AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE AESA based IPM – Blackgram & Greengram · promoting Biointensive...

AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE

AESA based IPM – Blackgram & Greengram

Trichogramma spp.

Important Natural Enemies of Blackgram & Greengram Insect Pests

Parasitoids

Predators

Tetrastichus spp. Chelonus spp.

Bracon spp. Ichneumon sp Aphidius sp

Lacewing Ladybird beetle Spider

Reduviid bug Preying mantis Common mynah

The AESA based IPM – Blackgram and Greengram, was compiled by the NIPHM working group under the

Chairmanship of Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, DG, NIPHM, and guidance of Shri. Utpal Kumar Singh, IAS, JS (PP).

The package was developed taking into account the advice of experts listed below on various occasions before

fi nalization.

NIPHM Working Group:

Chairman : Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, Director General

Vice-Chairmen : Dr. S. N. Sushil, Plant Protection Advisor

: Dr. P. Jeyakumar, Director (PHM)

Core Members:

1. Er. G. Shankar, Joint Director (PHE), Pesticide Application Techniques Expertise.

2. Dr. O.P. Sharma, Joint Director (A & AM), Agronomy Expertise.

3. Dr. Satish Kumar Sain, Assistant Director (PHM), Pathology Expertise.

4. Dr. Dhana Raj Boina, Assistant Director (PHM), Entomology Expertise.

5. Mrs. N. Lavanya, Scientifi c Offi cer (BP&BC), Entomology Expertise.

Other Member:

1. Dr. B.S. Sunanda, Assistant Scientifi c Offi cer (PHM), Nematology Expertise.

Contributions by DPPQ&S Experts:

1. Shri. Ram Asre, Additional Plant Protection Advisor (IPM),

2. Dr. K.S. Kapoor, Deputy Director (Entomology),

3. Dr. Sanjay Arya, Deputy Director (Plant Pathology),

4. Dr. Subhash Kumar, Deputy Director (Weed Science)

5. Dr. C.S. Patni, Plant Protection Offi cer (Plant Pathology)

Contributions by External Experts:

1. Dr. Dhanapal, Scientist - D & HOD, ICRI, Spices Board

2. Dr. A.N. Sabalpara, Director of Research & Dean P.G.Studies, Navsari Agricultural University.

3. Dr. S.K. Beura, Associate Professor, Dept. of Plant Pathology OUAT, Bhubaneswar.

4. Dr. C.N. Biju, Scientist (Plant Pathology), Indian Institute of Spices Research, Cardamom Research Centre.

5. Dr. B. Gangadhara Naik, Associate Professor, Dept. of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture.

6. Dr. Raghavendra K. Mesta, Professor & Head, Dept of Plant Pathology, College of Horticulture, University of

Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot

7. Dr. T.K. Jacob, Principal Scientist (Entomology), IISR, Kozhikode, Kerala.

Information on Region-wise Distribution of Pests Provided by:

1. Dr. N. Sathyanarayana, Director, Plant Biosecurity Division, NIPHM

1. Mrs. S. Latha, Scientifi c Offi cer, Plant Biosecurity Division, NIPHM

Citation Satyagopal, K., S.N. Sushil, P. Jeyakumar, G. Shankar, O.P. Sharma,

S.K. Sain, D.R. Boina, N. Lavanya, B.S. Sunanda, Ram Asre, K.S.

Kapoor, Sanjay Arya, Subhash Kumar, C.S. Patni, Dhanapal, A.N.

Sabalpara, S.K. Beura, C.N. Biju, B.G. Naik, R.K. Mesta, T.K. Jacob,

N. Sathyanarayana, S. Latha, 2014. AESA based IPM package for

Blackgram and Greengram. pp 43.

Front cover picture Model AESA chart for Blackgram and Greengram

Back cover picture Blackgram and Greengram fi eld

Published by National Institute of Plant Health Management, Rajendranagar,

Hyderabad – 500 030

Copies: 1,000

For internal circulation only. Not for sale.

