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Aesop This article is about the creator of Aesop’s Fables. For other uses, see Aesop (disambiguation). “Esop” redirects here. For employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs), see Employee ownership. Aesop (IPAc- iːsɒp, e:sɒp EE-sop; Ancient Greek: Αἴσωπος, Aisōpos; c. 620 – 564 BCE) was an Ancient Greek fabulist or story teller credited with a number of fables now collectively known as Aesop’s Fables. Al- though his existence remains uncertain and no writings by him survive, numerous tales credited to him were gath- ered across the centuries and in many languages in a sto- rytelling tradition that continues to this day. Many of the tales are characterized by animals and inanimate ob- jects that speak, solve problems, and generally have hu- man characteristics. Scattered details of Aesop’s life can be found in ancient sources, including Aristotle, Herodotus, and Plutarch. An ancient literary work called The Aesop Romance tells an episodic, probably highly fictional version of his life, including the traditional description of him as a strik- ingly ugly slave (δοῦλος) who by his cleverness acquires freedom and becomes an adviser to kings and city-states. Older spellings of his name have included Esop(e) and Isope. Depictions of Aesop in popular culture over the last 2500 years have included several works of art and his appearance as a character in numerous books, films, plays, and television programs. 1 Life The name of Aesop is as widely known as any that has come down from Graeco-Roman antiquity [yet] it is far from certain whether a historical Aesop ever existed ... in the latter part of the fifth century something like a coherent Aesop legend appears, and Samos seems to be its home. Martin Litchfield West [1] The earliest Greek sources, including Aristotle, indicate that Aesop was born around 620 BCE in Thrace at a site on the Black Sea coast which would later become the city Mesembria. A number of later writers from the Ro- man imperial period (including Phaedrus, who adapted the fables into Latin) say that he was born in Phrygia. [2] The 3rd-century poet Callimachus called him “Aesop of A woodcut from La vida del Ysopet con sus fabulas histori- adas (Spain, 1489) depicting a hunchbacked Aesop surrounded by events from the stories in Planudes' version of his life Sardis,” [3] and the later writer Maximus of Tyre called him “the sage of Lydia.” [4] From Aristotle [5] and Herodotus [6] we learn that Aesop was a slave in Samos and that his masters were first a man named Xanthus and then a man named Iadmon; than he must eventually have been freed, because he argued as an advocate for a wealthy Samian; and that he met his end in the city of Delphi. Plutarch [7] tells us that Aesop had come to Delphi on a diplomatic mission from King Croesus of Lydia, that he insulted the Delphians, was sen- tenced to death on a trumped-up charge of temple theft, and was thrown from a cliff (after which the Delphians suffered pestilence and famine); before this fatal episode, Aesop met with Periander of Corinth, where Plutarch has him dining with the Seven Sages of Greece, sitting be- 1

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Aesop

This article is about the creator of Aesop’s Fables. Forother uses, see Aesop (disambiguation).“Esop” redirects here. For employee stock ownershipplans (ESOPs), see Employee ownership.

Aesop (IPAc- iːsɒp, e:sɒp EE-sop; Ancient Greek:Αἴσωπος, Aisōpos; c. 620 – 564 BCE) was an AncientGreek fabulist or story teller credited with a number offables now collectively known as Aesop’s Fables. Al-though his existence remains uncertain and no writingsby him survive, numerous tales credited to himwere gath-ered across the centuries and in many languages in a sto-rytelling tradition that continues to this day. Many ofthe tales are characterized by animals and inanimate ob-jects that speak, solve problems, and generally have hu-man characteristics.Scattered details of Aesop’s life can be found in ancientsources, including Aristotle, Herodotus, and Plutarch.An ancient literary work called The Aesop Romance tellsan episodic, probably highly fictional version of his life,including the traditional description of him as a strik-ingly ugly slave (δοῦλος) who by his cleverness acquiresfreedom and becomes an adviser to kings and city-states.Older spellings of his name have included Esop(e) andIsope. Depictions of Aesop in popular culture over thelast 2500 years have included several works of art andhis appearance as a character in numerous books, films,plays, and television programs.

1 LifeThe name of Aesop is as widely known as

any that has come down from Graeco-Romanantiquity [yet] it is far from certain whether ahistorical Aesop ever existed ... in the latterpart of the fifth century something like acoherent Aesop legend appears, and Samosseems to be its home.— Martin Litchfield West[1]

The earliest Greek sources, including Aristotle, indicatethat Aesop was born around 620 BCE in Thrace at a siteon the Black Sea coast which would later become thecity Mesembria. A number of later writers from the Ro-man imperial period (including Phaedrus, who adaptedthe fables into Latin) say that he was born in Phrygia.[2]The 3rd-century poet Callimachus called him “Aesop of

A woodcut from La vida del Ysopet con sus fabulas histori-adas (Spain, 1489) depicting a hunchbacked Aesop surroundedby events from the stories in Planudes' version of his life

Sardis,”[3] and the later writer Maximus of Tyre calledhim “the sage of Lydia.”[4]

From Aristotle[5] and Herodotus[6] we learn that Aesopwas a slave in Samos and that his masters were first a mannamed Xanthus and then a man named Iadmon; than hemust eventually have been freed, because he argued asan advocate for a wealthy Samian; and that he met hisend in the city of Delphi. Plutarch[7] tells us that Aesophad come to Delphi on a diplomatic mission from KingCroesus of Lydia, that he insulted the Delphians, was sen-tenced to death on a trumped-up charge of temple theft,and was thrown from a cliff (after which the Delphianssuffered pestilence and famine); before this fatal episode,Aesop met with Periander of Corinth, where Plutarch hashim dining with the Seven Sages of Greece, sitting be-

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2 3 FABULIST

side his friend Solon, whom he had met in Sardis. (LeslieKurke suggests that Aesop himself “was a popular con-tender for inclusion” in the list of Seven Sages).[8]

