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    AestheticsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

    "Aesthetician" redirects here. For a cosmetologist whospecializes in the study of skin care, see Esthetician.

    Not to be confused withascetic.

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    Aesthetics (also spelledsthetics oresthetics) is abranch of philosophy dealing with the nature ofbeauty,art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation

    ofbeauty.[1]

    It is more scientifically defined as the studyofsensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimescalledjudgments ofsentiment andtaste.[2]Morebroadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as"critical reflectionon art,cultureand nature."[3][4]Aesthetics is relatedtoaxiology, a branch ofphilosophy, and is closely

    associated with the philosophy ofart.[5]

    Aestheticsstudies new ways of seeing and of perceiving theworld.[6]

    Contents

    [hide]

    1 Etymology

    2 Aesthetic judgment

    o 2.1 Factors involved in aesthetic judgment

    o 2.2 Are different art forms beautiful, disgusting, or boring in

    the same way?

    3 Aesthetics and the philosophy of art

    o 3.1 What is "art?"

    o 3.2 What should we judge when we judge art?

    o 3.3 What should art be like?

    o 3.4 The value of art

    4 Aesthetic universals

    5 Criticism

    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a.org/wiki/Taste_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beautyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beautyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences#Simplification_of_ae_and_oe
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    6 History of aesthetics

    o 6.1 Ancient aesthetics

    o 6.2 Islamic aesthetics

    o 6.3 Indian aesthetics

    o 6.4 Chinese aesthetics

    o 6.5 African aesthetics

    o 6.6 Western medieval aesthetics

    7 Modern aesthetics

    8 Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis

    9 Aesthetics and information

    10 Applied aesthetics

    11 Aesthetic ethics

    12 Truth as beauty, mathematics, analytic philosophy, and

    physics

    13 Computational inference of aesthetics

    14 See also

    15 References

    16 Further reading

    17 External links

    [edit]EtymologyIt was derived from the Greek(aisthetikos,meaning "esthetic, sensitive, sentient"), which in turn

    was derived from (aisthanomai, meaning "Iperceive, feel, sense").[7] The term "aesthetics" wasappropriated and coined with new meaning intheGermanformsthetik(modern spellingsthetik)byAlexander Baumgarten in 1735.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#History_of_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#History_of_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Ancient_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Ancient_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Islamic_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Islamic_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Indian_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Indian_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Chinese_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Chinese_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#African_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#African_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Western_medieval_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Western_medieval_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Modern_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Modern_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Post-modern_aesthetics_and_psychoanalysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Post-modern_aesthetics_and_psychoanalysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Aesthetics_and_informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Aesthetics_and_informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Applied_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Applied_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Aesthetic_ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Aesthetic_ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Truth_as_beauty.2C_mathematics.2C_analytic_philosophy.2C_and_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Truth_as_beauty.2C_mathematics.2C_analytic_philosophy.2C_and_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Truth_as_beauty.2C_mathematics.2C_analytic_philosophy.2C_and_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Computational_inference_of_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Computational_inference_of_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Baumgartenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Baumgartenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Computational_inference_of_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Truth_as_beauty.2C_mathematics.2C_analytic_philosophy.2C_and_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Truth_as_beauty.2C_mathematics.2C_analytic_philosophy.2C_and_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Aesthetic_ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Applied_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Aesthetics_and_informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Post-modern_aesthetics_and_psychoanalysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Modern_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Western_medieval_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#African_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Chinese_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Indian_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Islamic_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#Ancient_aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#History_of_aesthetics
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    [edit]Aesthetic judgmentJudgments of aesthetic value rely on our ability to

    discriminate at a sensory level. Aesthetics examinesour affective domain response to an object orphenomenon.Immanuel Kant, writing in 1790, observesof a man "If he says that canary wine is agreeable he isquite content if someone else corrects his terms andreminds him to say instead: It is agreeable to me,"because "Everyone has his own (senseof)taste". The

    case of "beauty" is different from mere "agreeableness"because, "If he proclaims something to be beautiful,then he requires the same liking from others; he then

    judges not just for himself but for everyone, and speaksof beauty as if it were a property of things."