Contact APPA - IPM, Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage,

CGO Complex, NH IV, Faridabad, Haryana - 121 001.

Tel : 0129 2413020, e-mail: [email protected]

Printed at Balaji Scan Pvt. Ltd., A.C. Guards, Hyderabad.

Tel : 040-23303424, balajiscan.com; [email protected]

FOREWORD

Intensive agricultural practices relying heavily on chemical pesticides are a major cause of wide spread ecological

imbalances resulting in serious problems of insecticide resistance, pest resurgence and pesticide residues. There is

a growing awareness world over on the need for promoting environmentally sustainable agriculture practices.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a globally accepted strategy for promoting sustainable agriculture. During

last century, IPM relied substantially on economic threshold level and chemical pesticides driven approaches.

However, since the late 1990s there is conscious shift to more ecologically sustainable Agro-Eco System Analysis

(AESA) based IPM strategies. The AESA based IPM focuses on the relationship among various components of an agro-

ecosystem with special focus on pest-defender dynamics, innate abilities of plant to compensate for the damages

caused by the pests and the infl uence of abiotic factors on pest buildup. In addition, Ecological Engineering for pest

management - a new paradigm to enhance the natural enemies of pests in an agro-ecosystem is being considered

as an important strategy. The ecological approach stresses the need for relying on bio intensive strategies prior to

use of chemical pesticides.

Sincere eff orts have been made by resource personnel to incorporate ecologically based principles and fi eld

proven technologies for guidance of the extension offi cers to educate, motivate and guide the farmers to adopt

AESA based IPM strategies, which are environmentally sustainable. I hope that the AESA based IPM packages

will be relied upon by various stakeholders relating to Central and State government functionaries involved in

extension and Scientists of SAUs and ICAR institutions in their endeavour to promote environmentally sustainable

agriculture practices.

Date : 6.3.2014 (Avinash K. Srivastava)

Avinash K SrivastavaAdditional Secretary

Government of India

Ministry of Agriculture

(Department of Agriculture & Cooperation)

Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi - 110 001

Joint Secretary

Government of India


(Department of Agriculture & Cooperation)

Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi - 110001

FOREWORD

IPM as a holistic approach of crop protection based on the integration of multiple strategies viz., cultural, physical,

mechanical, biological, botanical and chemical. Over the years IPM underwent several changes, shifting its focus

from damage boundary, economic injury to economic threshold. Currently most stake holders rely upon economic

threshold levels (ETL) and tend to apply chemical pesticides at the fi rst instance in the event of a pest attack,

through Government of India has advocated need based and judicious application of chemicals. This approach

is likely to cause adverse eff ects on agro-ecosystems and increase the cost of agricultural production due to

problems of pest resurgence, insecticide resistance and sustainability.

During the late 90s FAO started advocating Agro-Ecosystem Analysis (AESA) based IPM. Experience in

diff erent countries have sine show that AESA, which takes into account ecological principles and relies on the

balance that is maintained by biotic factors in an ecosystem has also resulted in reduction in cost of production

and increase in yields. AESA based IPM also takes into account the need for active participation of farmers and

promotes experiential learning and discovery based decision making by farmers. AESA based IPM in conjunction

with ecological engineering for pest management promotes bio-intensive strategies as against current chemical

intensive approaches, while retaining the option to apply chemical pesticides judiciously as a measure of last

resort.

The resource persons of NIPHM and DPPQ&S have made sincere eff orts in revising IPM packages

for diff erent crops by incorporating agro-ecosystem analysis, ecological engineering, pesticide application

techniques and other IPM options with the active cooperation of crop based plant protection scientists working

in state Agricultural Universities and ICAR institutions. I hope this IPM package will serve as a ready reference for

extension functionaries of Central / State Governments, NGOs and progressive farmers in adopting sustainable

plant protection strategies by minimizing the dependence on chemical pesticides.