Problems of chronological reconciliation dating the deathof Aesop and the reign of Croesus led the Aesop scholar(and compiler of the Perry Index) Ben Edwin Perry in1965 to conclude that “everything in the ancient testi-mony about Aesop that pertains to his associations witheither Croesus or with any of the so-called Seven WiseMen of Greece must be reckoned as literary fiction,”and Perry likewise dismissed Aesop’s death in Delphias legendary;[9] but subsequent research has establishedthat a possible diplomatic mission for Croesus and avisit to Periander “are consistent with the year of Ae-sop’s death.”[10] Still problematic is the story by Phaedruswhich has Aesop in Athens, telling the fable of the frogswho asked for a king, during the reign of Peisistratos,which occurred decades after the presumed date of Ae-sop’s death.[11]

2 The Aesop Romance

Along with the scattered references in the ancient sourcesregarding the life and death of Aesop, there is a highlyfictional biography now commonly called The Aesop Ro-mance (also known as theVita or The Life of Aesop or TheBook of Xanthus the Philosopher and Aesop His Slave),“an anonymous work of Greek popular literature com-posed around the second century of our era ... Like TheAlexander Romance, The Aesop Romance became a folk-book, a work that belonged to no one, and the occasionalwriter felt free to modify as it might suit him.”[12] Multi-ple, sometimes contradictory, versions of this work exist.The earliest known version “was probably composed inthe 1st century AD”, but the story “probably circulated indifferent versions for centuries before it was committedto writing";[13] “certain elements can be shown to origi-nate in the 4th century BC.”[14] Scholars long dismissedany historical or biographical validity in The Aesop Ro-mance; widespread study of the work began only towardthe end of the 20th century.In The Aesop Romance, Aesop is a slave of Phrygian ori-gin on the island of Samos, and extremely ugly. At firsthe lacks the power of speech, but after showing kindnessto a priestess of Isis, is granted by the goddess not onlyspeech but a gift for clever storytelling, which he usesalternately to assist and confound his master, Xanthus,embarrassing the philosopher in front of his students andeven sleeping with his wife. After interpreting a portentfor the people of Samos, Aesop is given his freedom andacts as an emissary between the Samians and King Croe-sus. Later he travels to the courts of Lycurgus of Baby-lon and Nectanabo of Egypt – both imaginary rulers –in a section that appears to borrow heavily from the ro-mance of Ahiqar.[15] The story ends with Aesop’s journeyto Delphi, where he angers the citizens by telling insulting

fables, is sentenced to death and, after cursing the peopleof Delphi, is forced to jump to his death.

3 Fabulist

Aesop as depicted by Francis Barlow in the 1687 edition of Ae-sop’s Fables with His Life

Aesop may or may not have written his fables. The AesopRomance claims that he wrote them down and depositedthem in the library of Croesus; Herodotus calls Aesop a“writer of fables” and Aristophanes speaks of “reading”Aesop,[16] but no writings by Aesop have survived. Schol-ars speculate that “there probably existed in the fifth cen-tury [BCE] a written book containing various fables ofAesop, set in a biographical framework.”[17] Sophocles ina poem addressed to Euripides made reference to Aesop’sfable of the NorthWind and the Sun.[18] Socrates while inprison turned some of the fables into verse,[19] of whichDiogenes Laertius records a small fragment.[20] The earlyRoman playwright and poet Ennius also rendered at leastone of Aesop’s fables in Latin verse, of which the last twolines still exist.[21]

The body of work identified as Aesop’s Fables was trans-mitted by a series of authors writing in both Greek andLatin. Demetrius of Phalerum made a collection in tenbooks, probably in prose (Αισοπείων α) for the use oforators, which has been lost.[22] Next appeared an edi-tion in elegiac verse, cited by the Suda, but the author’s

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name is unknown. Phaedrus, a freedman of Augustus,rendered the fables into Latin in the 1st century AD.At about the same time Babrius turned the fables intoGreek choliambics. A 3rd-century author, Titianus, issaid to have rendered the fables into prose in a work nowlost.[23] Avianus (of uncertain date, perhaps the 4th cen-tury) translated 42 of the fables into Latin elegiacs. The4th-century grammarian Dositheus Magister also made acollection of Aesop’s Fables, now lost.Aesop’s Fables continued to be revised and translatedthrough the ensuing centuries, with the addition of mate-rial from other cultures, so that the body of fables knowntoday bears little relation to those Aesop originally told.With a surge in scholarly interest beginning toward theend of the 20th century, some attempt has been madeto determine the nature and content of the very earliestfables which may be most closely linked to the historicAesop.[24]

4 Physical appearance and thequestion of African origin

The anonymously authored Aesop Romance (usuallydated to the 1st or 2nd centuries AD) begins with a vividdescription of Aesop’s appearance, saying he was “ofloathsome aspect... potbellied, misshapen of head, snub-nosed, swarthy, dwarfish, bandy-legged, short-armed,squint-eyed, liver-lipped—a portentous monstrosity,”[25]or as another translation has it, “a faulty creation ofPrometheus when half-asleep.”[26] The earliest text bya known author that refers to Aesop’s appearance isHimerius in the 4th century, who says that Aesop “waslaughed at and made fun of, not because of some of histales but on account of his looks and the sound of hisvoice.”[27] The evidence from both of these sources is du-bious, since Himerius lived some 800 years after Aesopand his image of Aesop may have come from The AesopRomance, which is essentially fiction; but whether basedon fact or not, at some point the idea of an ugly, even de-formedAesop took hold in popular imagination. Scholarshave begun to examine why and how this “physiognomictradition” developed.[28]