    Aesthetic judgments usually go beyond sensorydiscrimination. ForDavid Hume, delicacy of taste is not

    merely "the ability to detect all the ingredients in acomposition", but also our sensitivity "to pains as wellas pleasures, which escape the rest of mankind."(Essays Moral Political and Literary. Indianapolis,Literary Classics 5, 1987.) Thus, the sensorydiscrimination is linked to capacity forpleasure.ForKant"enjoyment" is the result when pleasure arises

    from sensation, butjudging somethingto be "beautiful"has a third requirement: sensation must give rise topleasure by engaging our capacities of reflectivecontemplation. Judgments of beauty are sensory,emotional and intellectual all at once.

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    Viewer interpretations of beauty possess two conceptsof value: aesthetics and taste. Aesthetics is thephilosophical notion of beauty. Taste is a result

    ofeducationand awareness of elite culturalvalues[clarification needed][citation needed]; therefore taste can belearned[citation needed]. Taste varies according toclass,cultural background, and education[citation needed].

    According to Kant, beauty is objective and universal;thus certain things are beautiful to everyone.[citationneeded]The contemporary view of beauty is not based on

    innate qualities, but rather on cultural specifics andindividual interpretations.[citation needed]

    [edit]Factors involved in aestheticjudgmentJudgments of aesthetic value seem often to involvemany other kinds of issues as well. Responses such as

    disgust show that sensory detection is linkedininstinctualways to facial expressions, and evenbehaviors like thegag reflex. Yet disgust can often be alearned or cultural issue too; as Darwin pointed out,seeing a stripe of soup in a man's beard is disgustingeven though neithersoup norbeards are themselvesdisgusting. Aesthetic judgments may be linked to

    emotions or, like emotions, partially embodied in ourphysical reactions. Seeing asublimeview of alandscape may give us a reaction ofawe, which mightmanifest physically as an increased heart rate orwidened eyes. These unconscious reactions may even

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    be partly constitutive of what makes our judgment ajudgment that the landscape is sublime.

    Likewise, aesthetic judgments may be culturally

    conditioned to some extent.Victoriansin Britain oftensawAfrican sculpture as ugly, but just a few decadeslater,Edwardianaudiences saw the same sculptures asbeing beautiful. The Abuse of Beauty, Evaluations ofbeauty may well be linked to desirability, perhaps eventosexualdesirability. Thus, judgments ofaestheticvalue can become linked to judgments

    ofeconomic,political, ormoral value.[8] In a currentcontext, one might judge aLamborghini to be beautifulpartly because it is desirable as a status symbol, or wemight judge it to be repulsive partly because it signifiesfor us over-consumption and offends our political ormoral values.[9]

    "Part and Parcel in Animal and Human Societies". inStudies in animal and human behavior, vol. 2. pp. 115195. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1971 (originallypub. 1950.) Aesthetic judgments can often be very fine-grained and internally contradictory. Likewise aesthetic

    judgments seem often to be at least partly intellectualand interpretative. It is what a thing means orsymbolizes for us that is often what we are judging.Modern aestheticians have assertedthatwillanddesirewere almost dormant in aestheticexperience, yetpreferenceandchoicehave seemedimportant aesthetics to some 20th century thinkers. Thepoint is already made byHume, but see Mary

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_design_valueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_design_valueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_design_valueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamborghinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamborghinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_willhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_willhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_willhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_(emotion)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_(emotion)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Humehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Humehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Humehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Humehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_(emotion)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_willhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamborghinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_design_valueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_design_valueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_Era
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    Mothersill, "Beauty and the Critics Judgment", in TheBlackwell Guide to Aesthetics, 2004. Thus aesthetic

    judgments might be seen to be based on the senses,

    emotions, intellectual opinions, will, desires, culture,preferences, values, subconscious behavior, consciousdecision, training, instinct, sociological institutions, orsome complex combination of these, depending onexactly which theory one employs.

    [edit]Are different art forms beautiful,

    disgusting, or boring in the sameway?A third major topic in the study of aesthetic judgmentsis how they are unified across art forms. We can call aperson, a house, a symphony, a fragrance, andamathematical proofbeautiful. What characteristics dothey share which give them that status? What possiblefeature could a proof and a fragrance both share invirtue of which they both count as beautiful? Whatmakes a painting beautiful is quite different from whatmakes music beautiful, which suggests that each artform has its own language for the judgement ofaesthetics.[10]

    At the same time, there is seemingly quite a lack ofwords to express oneself accurately when making anaesthetic judgment. An aesthetic judgment cannot bean empirical judgement. Therefore, due to impossibilityfor precision, there is confusion about what

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    interpretations can be culturally negotiated. Due toimprecision in the standard English language, twocompletely different feelings experienced by two

    different people can be represented by an identicalverbal expression. Wittgenstein stated this in hislectures on aesthetics and language games.

