the body acts as an additional resonator to the gourd. This instrument is used to accompany singing and the telling of legends many of which may last from dusk to dawn the next day. An example of a story that might be accompanied by the Mvet follows.

"Then they came to the Tribe-of-Visions Commanded by Ondo-Minko-M-Obiang r. . .r. . .r. . .r . . (sound of a marching army) And then - just imagine! Ondo-Minko-M-Obiang the crocodile-man Began shouting at the top of his voice: 'The idiots! Where on earth are they going? Look at the way they march! Hey! Stop! (Then, leaping forward): Kilit! Vivm! Hi! (onomatopoeia) He barred the road to the army And challenged Ondo-Zogo: 'What's happening? Where are you going?' And Ondo-Zogo of the Tribe-of-the-Strong-Hands Replied: 'We are going to the land of Engong-Nzok To see Mobege, the brother of Mba, from the village of Fatu-Fe-Meneno.' (Ondo-Minko-M-Obiang): 'Who is your chief?' (Ondo-Zogo): 'Ovang-Obam-O-Ndong Of the Tribe-of-the-Fog.' And do you know what happened next? This crocodile-man Ondo-Minko-M-Obiang Ordered: 'You shall not pass!' And striking his chest with a resounding blow He drew from his mouth a great crocodile stone, Which he threw with all his might In Ondo-Zogo's face, where it broke. Ondo-Zogo of the Tribe-of-the-Strong-Hands Staggered like someone about to fall But, listen carefully, in spite of that he straightened up, Brandished the withered arm he carried as a weapon . . . And struck Ondo-Minko-M-Obiang A violent blow on the mouth: Tos! (onomatopoeia) So hard that all his teeth fell out: Folot - Folot (onomatopoeia) And then - would you believe it? - Ondo-Minko-M-Obiang just stood there With his teeth in his hand Watching the column pass by. Yi,yi,yi.yi (laughter)"

Electrophones

Electrophones, of course, are products of 20th century electrical technology. An electrophone is created by adding electric amplification to any of the other classes of instruments - idiophones, membranophones, aerophones and chordophones. Electric amplification of instruments occurs mainly in urban regions of the continent.

In the Juju music of many urban populations of Black Africa, electrophones-principally guitars-are heard and broadcast over radio and television and recorded using the most sophisticated digital recording technology. It is a genre of African music arising from the synthesis of many aspects of the Black African musical heritage with influences from around the world including America.

Music and Marketing

In Black Africa, as in other societies in the World, music is used as a tool for vendors selling their wares. In Western societies, 'mood' music is used in supermarkets and many other small and large outlets for many types of merchandise as a means to sooth the emotions of shoppers and put them in the frame of mind to buy the wares under scrutiny.

Western advertisers on all broadcast media know the value of using music to accompany spoken dialogue and pictures as a means of capturing the audience's attention and enlisting their 'good feelings' toward the product(s) being advertised.

African salespersons use music to attract a crowd and hold the attention of the crowd while the vendor sings the praises of his wares in this 'vendor's theater' of direct marketing. This 'minimarket' in Black Africa is indicative of the same use to which music is put in American supermarkets.

Music, Magic, and Healing

African Griots Play Music

It is the common perception in the West that a griot is a witch doctor or sorcerer. Although some Griots are known to dabble in witchcraft, the word Griot is used throughout West Africa to mean a professional musician and historian. The Griot seems to be grossly misunderstood in the West. The French novelist, Pierre Loti, in his Roman d'un Spahi has this appraisal of the Griot: "Griots are the most philosophical and the laziest people in the world. They lead a nomadic life and never worry about tomorrow". Francis Bebey, in his book African Music, comments upon the observation: "This rather uncharitable view does at least have the merit of placing the griot in his true perspective in time; he is more concerned with the past than with the future. By the past, we mean not only the history of his people - its kings and ancestors, and the genealogy of its great men - but also, the wisdom of its philosophers, its corporate ethics and generosity of spirit, its thought-provoking riddles, and the ancestral proverbs that serve as a reminder that everything on earth is destined to pass, just as time itself passes."

Music and magic are inextricably linked in Black African society. Mr. Hugo Zemp's account of a story relayed to him by a semiprofessional harp-lute player from the Ivory Coast illustrates this point:

". . .I was working at my loom one day as usual, when suddenly I saw two dwarf-genii, who said to me, 'Get up! Go home and hang yourself.' None of the other weavers could see them. I left the loom and went home. I found a length of rope, attached it to a roof-beam and hanged myself. Some of the villagers had followed me home, so they cut the rope and then went to consult a soothsayer. He told them that in the past some of my relatives had been harp-lute players and unless I continued the tradition I was doomed to die. There had been no harp-lute player in our village since my father's brother died. My relatives found the instrument, which had not been touched since my uncle's death, and sacrificed a chicken. Then I set about learning to play the harp-lute. As soon as it became known that I had been ordered to play the harp-lute the people of all the neighbouring villages in the district began inviting me to play for them and I received many presents. Sometimes I was away travelling for weeks at a stretch. But during the farming season I always stayed at home to work on my plantation."9

This dream or 'supernatural' vision prompted this worker to become one of the most celebrated harp-lute players in his region. There is, in Black African culture, a magical relationship between the musician and her/his music. After all, in English, the words music and magic are very similar in spelling. This similarity may be more than mere coincidence.

The power of music is often put to use in the healing arts of Black African society. It is only recently, within the last 50 years, that Western societies have researched the power music has with respect to its ability to offer therapeutic treatment for a long list of human ailments. At this writing a voluminous body of scientific research has contributed to the creation of an entirely new field of human endeavor unknown in the West 60 years ago. This field of Music Therapy is still viewed by many, even in the West, in much the same way the West views the African Griot. The harp is associated with medicinal value in many parts of Africa and is 'invariably associated with the powers of healing that are granted by spirits. . .Many harp-lute players are also soothsayers or healers.'

Communal Art

African music is a communal art and almost everyone in the community participates in the making of music and dance in one form or another. It is every Black African's birthright to participate in the creation and performance of music dance for the benefit of themselves as well as the entire community and continent.

A Musical Plea for African Unity

Links to African Music on the Web

African Music Glossary of Terms

African Music and Drumming Resources on the Web