A much later tradition depicts Aesop as a black Africanfrom Ethiopia.[29] The presence of such slaves in Greek-speaking areas is suggested by the fable "Washing theEthiopian white" that is ascribed to Aesop himself. Thisconcerns a man who buys a black slave and, assuming thathe was neglected by his former master, tries very hardto wash the blackness away. But nowhere in the fableis it suggested that this constitutes a personal reference.The first known promulgator of the idea was Planudes, aByzantine scholar of the 13th century who wrote a biog-raphy of Aesop based on The Aesop Romance and con-jectured that Aesop might have been Ethiopian, given hisname.[30] An English translation of Planudes’ biography

Example of a coin image from ancient Delphi thought by oneantiquarian to represent Aesop.

from 1687 says that “his Complexion [was] black, fromwhich dark Tincture he contracted his Name (Aesopus be-ing the same with Aethiops)". When asked his origin bya prospective new master, Aesop replies, “I am a Negro";numerous illustrations by Francis Barlow accompany thistext and depict Aesop accordingly.[31] But according toGert-Jan van Dijk, “Planudes’ derivation of 'Aesop' from'Aethiopian' is... etymologically incorrect,”[32] and FrankSnowden says that Planudes’ account is “worthless as tothe reliability of Aesop as 'Ethiopian.'"[33]

The tradition of Aesop’s African origin was continuedin Britain, as attested by the lively figurine of a negrofrom the Chelsea porcelain factory which appeared inits Aesop series in the mid-18th century.[34] It then car-ried forward into the 19th century. The frontispiece ofWilliam Godwin's Fables Ancient and Modern (1805)has a copperplate illustration of Aesop relating his sto-ries to little children that gives his features a distinctlyAfrican appearance.[35] The collection includes the fa-ble of “Washing the Blackamoor white”, although updat-ing it and making the Ethiopian 'a black footman'. In1856 William Martin Leake repeated the false etymo-logical linkage of “Aesop” with “Aethiop” when he sug-gested that the “head of a negro” found on several coinsfrom ancient Delphi (with specimens dated as early as520 BCE)[36] might depict Aesop, presumably to com-memorate (and atone for) his execution at Delphi,[37] butTheodor Panofka supposed the head to be a portrait ofDelphos, founder of Delphi,[38] a view more widely re-peated by later historians.[39]

The idea that Aesop was Ethiopian seems supported bythe presence of camels, elephants and apes in the fables,even though these African elements are more likely to

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4 5 DEPICTIONS

have come from Egypt and Libya than from Ethiopia, andthe fables featuring African animals may have entered thebody of Aesopic fables long after Aesop actually lived.[40]Nevertheless, in 1932 the anthropologist J.H. Driberg, re-peating the Aesop/Aethiop linkage, asserted that, while“some say he [Aesop] was a Phrygian... the more gen-eral view... is that he was an African”, and “if Aesop wasnot an African, he ought to have been;"[41] and in 2002Richard A. Lobban cited the number of African animalsand “artifacts” in the Aesopic fables as “circumstantial ev-idence” that Aesop may have been a Nubian folkteller.[42]

Aesop shown in Japanese dress in a 1659 edition of the fablesfrom Kyoto

Popular perception of Aesop as black was to be encour-aged by comparison between his fables and the storiesof the trickster Br'er Rabbit told by African-Americanslaves. In Ian Colvin's introduction to Aesop in Politics(1914), for example, the fabulist is bracketed with UncleRemus, “For both were slaves, and both were black”.[43]The traditional role of the slave Aesop as “a kind of cul-ture hero of the oppressed” is further promoted by thefictional Life, emerging “as a how-to handbook for thesuccessful manipulation of superiors”.[44] Such a percep-tion was reinforced at the popular level by the 1971 TVproduction Aesop’s Fables[45] in which Bill Cosby playedAesop. In that mixture of live action and animation, Ae-sop tells fables that differentiate between realistic and un-realistic ambition and his version there of "The Tortoiseand the Hare" illustrates how to take advantage of an op-ponent’s over-confidence.[46]

On other continents Aesop has occasionally undergone a

degree of acculturation. This is evident in Isango Por-tobello's 2010 production of the play Aesop’s Fables atthe Fugard Theatre in Cape Town, South Africa. Basedon a script by British playwright Peter Terson (1983),[47]it was radically adapted by the director Mark Dornford-May as a musical using native African instrumentation,dance and stage conventions.[48] Although Aesop is por-trayed as Greek, and dressed in the short Greek tunic, theall-black production contextualises the story in the recenthistory of South Africa. The former slave, we are told“learns that liberty comes with responsibility as he jour-neys to his own freedom, joined by the animal charactersof his parable-like fables.”[49] One might compare withthis Brian Seward’s Aesop’s Fabulous Fables[50] (2009),which first played in Singapore with a cast of mixed eth-nicities. In it Chinese theatrical routines are merged withthose of a standard musical.[51]

There had already been an example of Asian accultura-tion in 17th-century Japan. There Portuguese mission-aries had introduced a translation of the fables (Esopono Fabulas, 1593) that included the biography of Ae-sop. This was then taken up by Japanese printers andtaken through several editions under the title Isopo Mono-gatari. Even when Europeans were expelled from Japanand Christianity proscribed, this text survived, in part be-cause the figure of Aesop had been assimilated into theculture and depicted in woodcuts as dressed in Japanesecostume.[52][53]

5 Depictions

5.1 Art and literature

Ancient sources mention two statues of Aesop, oneby Aristodemus and another by Lysippus,[54] andPhilostratus describes a painting of Aesop surrounded bythe animals of his fables.[55] None of these images havesurvived. According to Philostratus,