    A collective identification of beauty, with willingparticipants in a given social spectrum, may be asocially negotiated phenomenon, discussed in a cultureor context. Is there some underlying unity to aesthetic

    judgment and is there some way to articulate thesimilarities of a beautiful house, beautiful proof, andbeautiful sunset?[11] Defining it requires a description ofthe entire phenomenon, as Wittgenstein argued in hislectures on aesthetics. Likewise there has been longdebate on how perception of beauty in the naturalworld, especially perception of the human form as

    beautiful, is supposed to relate to perceiving beautyinartorartefacts. This goes back at least to Kant, withsome echoes even in St. Bonaventure.[citation needed]

    [edit]Aesthetics and the philosophy ofart

    Aesthetics is for the artist asOrnithology is

    for the birds.

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    Barnett Newman[12][13]

    Aesthetics is used by some as a synonym for thephilosophy ofart since Hegel, while others insist on a

    distinction between these closely related fields. Inpractice aesthetic judgement refers to the sensorycontemplation or appreciation of an object (notnecessarily anart object), while artistic judgementrefers to the recognition, appreciation or criticism of artor an art work.

    The philosophical aesthetics has not only to speakabout art and to produce judgments about theartworks, but has also to give adefinitionof what art is.

    Art is anautonomousentity for the philosophy, becauseart deals with thesenses(i. e. the etymology ofaesthetics) and art is as such free ofanymoral orpoliticalpurpose. Hence, there are twodifferent conceptions of art in the aesthetics : artas knowledgeor art as action, but aesthetics isneitherepistemology norethics.[14]

    [edit]What is "art?"How best to define the term art is a subject ofconstant contention; many books and journal articleshave been published arguing over even the basics ofwhat we mean by the term art.[15]Theodor

    Adornoclaimed in 1969 It is self-evident that nothingconcerning art is self-evident.[16][17]Artists,philosophers, anthropologists, psychologists andprogrammers all use the notion of art in their respective

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    fields, and give it operational definitions that varyconsiderably. Furthermore, it is clear that even thebasic meaning of the term "art" has changed several

    times over the centuries, and has continued to evolveduring the 20th century as well.

    The main recent sense of the word art is roughly asan abbreviation forcreative artor fine art. Here wemean that skill is being used to express the artistscreativity, or to engage the audiences aestheticsensibilities, or to draw the audience towards

    consideration of the finer things. Often, if the skill isbeing used in a functional object, people will consider itacraftinstead of art, a suggestion which is highlydisputed by manyContemporary Craftthinkers.Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial orindustrial way it may be considereddesigninstead ofart, or contrariwise these may be defended as art

    forms, perhaps calledapplied art. Some thinkers, forinstance, have argued that the difference between fineart and applied art has more to do with the actualfunction of the object than any clear definitionaldifference.[18] Art usually implies no function other thanto convey or communicate an idea.

    Even as late as 1912 it was normal in the West toassume that all art aims at beauty, and thus thatanything that wasn't trying to be beautiful couldn't countas art. Thecubists,dadaists,Stravinsky, and manylater art movements struggled against this conceptionthat beauty was central to the definition of art, with such

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    success that, according toDanto, "Beauty haddisappeared not only from the advanced art of the1960s but from the advanced philosophy of art of that

    decade as well."[16]

    Perhaps some notion like"expression" (inCroces theories) or "counter-environment" (inMcLuhanstheory) can replace theprevious role of beauty.Brian Massumi brought back"beauty" into consideration together with"expression".[19] Another view, as important to thephilosophy of art as "beauty," is that of the "sublime,"

    elaborated upon in the twentieth century bythepostmodernphilosopherJean-Franois Lyotard. Afurther approach, elaborated byAndr Malrauxinworks such as The Voices of Silence, is that art isfundamentally a response to a metaphysical question('Art', he writes, 'is an 'anti-destiny'). Malraux arguesthat, while art has sometimes been oriented towards

    beauty and the sublime (principally in post-Renaissance European art) these qualities, as thewider history of art demonstrates, are by no meansessential to it.[20]