(Utpal Kumar Singh)

Dr. K. SATYAGOPAL, IAS

Director General

Telephone : +91-40-24015346,E-mail : [email protected] : +91-40-24015346

National Institute of Plant Health ManagementDepartment of Agriculture & Cooperation


Government of India

RajendranagarHyderabad-500030http://niphm.gov.in

PREFACE

Need for environmentally sustainable agricultural practices is recognised worldwide in view of the wide spread

ecological imbalances caused by highly intensive agricultural systems. In order to address the adverse impacts

of chemical pesticides on agro-ecosystems, Integrated Pest Management has evolved further from ETL based

approach to Agro-ecosystem Analysis based Integrated Pest Management (IPM).

In AESA based IPM the whole agro-ecosystem, plant health at diff erent stages, built-in-compensation

abilities of the plant, pest and defender population dynamics, soil conditions, climatic factors and farmers’

past experience are considered. In AESA, informed decisions are taken by farmers after fi eld observation , AESA

chart preparation followed by group discussion and decision making. Insect zoo is created to enable the farmer

understand predation of pests by Natural Enemies. AESA based PHM also results in reduction of chemical pesticide

usage and conserves the agro-ecosystems.

Ecological Engineering for Pest Management, a new paradigm, is gaining acceptance as a strategy for

promoting Biointensive Integrated Pest Management. Ecological Engineering for Pest Management relies on

cultural practices to eff ect habitat manipulation and enhance biological control. The strategies focus on pest

management both below ground and above ground. There is growing need to integrate AESA based IPM and

principles of ecological engineering for pest management.

There is a rising public concern about the potential adverse eff ects of chemical pesticides on the human

health, environment and biodiversity. The intensity of these negative externalities, through cannot be eliminated

altogether, can be minimized through development, dissemination and promotion of sustainable biointensive

approaches.

Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage (DPPQS), has developed IPM package of practices

during 2001 and 2002. These packages are currently providing guidance to the Extension Offi cers in transferring

IPM strategies to farmers. These IPM package of practices, have been revised incorporating the principles of AESA

based IPM in detail and also the concept of Ecological Engineering for Pest Management. It is hoped that the

suggested practices, which aim at enhancing biodiversity, biointensive strategies for pest management and

promotion of plant health, will enable the farmers to take informed decisions based on experiential learning and

it will also result in use of chemical pesticides only as a last resort & in a safe and judicious manner.

(K. SATYAGOPAL)

CONTENTS

Blackgram and greengram plant description ............................................................................................................... 1

I. Pests ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2

A. Pest of National Signifi cance ......................................................................................................................... 2

1. Insect Pests .............................................................................................................................................. 2

2. Nematodes .............................................................................................................................................. 2

3. Diseases .................................................................................................................................................... 2

4. Weeds ......................................................................................................................................................... 2

B. Pest of Regional Signifi cance .................................................................................................................. 3

1. Insect and mite pests .................................................................................................................... 3

2. Nematodes ........................................................................................................................................... 3

II. Agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) based integrated pest management (IPM) ........................................... 3

A. AESA ........................................................................................................................................................................... 3

B. Field scouting ......................................................................................................................................................... 8

C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches Helicoverpa and Maruca ................................. 9

D. Yellow/blue pan water/sticky traps ................................................................................................... 9

E. Light traps ................................................................................................................................................................ 9

F. Nematode extraction .......................................................................................................................................... 9

III. Ecological engineering for pest management ........................................................................................................ 10

A. Resistant/tolerant varieties ............................................................................................................................. 14

IV. Crop stage-wise IPM ............................................................................................................................................................ 14

V. Insecticide resistance and its management ............................................................................................................... 18

VI. Common weeds ...................................................................................................................................................................... 19

VII. Description of insect, mite and nematode pests .................................................................................................. 20

VIII. Description of diseases .................................................................................................................................................... 28

IX. Safety measures ..................................................................................................................................................................... 33

A. At the time of harvest .......................................................................................................................................... 33

B. During post-harvest storage ........................................................................................................................... 33

X. Do’s and Don’ts in IPM .......................................................................................................................................................... 34

XI. Safety parameters in pesticide usage ......................................................................................................................... 36

XII. Basic precautions in pesticide usage ......................................................................................................................... 40