The Fables are gathering about Aesop, be-ing fond of him because he devotes himself tothem. For... he checks greed and rebukes in-solence and deceit, and in all this some ani-mal is his mouthpiece — a lion or a fox or ahorse... and not even the tortoise is dumb —that through them children may learn the busi-ness of life. So the Fables, honoured becauseof Aesop, gather at the doors of the wise manto bind fillets about his head and to crown himwith a victor’s crown of wild olive. And Aesop,methinks, is weaving some fable; at any rate hissmile and his eyes fixed on the ground indicatethis. The painter knows that for the composi-tion of fables relaxation of the spirit is needed.And the painting is clever in representing thepersons of the Fables. For it combines animals

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5.1 Art and literature 5

with men to make a chorus about Aesop, com-posed of the actors in his fables; and the fox ispainted as leader of the chorus.[56]

With the advent of printing in Europe, various illus-trators tried to recreate this scene. One of the earli-est was in Spain’s La vida del Ysopet con sus fabulashistoriadas (1489, see above). In France there was I.Baudoin’s Fables d’Ésope Phrygien (1631) and MatthieuGuillemot’s Les images ou tableaux de platte peinture desdeux Philostrates (1637).[57] In England there was Fran-cis Cleyn’s frontispiece to John Ogilby's The Fables ofAesop[58] and the much later frontispiece to Godwin’s Fa-bles Ancient and Modern mentioned above in which theswarthy fabulist points out three of his characters to thechildren seated about him.Early on, the representation of Aesop as an ugly slaveemerged. The later tradition which makes Aesop a blackAfrican resulted in depictions ranging from 17th-centuryengravings to a television portrayal by a black comedian.In general, beginning in the 20th century, plays haveshown Aesop as a slave, but not ugly, while movies andtelevision shows (such as The Bullwinkle Show[59]) havedepicted him as neither ugly nor a slave.In 1843, the archaeologist Otto Jahn suggested that Ae-sop was the person depicted on a Greek red-figure cup,[60]c.450 BCE, in the Vatican Museums.[61] Paul Zanker de-scribes the figure as a man with “emaciated body andoversized head... furrowed brow and open mouth”, who“listens carefully to the teachings of the fox sitting beforehim. He has pulled his mantle tightly around his meagerbody, as if he were shivering... he is ugly, with long hair,bald head, and unkempt, scraggly beard, and is clearly un-caring of his appearance.”[62] Some archaeologists havesuggested that the Hellenistic statue of a bearded hunch-back with an intellectual appearance, discovered in the18th century and pictured at the head of this article, alsodepicts Aesop, although alternative identifications havesince been put forward.[63]

Aesop began to appear equally early in literary works.The 4th-century-BCE Athenian playwright Alexis putAesop on the stage in his comedy “Aesop”, of which afew lines survive (Athenaeus 10.432);[64] conversing withSolon, Aesop praises the Athenian practice of adding wa-ter to wine.[65] Leslie Kurke suggests that Aesopmay havebeen “a staple of the comic stage” of this era.[66]

The 3rd-century-BCE poet Poseidippus of Pella wrotea narrative poem entitled “Aesopia” (now lost), inwhich Aesop’s fellow slave Rhodopis (under her origi-nal name Doricha) was frequently mentioned, accord-ing to Athenaeus 13.596.[67] Pliny would later identifyRhodopis as Aesop’s lover,[68] a romantic motif thatwould be repeated in subsequent popular depictions ofAesop.Aesop plays a fairly prominent part in Plutarch's conver-sation piece “The Banquet of the Seven Sages” in the 1st

Portrait of Aesop by Velázquez in the Prado.

century AD and is there identified as the teller of amusingbut moralistic fables.[69] The fabulist then makes a cameoappearance in the novel A True Story by the 2nd-centurysatirist Lucian; when the narrator arrives at the Island ofthe Blessed, he finds that “Aesop the Phrygian was there,too; he acts as their jester.”[70]

Beginning with the Heinrich Steinhowel edition of 1476,many translations of the fables into European languages,which also incorporated Planudes’ Life of Aesop, fea-tured illustrations depicting him as a hunchback. The1687 edition of Aesop’s Fables with His Life: in English,French and Latin[71] included 28 engravings by FrancisBarlow which show him as a dwarfish hunchback (see inthe section above), and his facial features appear to ac-cord with his statement in the text (p. 7), “I am a Negro”.The Spaniard Diego Velázquez painted a portrait of Ae-sop, dated 1639-40 and now in the collection of theMuseo del Prado. The presentation is anachronistic andAesop, while arguably not handsome, displays no phys-

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6 5 DEPICTIONS

ical deformities. It was partnered by another portraitof Menippus, a satirical philosopher equally of slave-origin. A similar philosophers series was painted by fel-low Spaniard Jusepe de Ribera,[72] who is credited withtwo portraits of Aesop. “Aesop, poet of the fables” isin the El Escorial gallery and pictures him as an authorleaning on a staff by a table which holds copies of hiswork, one of them a book with the name Hissopo on thecover.[73] The other is in theMuseo de Prado, dated 1640-50 and titled “Aesop in beggar’s rags”. There he is alsoshown at a table, holding a sheet of paper in his left handand writing with the other.[74] While the former hints athis lameness and deformed back, the latter only empha-sises his poverty.In 1690, French playwright Edmé Boursault's Les fablesd'Esope (later known as Esope à la ville) premiered inParis. A sequel, Esope à la cour[75] (Aesop at Court),was first performed in 1701; drawing on a mention inHerodotus 2.134-5[76] that Aesop had once been ownedby the same master as Rhodopis, and the statement inPliny 36.17[77] that she was Aesop’s concubine as well,the play introduced Rodope as Aesop’s mistress, a roman-tic motif that would be repeated in later popular depic-tions of Aesop.