    Perhaps (as inKennick's theory) no definition of art ispossible anymore. Perhaps art should be thought of asa cluster of related concepts in

    aWittgensteinianfashion (as inWeitz orBeuys).Another approach is to say that art is basically asociological category, that whatever art schools andmuseums and artists define as art is considered artregardless of formal definitions. This "institutional

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dantohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dantohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-Danto2003-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedetto_Crocehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedetto_Crocehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Massumihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Massumihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotardhttp://home.netspeed.com.au/derek.allan/default.htmhttp://home.netspeed.com.au/derek.allan/default.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Kennick&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Kennick&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Weitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Weitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Beuyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Beuyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Beuyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Beuyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Weitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Kennick&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-19http://home.netspeed.com.au/derek.allan/default.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Massumihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedetto_Crocehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-Danto2003-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danto
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    definition of art" (see alsoInstitutional Critique) hasbeen championed byGeorge Dickie. Most people didnot consider the depiction of aBrillo Boxor a store-

    bought urinalto be art untilAndy Warholand MarcelDuchamp(respectively) placed them in the context ofart (i.e., the art gallery), which then provided theassociation of these objects with the associations thatdefine art.

    Proceduralists often suggest that it is the process bywhich a work of art is created or viewed that makes it

    art, not any inherent feature of an object, or how wellreceived it is by the institutions of the art world after itsintroduction to society at large. If a poet writes downseveral lines, intending them as a poem, the veryprocedure by which it is written makes it a poem.Whereas if a journalist writes exactly the same set ofwords, intending them as shorthand notes to help him

    write a longer article later, these would not be apoem.Leo Tolstoy, on the other hand, claims that whatdecides whether or not something is art is how it isexperienced by its audience, not by the intention of itscreator. Functionalists likeMonroe Beardsleyarguethat whether or not a piece counts as art depends onwhat function it plays in a particular context; the same

    Greek vase may play a non-artistic function in onecontext (carrying wine), and an artistic function inanother context (helping us to appreciate the beauty ofthe human figure). '

    See also: Classificatory disputes about art

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    [edit]What should we judge when wejudge art?

    Art can be difficult at the metaphysicalandontologicallevels as well as at the valuetheorylevel. When we see a performance ofHamlet,how many works of art are we experiencing, and whichshould we judge? Perhaps there is only one relevantwork of art, the whole performance, which manydifferent people have contributed to, and which will

    exist briefly and then disappear. Perhaps themanuscript by Shakespeare is a distinct work of artfrom the play by the troupe, which is also distinct fromthe performance of the play by this troupe on this night,and all three can be judged, but are to be judged bydifferent standards.

    Perhaps every person involved should be judged

    separately on his or her own merits, and each costumeor line is its own work of art (with perhaps the directorhaving the job of unifying them all). Similar problemsarise for music, film, dance, and even painting. Is oneto judge the painting itself, the work of the painter, orperhaps the painting in its context of presentation bythe museum workers?

    These problems have been made even more difficult bythe rise ofconceptual artsince the 1960s. Warholsfamous Brillo Boxes are nearly indistinguishable fromactualBrilloboxes at the time. It would be a mistake topraise Warhol for the design of his boxes (which were

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    designed by Steve Harvey), yet the conceptual move ofexhibiting these boxes as art in a museum togetherwith other kinds of paintings is Warhol's. Are we

    judging Warhols concept? His execution of the conceptin the medium? Thecurators insight in letting Warholdisplay the boxes? The overall result? Our experienceor interpretation of the result? Ontologically, how arewe to think of the work of art? Is it a physical object?Several objects? A class of objects? A mental object?

    A fictional object? Anabstract object? An event? Or

    simply an Act?[edit]What should art be like?Many goals have been argued for art, andaestheticians often argue that some goal or another issuperior in some way.Clement Greenberg, forinstance, argued in 1960 that each artistic medium

    should seek that which makes it unique among thepossible mediums and then purify itself of anythingother than expression of its own uniqueness as aform.[21]The DadaistTristan Tzaraon the other handsaw the function of art in 1918 as the destruction of amad social order. We must sweep and clean. Affirmthe cleanliness of the individual after the state of

    madness, aggressive complete madness of a worldabandoned to the hands of bandits.[22]Formal goals,creative goals, self-expression, political goals, spiritualgoals, philosophical goals, and even more perceptual

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Greenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Greenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Greenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan_Tzarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan_Tzarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan_Tzarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan_Tzarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Greenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curator
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    or aesthetic goals have all been popular pictures ofwhat art should be like.