XIII. Pesticide application techniques ................................................................................................................................ 41

XIV. Operational, calibration and maintenance guidelines in brief .................................................................... 42

XV. References ............................................................................................................................................................................... 43

AESA based IPM – Blackgram and Greengram

1

AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE FOR BLACKGRAM AND

GREENGRAM

Blackgram and greengram plants description:

Blackgram (Vigna mungo L.; Family: Fabaceae) (also known as Urad Dal or black lentil) is a bean grown in the Indian

subcontinent. It, along with the mung bean, was placed in Phaseolus, but has since been transferred to Vigna. At

one time it was considered to belong to the same species as the mung bean. The product sold as “black lentil” is

usually the whole urad bean or urad dal. The product sold as “white lentil” is the same lentil with the black skin

removed.

Blackgram originated in India, where it has been in cultivation from ancient times and is one of the most

highly prized pulses of India and Pakistan. The coastal Andhra region in Andhra Pradesh is famous for blackgram

after paddy. The Guntur district ranks fi rst in Andhra Pradesh for the production of blackgram. Blackgram has also

been introduced to other tropical areas mainly by Indian immigrants.

Greengram or golden gram (Vigna radiata L.; Family: Fabaceae) is also known as mung or moong bean of its native

to the Indian subcontinent and mainly cultivated in Philippines, Thailand, India, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Cambodia,

China, Burma and Indonesia, but also in hot and dry regions of Southern Europe and the Southern United States.

It is used as an ingredient in both savory and sweet dishes.

Mungbean seeds are sprouted for fresh use or canned for shipment to restaurants. Sprouts are high in

protein (21%–28%), calcium, phosphorus and certain vitamins. Because they are easily digested they replace

scarce animal protein in human diets in tropical areas of the world. Because of their major use as sprouts, a high

quality seed with excellent germination is required. The food industry likes to obtain about 9 or 10 grams of fresh

sprouts for each gram of seed. Larger seed with a glassy, green color seems to be preferred.

If the mungbean seed does not meet sprouting standards it can be used as a livestock food with about

1.5 tone of mungbean being equivalent to 1.0 tons of soybean meal for protein content. Feeding trials have been

conducted at Oklahoma State University for swine and young calves with good results.