The beautiful Rhodope, in love with Aesop; engraving by Bar-tolozzi, 1782, after Kauffman's original

Sir John Vanbrugh's comedy “Aesop”[78] was premièredat the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane, London, in 1697and was frequently performed there for the next twentyyears. A translation and adaptation of Boursault’s Les fa-bles d'Esope, Vanbrugh’s play depicted a physically uglyAesop acting as adviser to Learchus, governor of Cyzicusunder King Croesus, and using his fables to solve roman-tic problems and quiet political unrest.[79]

In 1780, the anonymously authored novelette The His-tory and Amours of Rhodope was published in London.The story casts the two slaves Rhodope and Aesop as un-likely lovers, one ugly and the other beautiful; ultimatelyRhodope is parted from Aesop and marries the Pharaohof Egypt. Some editions of the volume were illustrated

with an engraving by Francesco Bartolozzi of a work bythe painter Angelica Kauffman. Titled “The beautifulRhodope in love with Aesop”, it pictures Rhodope lean-ing on an urn; she holds out her hand to Aesop, who isseated under a tree and turns his head to look at her. Hisright arm rests on a cage of doves, towards which he ges-tures. There is some ambiguity here, for while the cagesuggests the captive state of both of them, a raven perchedoutside the cage may allude to his supposed colour.[80] Infact, the whole picture is planned to suggest how differentthe couple are. Rhodope and Aesop lean on opposite el-bows, gesture with opposite hands, and while Rhodope’shand is held palm upwards, Aesop’s is held palm down-wards. She stands while he sits; he is dressed in darkclothes, she in white. The theme of their relationship wastaken up again in 1844 by Walter Savage Landor (authorof Imaginary Conversations), who published two fictionaldialogues between Aesop and Rhodope.[81]

Later in the 19th century the subject of Aesop tellinghis tales was made popular by the painting of him en-tertaining the maids of Xanthus by Roberto Fontana(1844-1907).[82] A depiction of the fabulist surroundedby laughing young women, it went on to win a prize at theMilanese Brera Academy in 1876 and was then shown atthe 1878 International Exhibition and the 11th exhibitionof the Società di Belle Arti di Trieste in 1879. A laterpainting by Julian Russell Story widens Aesop’s audienceby showing people of both sexes and all ages enjoying hisnarration.[83] Though Aesop is pictured as ugly in both,his winning personality is suggested by his smiling faceand lively gestures.

5.2 20th century and popular culture

The 20th century saw the publication of three novelsabout Aesop. A.D. Wintle's Aesop (London, 1943) was aplodding fictional biography described in a review of thetime as so boring that it makes the fables embedded in itseem ‘complacent and exasperating’.[84] The two others,preferring the fictional 'life' to any approach to veracity,are genre works. The most recent is John Vornholt's TheFabulist (1993) in which ‘an ugly, mute slave is deliveredfrom wretchedness by the gods and blessed with a won-drous voice. [It is] the tale of a most unlikely adventurer,dispatched to far and perilous realms to battle impossiblebeasts and terrible magicks.’[85]

The other novel was George S. Hellman’s Peacock’sFeather (published in California in 1931). Its unlikelyplot made it the perfect vehicle for the 1946 Hollywoodspectacular, Night in Paradise. The perennial image ofAesop as an ugly slave is kept up in the movie, witha heavily disguised Turhan Bey cast in the role. In aplot containing ‘some of the most nonsensical screen do-ings of the year’, he becomes entangled with the in-tended bride of King Croesus, a Persian princess playedby Merle Oberon, and makes such a hash of it that hehas to be rescued by the gods.[86] The 1953 teleplay Ae-

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sop and Rhodope takes up another theme of his fictionalhistory.[87] Written by Helene Hanff, it was broadcast onHallmark Hall of Famewith Lamont Johnson playing Ae-sop.The three-act A raposa e as uvas (“The Fox and theGrapes” 1953), marks Aesop’s entry into Brazilian the-atre. The three-act play was byGuilherme Figueiredo andhas been performed in many countries, including a video-taped production in China in 2000 under the titleHu li yupu tao or .[88] The play is described as an allegoryabout freedom with Aesop as the main character.[89]

Beginning in 1959, animated shorts under the title Ae-sop and Son appeared as a recurring segment in the TVseries Rocky and His Friends and its successor, The Bull-winkle Show.[59][90] The image of Aesop as ugly slave wasabandoned; Aesop (voiced by Charles Ruggles), a Greekcitizen, would recount a fable for the edification of hisson, Aesop Jr., who would then deliver the moral in theform of an atrocious pun. Aesop’s 1998 appearance in theepisode “Hercules and the Kids”[91] in the animated TVseries Hercules[92] (voiced by Robert Keeshan) amountedto little more than a cameo.Occasions on which Aesop is portrayed as black in-clude Richard Durham’s[93] “Destination Freedom” radioshow broadcast (1949), where the drama “The Death ofAesop,”[94] portrays him as an Ethiopian. In 1971, BillCosby played Aesop in the TV production Aesop’s Fa-bles.[45]

The musical Aesop’s Fables by British playwright PeterTerson was first produced in 1983.[47] In 2010, the playwas staged at the Fugard Theatre in Cape Town, SouthAfrica with Mhlekahi Mosiea as Aesop.[95]

6 See also• Fable

• List of Aesop’s Fables

• List of slaves

7 Notes[1] West, pp. 106 and 119.

[2] Brill’s New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World(hereafter BNP) 1:256.

[3] Callimachus. Iambus 2 (Loeb fragment 192)

[4] Maximus of Tyre, Oration 36.1

[5] Aristotle. Rhetoric 2.20.

[6] Herodotus. Histories 2.134.

[7] Plutarch. On the Delays of Divine Vengeance; Banquet ofthe Seven Sages; Life of Solon.

[8] Kurke 2010, p. 135.

[9] Perry, Ben Edwin. Introduction to Babrius and Phaedrus,pp. xxxviii-xlv.

[10] BNP 1:256.