    [edit]The value of artTolstoy defined art, and not incidentally characterizedits value, this way: "Art is a human activity consisting inthis, that one man consciously, by means of certainexternal signs, hands on to others feelings he has livedthrough, and that other people are infected by thesefeelings and also experience them."

    The value of art, then, is one with the value of empathy.Other possible views are these: Art can act as a meansto some special kind of knowledge. Art may give insightinto the human condition. Art relatestoscienceand religion. Art serves as a tool ofeducation, or indoctrination, or enculturation. Art makesus more moral. It uplifts us spiritually. Art is politics by

    other means. Art has the value of allowingcatharsis. Inany case, the value of art may determine the suitabilityof an art form. Do they differ significantly in their values,or (if not) in their ability to achieve the unitary value ofart?

    But to approach the question of the value of artsystematically, one ought to ask: for whom? For theartist? For the audience? For society at large, and/orfor individuals beyond the audience? Is the "value" ofart different in each of these different contexts?

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    Working on the intended value of art tends to helpdefine the relations between art and other acts. Artclearly does have spiritual goals in many contexts, but

    what exactly is the difference between religious art andreligionper se? The truth is complex; art is bothuseless in a functional sense, and also the mostimportant human activity.

    An argument for the value of art, used in the fictionalwork 'The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy', proceedsthat, should some external force presenting imminent

    destruction of Earth, ask the inhabitants, of what use ishumanity, what should humanity's response be? Theargument continues that the only justification humanitycould give for its continued existence would be the pastcreation and continued creation of things like aShakespeare play, a Rembrandt painting or a Bachconcerto. The suggestion is that these are the things of

    value which define humanity.[23]

    [edit]Aesthetic universalsThe philosopherDenis Dutton identified sevenuniversal signatures in human aesthetics:[24]

    1. Expertise or virtuosity. Technical artistic skills are

    cultivated, recognized, and admired.2. Nonutilitarian pleasure. People enjoy art for art's

    sake, and don't demand that it keep them warm orput food on the table.

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    3. Style. Artistic objects and performances satisfyrules of composition that place them in arecognizable style.

    4. Criticism. People make a point of judging,appreciating, and interpreting works of art.5. Imitation. With a few important exceptions like

    abstract painting, works of art simulateexperiences of the world.

    6. Special focus. Art is set aside from ordinary lifeand made a dramatic focus of experience.

    It might be objected, however, that there are rather toomany exceptions to Dutton's categories. For example,the installations of the contemporary artistThomasHirschhorndeliberately eschew technical virtuosity.People can appreciate a Renaissance Madonna foraesthetic reasons, but such objects often had (andsometimes still have) specific devotional functions.

    'Rules of composition' that might be readintoDuchamp'sFountain orJohn Cage's 4'33"do notlocate the works in a recognizable style (or certainly nota style recognizable at the time of the works'realisation). Moreover, some of Dutton's categoriesseem too broad: a physicist might entertainhypothetical worlds in his/her imagination in the course

    of formulating a theory. Another problem is thatDutton's categories seek to universalise traditionalEuropean notions of aesthetics and art forgetting that,asAndr Malrauxand others have pointed out, therehave been large numbers of cultures in which such

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    ideas (including the idea "art" itself) were non-existent.[25]

    Increasingly, academics in both the sciences and the

    humanities are looking to evolutionarypsychologyand cognitive sciencein an effort tounderstand the connection between psychology andaesthetics. Aside fromDutton, others exploring thisrealm include David Bordwell,Brian Boyd,ChristineBuci-Glucksmann,Noel Carroll, Ellen Dissanayake,Nancy Easterlin,Bracha Ettinger, David Evans,

    Jonathan Gottschall, Torben Grodal, PaulHernadi,, Patrick Hogan, Carl Plantinga,RolfReber,Elaine Scarry, Murray Smith, Wendy Steiner,Robert Storey,Frederick Turner, andMark Turner.