Blackgram Greengram

2


I. PESTS

A. Pests of National Signifi cance

1. Insect pests

1.1 Pod borer: Helicoverpa armigera Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

1.2 Spotted pod borer: Maruca vitrata Geyer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

1.3 Spiny pod borer: Etiella zinckenella Treitschke (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

1.4 Blue butterfl y: Lampides boeticus Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

1.5 Grass blue butterfl y: Euchrysops cnejus Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

1.6 Bihar hairy caterpillar: Spilosoma obliqua Walker (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)

1.7 Stem fl y: Ophiomyia phaseoli Tryon (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

1.8 Pod weevil: Apionam plum Faust (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

1.9 Bean aphid: Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

1.10 Leaf hopper: Empoasca kerri Latreille ( Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

1.11 Podfl y: Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

1.12 Lablab bug: Coptosoma cribraria (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Plataspididae)

1.13 Whitefl y: Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

1.14 Thrips: Megalurothrips usitatus (Bagnall) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

1.15 Blister beetle: Mylabris spp (Coleoptera: Meloidae)

2. Nematodes

2.1 Cyst nematode: Heterodera cajani Koshi (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae)

2.2 Root knot nematode: Meloidogyne incognita (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae)

3. Diseases

3.1 Anthracnose: Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magnus) Briosi & Cavara

3.2 Bacterial leaf blight: Xanthomonas phaseoli Dowson

3.3 Cercospora leaf spot: Cercospora canescens

3.4 Powdery mildew: Erysiphe polygoni

3.5 Root rot and leaf blight: Rhizoctonia solani J.G. Kühn

3.6 Rust: Uromyces phaseoli G. Winter (Pucciniales: Pucciniaceae)

3.7 Macrophomina blight: Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid.

3.8 Yellow mosaic disease : Mungbean yellow mosaic virus

3.9 Leaf crinkle disease : Leaf crinkle virus

4. Weeds

Broad leaf

4.1 Pigweed: Amaranthus viridis Hook F. (Amaranthaceae)

4.2 False amaranth: Digera arvensis Forssk (Amaranthaceae)

4.3 Horse purslane: Trianthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae)


3

4.4 Tick weed: Cleome viscosa L. (Capparidaceae)

4.5 Stonebreaker: Phyllanthus niruri L. (Euphorbiaceae)

4.6 Common lambsquarter: Chenopodium album L.(Chenopodiaceae)

4.7 Burclover: Medicago denticulata Willd (Fabaceae)

4.8 Canada thistle: Cirsium arvensis (L.) Scop (Asteraceae)

4.9 Field bindweed: Convolvulus arvensis L. (Convolvulaceae)

4.10 Three fl owered tickerfoil: Desmodium trifl orum (L.) DC (Fabaceae)

Grasses

4.11 Goose grass: Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertner (Poaceae)

4.12 Rabbit/crow foot grass: Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd (Poaceae)

4.13 Barnyard grass: Echinocloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. And Jungle rice E. Colona (L.)

Beauv. (Poaceae)

Sedges

4.14 Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L. (Cyperaceae)

B. Pests of Regional Signifi cance

1. Insect and mite pests

1.1 White grub: Holotrichia sp (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) (Haryana)

1.2 Red spider mite:Tetranychus sp (Trombidiformes: Tetranychidae) (Gujarat)

2. Nematodes

2.1 Stunt nematode: Telenchorhynchus sp (Tylenchida: Belonolaimidae)

2.2 Lesion nematode: Pratylenchus sp (Tylenchida: Pratylenchidae)

II. AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS (AESA) BASED INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

A. AESA:

The IPM has been evolved over the decades to address the deleterious impacts of synthetic chemical pesticides

on environment ultimately aff ecting the interests of the farmers. The economic threshold level (ETL) was the basis

for several decades but in modern IPM (FAO 2002) emphasis is given to AESA where farmers take decisions based

on larger range of fi eld observations. The health of a plant is determined by its environment which includes

abiotic (i.e. soil, rain, sunshine hours, wind etc.) and biological factors (i.e. insect pests, diseases and weeds). All

these factors can play a role in the balance which exists between herbivore insects and their natural enemies.

Understanding the intricate interactions in an ecosystem can play a critical role in pest management.

Decision making in pest management requires a thorough analysis of the agro-ecosystem. Farmer has to

learn how to observe the crop, how to analyze the fi eld situation and how to make proper decisions for their crop

management. This process is called the AESA. Participants of AESA will have to make a drawing on a large piece of

white paper (60 x 80 cm), to include all their observations. The advantage of using a drawing is that it requires the

participants/farmers to observe closely and intensively. It is a focal point for the analysis and for the discussions

that follow, and the drawing can be kept as a record.

AESA is an approach, which can be gainfully employed by extension functionaries and farmers to analyze

the fi eld situations with regards to pests, defenders, soil conditions, plant health and the infl uence of climatic

factors and their relationship for growing a healthy crop. The basic components of AESA are;

Plant health at diff erent stages of crop growth•

4


Built-in compensation abilities of plants• Pest and defender population dynamics• Soil conditions• Climatic factors• Farmers past experience•

Principles of AESA based IPM:

Grow a healthy crop:

Select a variety resistant/tolerant to major pests• Select healthy seeds/ seedlings/planting material• Treat the seeds seedlings/planting material with recommended pesticides especially biopesticides• Follow proper spacing• Soil health improvement (mulching and green manuring wherever applicable)• Nutrient management especially organic manures and biofertilizers based on the soil test results. If the • dosage of nitrogenous fertilizers is too high the crop becomes too succulent and therefore susceptible to

insects and diseases. If the dosage is too low, the crop growth is retarded. So, the farmers should apply an

adequate amount for best results. The phosphatic fertilizers should not be applied each and every season

as the residual phosphate of the previous season will be available for the current season also.