[11] Phaedrus 1.2

[12] William Hansen, review of Vita Aesopi: Ueberlieferung,Sprach und Edition einer fruehbyzantinischen Fassung desAesopromans by Grammatiki A. Karla in Bryn MawrClassical Review 2004.09.39.

[13] Leslie Kurke, “Aesop and the Contestation of Delphic Au-thority”, in The Cultures Within Ancient Greek Culture:Contact, Conflict, Collaboration, ed. Carol Dougherty andLeslie Kurke, p. 77.

[14] François Lissarrague, “Aesop, Between Man and Beast:Ancient Portraits and Illustrations”, in Not the ClassicalIdeal: Athens and the Construction of the Other in GreekArt, ed. Beth Cohen (hereafter, Lissarrague), p. 133.

[15] Lissarrague, p. 113.

[16] BNP 1:257; West, p. 121; Hägg, p. 47.

[17] Hägg, p. 47; also West, p. 122.

[18] Athenaeus 13.82.

[19] Plato, Phaedo 61b.

[20] Diogenes Laertius, Lives andOpinions of Eminent Philoso-phers 2.5.42: “He also composed a fable, in the style ofAesop, not very artistically, and it begins—Aesop one daydid this sage counsel give / To the Corinthian magistrates:not to trust / The cause of virtue to the people’s judgment.”

[21] Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 2.29.

[22] Perry, Ben E. Demetrius of Phalerum and the AesopicFables, Transactions and Proceedings of the AmericanPhilological Association, Vol. 93, 1962, pp.287–346

[23] Ausonius, Epistles 12.

[24] BNP 1:258–9; West; Niklas Holzberg, The Ancient Fa-ble: An Introduction, pp. 12–13; see also Ainoi, Logoi,Mythoi: Fables in Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic Greekby Gert-Jan van Dijk and History of the Graeco-Latin Fa-ble by Francisco Rodriguez Adrado.

[25] The Aesop Romance, translated by Lloyd W. Daly, in An-thology of Ancient Greek Popular Literature, ed. WilliamHansen, p. 111.

[26] Papademetriou, pp. 14-15.

[27] Himerius, Orations 46.4, translated by Robert J. Penellain Man and the Word: The Orations of Himerius, p. 250.

[28] See Lissarrage; Papademetriou; Compton, Victim of theMuses; Lefkowitz, “Ugliness and Value in the Life of Ae-sop” in Kakos: Badness and Anti-value in Classical Antiq-uity ed. Sluiter and Rosen.

[29] Lobban, 2004, pp. 8-9.

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8 7 NOTES

[30] "... niger, unde & nomen adeptus est (idem enim Aeso-pus quod Aethiops)" is one Latin translation of Planudes’Greek; see Aesopi Phrygis Fabulae, p. 9.

[31] Tho. Philipott (translating Planudes), Aesop’s Fables withHis Life: in English, French and Latin, pp. 1 and 7.

[32] Gert-Jan van Dijk, “Aesop” entry in The Encyclopedia ofAncient Greece, ed. Nigel Wilson, p. 18.

[33] Frank M. Snowden, Jr., Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopiansin the Greco-Roman Experience (hereafter Snowden), p.264.

[34] “The Fitzwilliam Museum : The Art Fund”. cam.ac.uk.

[35] Godwin then used the nom de plume of Edward Baldwin.The cover can be viewed online

[36] Ancient Coins of Phocis web page, accessed 11-12-2010.

[37] William Martin Leake, Numismata Hellenica: A Cata-logue of Greek Coins, p. 45.

[38] Theodor Panofka, Antikenkranz zum fünften BerlinerWinckelmannsfest: Delphi und Melaine, p. 7; an illustra-tion of the coin in question follows p. 16.

[39] Snowden, pp. 150-51 and 307-8.

[40] Robert Temple, Introduction to Aesop: The Complete Fa-bles, pp. xx-xxi.

[41] Driberg, 1932.

[42] Lobban, 2002.

[43] Colvin, Ian Duncan, 1877-1938. “Aesop in politics / byIan D. Colvin.”. HathiTrust.

[44] Kurke 2010, pp. 11-12.

[45] “Aesop’s Fables (TV Movie 1971)". IMDb. 31 October1971.

[46] Available in two sections, beginning at “The Tortoise andthe Hare” at YouTube

[47] “Playwrights and Their Stage Works: Peter Terson”. 4-wall.com. 1932-02-24. Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[48] ""Backstage with 'Aesop’s Fables’ Director MarkDornford-May”, ''Sunday Times’' (Cape Town), June 7,2010”. Timeslive.co.za. Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[49] “welcome to the arts mag”. whatsonsa.co.za.

[50] “Doollee.com”. Doollee.com. 2002-11-15. Retrieved2012-03-22.

[51] There are short excerpts on YouTube here.

[52] Elisonas, J.S.A. “Fables and Imitations: Kirishitan litera-ture in the forest of simple letters”, Bulletin of PortugueseJapanese Studies, Lisbon, 2002, pp.13-17

[53] Marceau, Lawrence. From Aesop to Esopo to Isopo:Adapting the Fables in Late Medieval Japan, 2009. Seeabstract at p. 277.

[54] van Dijk, Geert. “Aesop” in Encyclopedia of AncientGreece, New York 2006, p.18

[55] BNP 1:257.

[56] "'Imagines’ 1.3”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-07-15.

[57] Antonio Bernat Vistarini, Tamás Sajó: Imago Veritatis.La circulación de la imagen simbólica entre fábula y em-blema, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Studia Aurea 5(2007), figures 2 and 1

[58] “British Museum site”. Retrieved 2012-07-15.

[59] The Bullwinkle Show at the Internet Movie Database

[60] “Kids.britannica.com”. Kids.britannica.com. Retrieved2012-03-22.

[61] Lissarrague, p.137.