    [edit]CriticismThe philosophy of aesthetics has been criticized bysome sociologists and writers about art andsociety. Raymond Williamsargues that there is nounique aesthetic object but a continuum of culturalforms from ordinary speech to experiences that aresignaled as art by a frame, institution or specialevent.Pierre Bourdieualso takes issue with Kant'saesthetics and argues that it represents an experiencethat is the product of an elevated class habitus andscholarly leisure.

    [edit]History of aesthetics

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    It has been suggested that this

    article or section

    be mergedintoHistory of

    aesthetics (pre-20th-century).(Discuss)

    Bronze sculpture, thought to beeitherPoseidon orZeus,National Archaeological Museum ofAthens

    [edit]Ancient aestheticsWe have examples ofpre-historic art, but they are rare,and the context of their production and use is not very

    clear, so we can little more than guess at the aestheticdoctrines that guided their production andinterpretation.

    Ancient artwas largely, but not entirely, based on theseven great ancientcivilizations: Egypt,Mesopotamia,Greece, Rome,Persia,Indiaand China. Each of these centers of early

    civilization developed a unique and characteristic stylein its art. Greece had the most influence on thedevelopment of aesthetics in the West. This period ofGreek art saw a veneration of the human physical formand the development of corresponding skills to show

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    musculature, poise, beauty and anatomically correctproportions. Furthermore, in many Western andEastern cultures alike, traits such as body hair are

    rarely depicted in art that addresses physicalbeauty.[citation needed] More in contrast with this Greek-Western aesthetic taste is the genre ofgrotesque.[26]

    Greek philosophers initially felt that aestheticallyappealing objects were beautiful in and ofthemselves. Platofelt that beautiful objectsincorporated proportion,harmony, and unity among

    their parts. Similarly, in theMetaphysics,Aristotlefoundthat the universal elements of beauty wereorder,symmetry, and definiteness.

    [edit]Islamic aestheticsIslamic art is not, properly speaking, an art pertaining toreligion only. The term "Islamic" refers not only to the

    religion, but to any form of art created in anIslamiccultureor in an Islamic context. It would also be amistake to assume that allMuslims are in agreementon the use of art in religious observance, the properplace of art in society, or the relation between secularart and the demands placed on the secular world toconform to religious precepts. Islamic art frequently

    adopts secular elements and elements that are frownedupon, if not forbidden, by someIslamic theologians.[27]

    According to Islam, human works of art are inherentlyflawed compared to the work of God; thus, it is believedby many that to attempt to depict in a realistic form any

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    animal or person is insolence to God. This tendencyhas had the effect of narrowing the field of artisticpossibility to such forms of art

    asArabesque,mosaic,Islamic calligraphy, andIslamicarchitecture, as well as more generally any form ofabstraction that can claim the status of non-representational art.

    The limited possibilities have been explored by artistsas an outlet to artistic expression, and has beencultivated to become a positive style and tradition,

    emphasizing the decorative function of art, or itsreligious functions via non-representational forms suchas Geometric patterns, floral patterns, andarabesques.

    Human or animal depiction is generally forbiddenaltogether in Islamic cultures because it is said to leadto sculptural pieces which then leads to worship of thatsculpture or "idol". Human portrayals can be found inearly Islamic cultures with varying degrees ofacceptance by religious authorities. Humanrepresentation for the purpose of worship that isuniformly consideredidolatryas forbiddeninSharialaw. There are manydepictions ofMuhammad,Islam's chief prophet, in historical Islamicart.[28][29]

    The calligraphic arts grew out of an effort to devoteoneself to the study of the Quran. By patientlytranscribing each word of the text, the writer was madeto contemplate the meaning of it. As time passed, these

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    judge anything in this universe in the light of these twomeasures, known as 'Adarsha'. A person who hasmastered great amounts of knowledge of the

    grammars, rules, & language of an art-form are adepts(Daksha), where as those who have worked throughthe whole system and journeyed ahead of these tobecome a law unto themself is called a Mahana.Individuals idea of 'Daksha' and 'Mahana' is relative toone's development of the concept of 'Satyam-Shivam-Sundaram.' For example, Tagore's idea of these two

    concepts should be way above any common man's andmany perceive Tagore as a 'Mahana' Artist in the realmof literature. This concept of Satyam-Shivam-Sundaram, a kind of Value Theory is the cornerstone ofIndian Aesthetics.