Proper irrigation• Crop rotation•

Observe the fi eld regularly (Abiotic factors):

Farmers should

Monitor the fi eld situations once a week (soil, water, plants, pests, natural enemies, weather factors etc.)• Make decisions based on the fi eld situation and Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio)• Take direct action when needed (e.g. collect egg masses, remove infested plants etc.)•

Plant compensation ability:

Compensation is defined as the replacement of plant biomass lost to herbivores and has been associated with

increased photosynthetic rates and mobilization of stored resources from source organs to sinks (e.g., from roots

and remaining leaves to new leaves) during active vegetative growth period. Plant tolerance to herbivory can

arise from the interaction of a variety of plant traits and external environmental factors. Several studies have

documented such compensation through increased growth and photosynthetic rate. Tolerance is the ability of

plants to mitigate the negative fi tness eff ects caused by herbivory. It is one of the general plant defense strategies

against herbivores, the other being resistance, which is the ability of plants to prevent damage (Strauss and

Agrawal 1999). Blackgram and Greengram have some ability to compensate for the potential loss of fl owers

(sinks). Extension of growth period in response to fl ower removal provides an opportunity for yield compensation

(Rahman, 2000).

Blackgram Greengram


5

Understand and conserve defenders:

Know defenders/natural enemies to understand their role through regular observations of the agro-• ecosystem

Avoid the use of chemical pesticides especially with broad-spectrum activity•

Insect zoo:

In fi eld various types of insects are present. Some are benefi cial and some may be harmful. Generally farmers

are not aware about it. Predators (friends of the farmers) which feed on pests are not easy to observe in crop

fi eld. Insect zoo concept can be helpful to enhance farmers’ skill to identify benefi cial and harmful insects. In this

method, unfamiliar/unknown predators are collected in plastic containers with brush from the fi eld and brought

to a place for study. Each predator is placed inside a plastic bottle together with parts of the plant and some known

insect pests. Insects in the bottle are observed for certain time and determined whether the test insect is a pest

(feeds on plant) or a predator (feeds on other insects).

Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio):

Identifying the number of pests and benefi cial insects helps the farmers to make appropriate pest management

decisions. Sweep net, visual counts etc. can be adopted to arrive at the numbers of pests and defenders. The P:

D ratio can vary depending on the feeding potential of natural enemy as well as the type of pest. The natural

enemies of Blackgram & Greengram insect pests can be divided into 3 categories 1. Parasitoids; 2. Predators; and

3. Pathogens.

Model Agro-Ecosystem Analysis Chart

Date:

Village:

Farmer:

Decision taken based on the analysis of fi eld situation

Soil conditions :

Weather conditions :

Diseases types and severity :

Weeds types and intensity :

Rodent damage (if any) :

No. of insect pests :

No. of natural enemies :

P: D ratio :

6


Decision making:

Farmers become experts in crop management:

Farmers have to make timely decisions about the management of their crops. AESA farmers have learned to make

these decisions based on observations and analysis viz. Abiotic and biotic factors of the crop ecosystem. The past

experience of the farmers should also be considered for decision making. However, as fi eld conditions continue to

change and new technologies become available, farmers need to continue improving their skills and knowledge.

Farmers are capable of improving farming practices by experimentation• Farmers can share their knowledge with other farmers•

AESA methodology:

Go to the fi eld in groups (about 5 farmers per group). Walk across the fi eld and choose 20 plants/acre • randomly. Observe keenly each of these plants and record your observations:

Plant: Observe the plant length, number of leaves, crop stage, defi ciency symptoms, no of pods etc.• Insect pests: Observe and count insect pests at diff erent places on the plant.• Defenders (natural enemies): Observe and count parasitoids and predators.• Diseases: Observe leaves and stems and identify any visible disease symptoms and severity.• Weeds: Observe weeds in the fi eld and their intensity.• Water: Observe the water situation of the fi eld.• Weather: Observe the weather condition.•

While walking in the fi eld, manually collect insects in plastic bags. Use a sweep net to collect additional • insects. Collect plant parts with disease symptoms.