[62] Paul Zanker, The Mask of Socrates, pp. 33-34.

[63] The question is discussed by Lisa Trentin in “What’s in ahump? Re-examining the hunchback in the Villa-Albani-Torlonia” in The Cambridge Classical Journal (New Se-ries) December 2009 55 : pp 130-156; available as anacademic reprint online

[64] “Digicoll.library.wisc.edu”. Digicoll.library.wisc.edu.Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[65] Attribution of these lines to Aesop is conjectural; see thereference and footnote in Kurke 2010, p 356.

[66] Kurke 2010, p. 356.

[67] “Digicoll.library.wisc.edu”. Digicoll.library.wisc.edu.Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[68] “Pliny 36.17”. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[69] Moralia vol. II Loeb translation

[70] Lucian, Verae Historiae (A True Story) 2.18 (Reardontranslation).

[71] “Magic.lib.msu.edu”. Magic.lib.msu.edu. Retrieved2012-03-22.

[72] There is a note on another from this series on the Christiessite

[73] “Lessing-photo.com”. Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[74] “Fineart-china.com”. Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[75] Books.google.co.uk. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved2012-03-22.

[76] “Old.perseus.tufts.edu”. Old.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved2012-03-22.

[77] “Perseus.tufts.edu”. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[78] “Archive.org”. Archive.org. Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[79] Mark Loveridge, A History of Augustan Fable (hereafterLoveridge), pp. 166-68.

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[80] View online; there is a copy in the Metropolitan Museum,NY

[81] The second of these is included in Selections from theImaginary conversations of Walter Savage Landor, NewYork 1899, archived online, pp.1-14

[82] Fr Greg Carlson. “Creighton University”. creighton.edu.

[83] https://americangallery.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/aesops-fables.jpg

[84] “Fiction”. The Spectator Archive.

[85] “The Fabulist by John Vornholt - FictionDB”. fic-tiondb.com.

[86] Universal Horrors, McFarland, 2007, pp.531-5

[87] Aesop and Rhodope at the Internet Movie Database

[88] Figueiredo, Guilherme. “Hu li yu pu tao” Check |url=value (help). youku.com. Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[89] Encyclopedia of Latin American Theater, Greenwood2003, p.72

[90] Rocky and His Friends at the Internet Movie Database

[91] “Hercules and the Kids” at the Internet Movie Database

[92] Hercules at the Internet Movie Database

[93] “Destination Freedom”. RichardDurham.com. Retrieved2012-03-22.

[94] “The Death of Aesop”. RichardDurham.com. 1949-02-13. Retrieved 2012-03-22.

[95] “AESOP'S FABLES opens at the Fugard Theatre”. por-tobellopictures.com.

8 References• Adrado, Francisco Rodriguez, 1999-2003. Historyof the Graeco-Latin Fable (three volumes). Lei-den/Boston: Brill Academic Publishers.

• Anthony, Mayvis, 2006. The Legendary Life andFables of Aesop.

• Cancik, Hubert, et al., 2002. Brill’s New Pauly: En-cyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Leiden/Boston:Brill Academic Publishers.

• Cohen, Beth (editor), 2000. Not the Classical Ideal:Athens and the Construction of the Other in GreekArt. Leiden/Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. In-cludes “Aesop, Between Man and Beast: AncientPortraits and Illustrations” by François Lissarrague.

• Dougherty, Carol and Leslie Kurke (editors), 2003.The Cultures Within Ancient Greek Culture: Con-tact, Conflict, Collaboration. Cambridge UniversityPress. Includes “Aesop and the Contestation of Del-phic Authority” by Leslie Kurke.

• Driberg, J.H., 1932. “Aesop”, The Spectator, vol.148 #5425, June 18, 1932, pp. 857–8.

• Hansen, William (editor), 1998. Anthology of An-cient Greek Popular Literature. Bloomington: Indi-ana University Press. Includes The Aesop Romance(The Book of Xanthus the Philosopher and Aesop HisSlave or The Career of Aesop), translated by LloydW. Daly.

• Hägg, Tomas, 2004. Parthenope: Selected Studiesin Ancient Greek Fiction (1969-2004). Copenhagen:Museum Tusculanum Press. Includes Hägg’s “AProfessor and his Slave: Conventions and Values inThe Life of Aesop", first published in 1997.

• Hansen, William, 2004. Review of Vita Aesopi: Ue-berlieferung, Sprach und Edition einer fruehbyzan-tinischen Fassung des Aesopromans by GrammatikiA. Karla. Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2004.09.39.

• Holzberg, Niklas, 2002. The Ancient Fable:An Introduction, translated by Christine Jackson-Holzberg. Bloomington & Indianapolis: IndianaUniversity press.

• Keller, John E., and Keating, L. Clark, 1993. Ae-sop’s Fables, with a Life of Aesop. Lexington: Uni-versity of Kentucky Press. English translation of thefirst Spanish edition of Aesop from 1489, La vidadel Ysopet con sus fabulas historiadas including orig-inal woodcut illustrations; the Life of Aesop is a ver-sion from Planudes.

• Kurke, Leslie, 2010. Aesopic Conversations: Popu-lar Tradition, Cultural Dialogue, and the Inventionof Greek Prose. Princeton University Press.

• Leake, William Martin, 1856. Numismata Hel-lenica: A Catalogue of Greek Coins. London: JohnMurray.

• Loveridge, Mark, 1998. A History of Augustan Fa-ble. Cambridge University Press.

• Lobban, Richard A., Jr., 2002. “Was Aesop aNubian Kummaji (Folkteller)?", Northeast AfricanStudies, 9:1 (2002), pp. 11–31.

• Lobban, RichardA., Jr., 2004. Historical Dictionaryof Ancient andMedieval Nubia. Lanham,Maryland:Scarecrow Press.