    Of particular concern to Indian drama and literature arethe term 'Bhava' or the state of mind and rasareferring

    generally to the emotional flavors/essence crafted intothe work by the writer and relished by a 'sensitivespectator' orsahdaya or one with positive taste andmind. Poets like Klidsawere attentive to rasa, whichblossomed into a fully developed aesthetic system.Even in contemporary India the term rasa denoting"flavor" or "essence" is used colloquially to describe the

    aesthetic experiences in films; "msala mix" describespopular Hindi cinema films which serve a so calledbalanced emotional meal for the masses, savored asrasa by these spectators.

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    Rasa theory blossoms beginning withtheSanskrittext Ntyashstra (ntya meaning "drama"and shstra meaning "science of"), a work attributed

    toBharata Muniwhere the Gods declare that drama isthe 'Fifth Veda' because it is suitable for the degenerateage as the best form of religious instruction. While thedate of composition varies wildly among scholars,ranging from the era ofPlatoandAristotle to theseventh century CE. The Ntyashstra presents theaesthetic concepts of rasas and their associated

    bhvas in Chapters Six and Seven respectively, whichappear to be independent of the work as a whole. Eightrasas and associated bhvas are named and theirenjoyment is likened to savoring a meal: rasa is theenjoyment of flavors that arise from the properpreparation of ingredients and the quality ofingredients. What rasa actually is, in a theoretical

    sense, is not discussed and given theNtyashstra'spithy wording it is unlikely the exact understanding ofthe original author(s) will be known.

    The theory of the rasas develops significantly with theKashmiri aesthetician ndandavardhana's classic onpoetics, the Dhvanyloka which introduces the ninthrasa, shnta-rasa as a specifically religious feeling of

    peace (nta) which arises from its bhva, weariness ofthe pleasures of the world. The primary purpose of thistext is to refine the literary concept dhvanior poeticsuggestion, by arguing for the existence ofrasa-dhvani,primarily in forms of Sanskrit including a word,

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    sentence or whole work "suggests" a real-worldemotional state or bhva, but thanks toaestheticdistance, the sensitive spectator relishes the rasa, the

    aesthetic flavor of tragedy, heroism or romance.The 9th - 10th century master of the religious systemknown as "the nondual Shaivism of Kashmir" (or"Kashmir Shaivism") andaesthetician,Abhinavaguptabrought rasa theory to itspinnacle in his separate commentaries on theDhvanyloka, the Dhvanyloka-locana (translated by

    Ingalls, Masson and Patwardhan, 1992) and theAbhinavabharati, his commentary on the Ntyashstra,portions of which are translated by Gnoli and Massonand Patwardhan. Abhinavagupta offers for the first timea technical definition of rasa which is the universal blissof the Self orAtmancolored by the emotional tone of adrama. Shnta-rasa functions as an equal member of

    the set of rasas but is simultaneously distinct being themost clear form of aesthetic bliss. Abhinavagupta likensit to the string of a jeweled necklace; while it may notbe the most appealing for most people, it is the stringthat gives form to the necklace, allowing the jewels ofthe other eight rasas to be relished. Relishing the rasasand particularly shnta-rasa is hinted as being as-good-

    as but never-equal-to the bliss of Self-realizationexperienced by yogis.

    [edit]Chinese aesthetics

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_distancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_distancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_distancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_distancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhinavaguptahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhinavaguptahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%81tyash%C4%81strahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%81tyash%C4%81strahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhinavaguptahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_distancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_distance
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    Chinese arthas a long history of varied styles andemphases. In ancient times philosophers were alreadyarguing about aesthetics. Confuciusemphasized the

    role of the arts and humanities (especially music andpoetry) in broadening human nature and aiding li(etiquette, the rites) in bringing us back to what isessential about humanity. His opponentMozi, however,argued that music and fine arts were classist andwasteful, benefiting the rich but not the commonpeople.

    By the 4th century A.D., artists were debating in writingover the proper goals of art as well.Gu Kaizhi has 3surviving books on this theory of painting, for example,and it's not uncommon to find later artist/scholars whoboth create art and write about the creating of art.Religious and philosophical influence on art wascommon (and diverse) but never universal; it is easy to

    find art that largely ignores philosophy and religion inalmost every Chinese time period.