Find a shady place to sit as a group in a small circle for drawing and discussion.• If needed, kill the insects with some chloroform (if available) on a piece of cotton.• Each group will fi rst identify the pests, defenders and diseases collected.• Each group will then analyze the fi eld situation in detail and present their observations• and analysis in a drawing (the AESA drawing).

Each drawing will show a plant representing the fi eld situation. The weather condition, water level, disease • symptoms, etc. will be shown in the drawing. Pest insects will be drawn on one side. Defenders (benefi cial

insects) will be drawn on another side. Write the number next to each insect. Indicate the plant part

where the pests and defenders were found. Try to show the interaction between pests and defenders.

Each group will discuss the situation and make a crop management recommendation.• The small groups then join each other and a member of each group will now present their analysis in front • of all participants.

The facilitator will facilitate the discussion by asking guiding questions and makes sure that all participants • (also shy or illiterate persons) are actively involved in this process.

Formulate a common conclusion. The whole group should support the decision on what• fi eld management is required in the AESA plot.

Make sure that the required activities (based on the decision) will be carried out.• Keep the drawing for comparison purpose in the following weeks.•

The general rule to be adopted for management decisions relying on the P: D ratio is 2: 1. However, some

of the parasitoids and predators will be able to control more than 2 pests. Wherever specifi c P: D ratios are not

found, it is safer to adopt the 2: 1, as P: D ratio. Whenever the P: D ratio is found to be favourable, there is no

need for adoption of other management strategies. In cases where the P: D ratio is found to be unfavourable,

the farmers can be advised to resort to inundative release of parasitoids/predators depending upon the type

of pest. In addition to inundative release of parasitoids and predators, the usage of microbial biopesticides and

biochemical biopesticides such as insect growth regulators, botanicals etc. can be relied upon before resorting to

synthetic chemical pesticides.


7

Data recording:

Farmers should record data in a notebook and drawing on a chart

Keeping records of what has happened help us making an analysis and draw conclusions•

Data to be recorded:

Plant growth (weekly): • Length of plant; number of leaves

Crop situation (e.g. for AESA): • Plant health; pests, diseases, weeds; natural enemies; soil conditions;

irrigation; weather conditions

Input costs: • Seeds; fertilizer; pesticides; labour

Harvest: • Yield (Kg/acre); Price of produce (Rs/Kg)

Some questions that can be used during the discussion:

Summarize the present situation of the fi eld.• Is there a big change in crop situation compared to last visit? What kind of change?• Is there any serious pest or disease outbreak?• What is the situation of the benefi cial insects?• Is there a balance in the fi eld between pests and defenders?• Were you able to identify all pests and diseases?• Do you think the crop is healthy?• What management practices are needed at this moment?• When will it be done? Who will do it? Make sure that responsibilities for all activities are being discussed.• Are you expecting any problems to emerge during the coming week such as congenial weather conditions • for pest buildup?

What are the problems? How can we avoid it? How can we be prepared?• Summarize the actions to be taken.•

Advantages of AESA over ETL:

One of the problems of the ETL is that it is based on parameters

that are changing all the time, and that are often not known. The

damage or losses caused by a certain density of insects cannot be

predicted at all. In ETL the due recognition of the role of natural

enemies in decreasing pest population is ignored. Farmers cannot

base their decisions on just a simple count of pests. They will have

to consider many other aspects of the crop (crop ecology, growth

stage, natural enemies, weather condition, etc.) and their own

economic and social situation before they can make the right

crop management decisions. In ETL based IPM, natural enemies,

plant compensation ability and abiotic factors are not considered.

In AESA based IPM emphasis is given to natural enemies, plant

compensation ability, abiotic factors and P: D ratio.

AESA and farmer fi eld school (FFS):

AESA is a season-long training activity that takes place in the

farmer fi eld. It is season-long so that it covers all the diff erent

developmental stages of the crop and their related management

practices. The process is always learner-centered, participatory

and relying on an experiential learning approach and therefore it

has become an integral part of FFS.