• Panofka, Theodor, 1849. Antikenkranz zum fünftenBerliner Winckelmannsfest: Delphi und Melaine.Berlin: J. Guttentag.

• Papademetriou, J. Th., 1997. Aesop as an Archety-pal Hero. Studies and Research 39. Athens: HellenicSociety for Humanistic Studies.

• Penella, Robert J., 2007. Man and the Word: TheOrations of Himerius.” Berkeley: University of Cali-fornia Press.

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10 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Perry, Ben Edwin (translator), 1965. Babrius andPhaedrus. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

• Philipott, Tho. (translator), 1687. Aesop’s Fableswith His Life: in English, French and Latin. Lon-don: printed for H. Hills jun. for Francis Barlow.Includes Philipott’s English translation of Planudes’Life of Aesop with illustrations by Francis Barlow.

• Reardon, B.P. (editor), 1989. Collected AncientGreek Novels. Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress. Includes An Ethiopian Story by Heliodorus,translated by J.R. Morgan, and A True Story by Lu-cian, translated by B.P. Reardon.

• Snowden, Jr., Frank M., 1970. Blacks in Antiquity:Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience. Cam-bridge: Harvard University Press.

• Temple, Robert and Olivia (translators), 1998. Ae-sop: The Complete Fables. New York: PenguinBooks.

• van Dijk, Gert-Jan, 1997. Ainoi, Logoi, Mythoi:Fables in Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic Greek.Leiden/Boston: Brill Academic Publishers.

• West, M.L., 1984. “The Ascription of Fables toAesop in Archaic and Classical Greece”, La Fable(Vandœuvres–Genève: Fondation Hardt, EntretiensXXX), pp. 105–36.

• Wilson, Nigel, 2006. Encyclopedia of AncientGreece. New York: Routledge.

• Zanker, Paul, 1995. The Mask of Socrates: The Im-age of the Intellectual in Antiquity. Berkeley: Uni-versity of California Press.

9 Further reading• Anonymous, 1780. The History and Amours ofRhodope. London: Printed for E.M Diemer.

• Caxton, William, 1484. The history and fablesof Aesop, Westminster. Modern reprint editedby Robert T. Lenaghan (Harvard University Press:Cambridge, 1967). Includes Caxton’s Epilogue tothe Fables, dated March 26, 1484.

• Compton, Todd, 1990. “The Trial of the Satirist:Poetic Vitae (Aesop, Archilochus, Homer) as Back-ground for Plato’s Apology”, The American Journalof Philology, Vol. 111, No. 3 (Autumn, 1990), pp.330–347. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress.

• Daly, Lloyd W., 1961. Aesop without Morals: TheFamous Fables, and a Life of Aesop, Newly Trans-lated and Edited. New York and London: ThomasYoseloff. Includes Daly’s translation of The AesopRomance.

• Gibbs, Laura. “Life of Aesop: The Wise Fool andthe Philosopher”, Journey to the Sea (online jour-nal), issue 9, March 1, 2009.

• Sluiter, Ineke and Rosen, Ralph M. (editors), 2008.Kakos: Badness and Anti-value in Classical An-tiquity. Mnemosyne: Supplements. History andArchaeology of Classical Antiquity; 307. Lei-den/Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. Includes“Ugliness and Value in the Life of Aesop” by JeremyB. Lefkowitz.

10 External links• Works by Aesop at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Aesop at Internet Archive

• Works by Aesop at LibriVox (public domain audio-books)

• Aesop at DMOZ

• Vita Aesopi Online resources for the Life of Aesop

• Aesopica.net Over 600 fables in English, with Latinand Greek texts also; searchable

• Works by Aesop at Open Library

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11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text• Aesop Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesop?oldid=694359433 Contributors: Lee Daniel Crocker, RK, Amillar, Rmhermen, Deb,William Avery, SimonP, Heron, Fonzy, Pmmenneg, DopefishJustin, Liftarn, Ixfd64, Zanimum, Dori, DavidWBrooks, Stan Shebs, WilliamM. 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11.2 Images• File:Aesop_and_Priests_by_Francis_Barlow_1687.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Aesop_and_Priests_by_Francis_Barlow_1687.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The 1687 edition of Aesop’s Fables with His Life: in English,French and Latin Original artist: File created by me; art by Francis Barlow (died 1704)

• File:Aesop_woodcut_Spain_1489.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Aesop_woodcut_Spain_1489.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Facsimile edition of 1489 edition of Fabulas de Esopo published in Madrid in 1929. Origi-nal artist: File created by me; the woodcut was created by an anonymous artist.

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Delphi_coin_sharper.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Delphi_coin_sharper.jpg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Antikenkranz zum fünften Berliner Winckelmannsfest: Delphi und Melaine Original artist: Theodor Panofka (died

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12 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• File:Tsukuba_isop.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Tsukuba_isop.JPG License: Public do-main Contributors: http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://images.suite101.com/1326288_com_isop.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.suite101.com/view_image_articles.cfm/1326290&usg=__KwZ98_a7oKMkjwoKK9Fq8jRVLI8=&h=416&w=266&sz=55&hl=en&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=lfmiipZ8OIeYiM:&tbnh=122&tbnw=78&ei=0nqhTc-uNMeg8QPui52oAw&prev=/images%3Fq%3DAesop%2BTsukuba%2BUniversity%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1126%26bih%3D689%26gbv%3D2%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=789&vpy=168&dur=301&hovh=159&hovw=101&tx=83&ty=139&oei=0nqhTc-uNMeg8QPui52oAw&page=1&ndsp=26&ved=1t:429,r:10,s:0 Original artist: ?

• File:Velázquez_-_Esopo_(Museo_del_Prado,_1639-41).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Vel%C3%A1zquez_-_Esopo_%28Museo_del_Prado%2C_1639-41%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: See below. Original artist:Diego Velázquez

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