    [edit]African aesthetics

    This table may containoriginal

    research. Pleaseimprove

    itbyverifyingthe claims made and

    addingreferences. Statementsconsisting only of original research

    may be removed. More details may

    be available on thetalk page.(March2010)

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confuciushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confuciushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu_Kaizhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu_Kaizhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu_Kaizhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confuciushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art
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    TheGreat Mosque's signature trio of minarets overlooks thecentral market of Djenn. Unique Malian aesthetic

    African art existed in many forms and styles, and withfairly little influence from outsideAfrica. Most of it

    followed traditional forms and the aesthetic norms werehanded down orally as well aswritten. Sculptureandperformance artare prominent,and abstract and partially abstracted forms are valued,and were valued long before influence from theWestern tradition began in earnest. TheNokculture istestimony to this. Themosque ofTimbuktushows that

    specific areas of Africa developed unique aesthetics.[edit]Western medieval aestheticsSurviving medieval artis primarily religious in focus andfunded largely by theState,RomanCatholic orOrthodoxchurch, powerful ecclesiasticalindividuals, or wealthy secular patrons. These art

    pieces often served a liturgical function, whetheras chalicesor even as church buildings themselves.Objects of fine art from this period were frequentlymade from rare and valuable materials, such

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalice_(cup)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalice_(cup)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_(building)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_(building)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalice_(cup)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9
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    as goldand lapis, the cost of which commonlyexceeded the wages of the artist.

    Medieval aesthetics in the realm of philosophy built

    upon Classical thought, continuing the practiceofPlotinus by employing theological terminology in itsexplications. St. Bonaventures Retracing the Arts toTheology, a primary example of this method,discusses the skills of the artisan as gifts given by Godfor the purpose of disclosing God to mankind, whichpurpose is achieved through four lights: the light of skill

    in mechanical arts which discloses the world ofartifacts; which light is guided by the light of senseperception which discloses the world of natural forms;which light, consequently, is guided by the light ofphilosophy which discloses the world of intellectualtruth; finally, this light is guided by the light of divinewisdom which discloses the world of saving truth.

    Saint Thomas Aquinas's aesthetic is probably the mostfamous and influential theory among medieval authors,having been the subject of much scrutiny in the wake ofthe neo-Scholastic revival of the late 19th and early20th centuries and even having received theapprobation of the celebrated Modernist writer, JamesJoyce. Thomas, like many other medievals, never givesa systematic account of beauty itself, but severalscholars have conventionally arranged his thought --though not always with uniform conclusions -- usingrelevant observations spanning the entire corpus of hiswork. While Aquinas's theory follows generally the

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    model of Aristotle, he develops a singular aestheticswhich incorporates elements unique to his thought.Umberto Eco's The Aesthetics of Thomas

    Aquinasidentifies the three main characteristics ofbeauty in Aquinas's philosophy: integritas siveperfectio, consonantia sive debita proportio,and claritas sive splendor formae. While Aristotlelikewise identifies the first two characteristics, St.Thomas conceives of the third as an appropriation fromprinciples developed by neo-Platonic and Augustinian

    thinkers.

    Lorsch Gospels 778820.Charlemagne's Court School.

    With the shift from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance,

    art likewise changed its focus, as much in its content asin its mode of expression.

    [edit]Modern aesthetics

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorsch_Gospelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=19http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Codexaureus_25.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Codexaureus_25.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Codexaureus_25.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Codexaureus_25.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&section=19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorsch_Gospels
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    From the late 17th to the early 20th century Westernaesthetics underwent a slow revolution into what isoften calledmodernism.German andBritish thinkers

    emphasisedbeautyas the key component of art and ofthe aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarilyaiming at absolute beauty.

    ForAlexander Gottlieb Baumgartenaesthetics is thescience of the sense experiences, a younger sister oflogic, and beauty is thus the most perfect kind ofknowledge that sense experience can have.

    ForImmanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beautyis a judgment of a subjective but universal truth, sinceall people should agree that thisroseis beautiful if itin fact is. However, beauty cannot be reduced to anymore basic set of features. ForFriedrichSchilleraesthetic appreciation of beauty is the mostperfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts

    of human nature.ForFriedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophyof art is the "organon" of philosophy concerning therelation between man and nature. So aesthetics begannow to be the name for thephilosophy of art. Friedrichvon Schlegel,August Wilhelm Schlegel,FriedrichSchleiermacherand Georg Wilhelm FriedrichHegel have also given lectures on aestheti