8


B. Field scouting:

AESA requires skill. So only the trained farmers can undertake this exercise. However, other farmers also can do

fi eld scouting in their own fi elds at regular intervals to monitor the major pest situation.

Surveillance on pest occurrence in the fi eld should commence soon after crop establishment and at

weekly intervals thereafter. In each fi eld, select fi ve spots randomly. Select fi ve random plants at each spot for

recording counts of insects as per procedure fi nalized for individual insects.

For insect pests:

Aphids, whitefl ies, leaf hoppers: Count and record the number of both nymphs and adults on fi ve randomly

selected leaves per plant.

Borer complex: Total number of pods, damaged pods due to borer and number of larvae on individual plants

should be counted and recorded.

Thrips: Count and record the number of nymphs and adults of thrips present on fi ve terminal leaves per plant

(tapping method also can be used to count thrips).

For diseases:

Whenever scouting, be aware that symptoms of plant disease problems may be caused by any biotic factors such

as fungal, bacterial, viral pathogens or abiotic factors such as weather, fertilizers, nutrient defi ciencies, pesticides

and abiotic soil problems. In many cases, the cause of the symptom is not obvious. Close examination, and

laboratory culture and analysis are required for proper diagnosis of the causal agent of disease. Generally fungal

Farmers can learn from AESA:

Identifi cation of pests and their nature of damage• Identifi cation of natural enemies• Management of pests• Water and nutrient management• Infl uence of weather factors on pest buildup• Role of natural enemies in pest management • Decision making process.•

FFS to teach AESA based IPM skills:


9

diseases cause the obvious symptoms with irregular growth, pattern & colour (except viruses), however abiotic

problems cause regular, uniform symptoms. Pathogen presence (signs) on the symptoms can also be observed

like fungal growth, bacterial ooze etc. Specifi c and characteristic symptoms of the important plant diseases are

given in description of diseases section.

Root sampling: Always check plants that appear unhealthy. If there are no obvious symptoms on plants,

examine plants randomly and look for lesions or rots on roots and stems. Observe the signs of the causal organism

(fungal growth or ooze). It is often necessary to wash the roots with water to examine them properly. If the roots

are well developed, cut them to examine the roots for internal infections (discolouration & signs). Count the total

number of roots damaged/infested/infected due to rot should be counted and incidence should be recorded.

Leaf sampling: Examine all leaves on each plant for lesions and determine the amount area of leaf infection.

Leaf diseases cause most damage during the seedling and fl owering stages of plant growth. Observe for the

symptoms and signs on the infected plant parts. Count the number of leaves (leaf area diameter)/plant infected

due to disease and incidence should be recorded.

Stem, fl ower and pod sampling: Carefully examine the stems, fl owers and pods of plants for signs of

fungal material diseases or lesions. The stems, fl owers and pods should be split or taken apart and examined for

discoloration caused by fungi and bacteria. Count the number of stems, fl owers and pods infected due to disease

and incidence should be recorded.

C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for Helicoverpa and Maruca:

Pheromone traps for Helicoverpa & Maruca @ 4-5 per acre have to be installed, if available. Install the traps for

each species separated by a distance of >75 feet in the vicinity of the selected fi eld. Fix the traps to the supporting

pole at a height of one foot above the plant canopy. Change of lures should be made once a month. During each

week of surveillance, the number of moths/trap should be counted and recorded. The trapped moths should be

removed and destroyed after each recording.

D. Yellow/blue pan water/ sticky traps:

Set up yellow/blue pan water/ sticky traps 15 cm above the canopy for monitoring whitefl ies and aphids and blue

sticky trap for thrips @ 4-5 traps/acre. Locally available empty tins can be painted yellow/blue coated with grease/

Vaseline/castor oil on outer surface may also be used.

E. Light traps:

Set up light traps @1 trap/acre 15 cm above the crop canopy for monitoring and mass trapping of insects. Light

traps with exit option for natural enemies of smaller size should be installed and operate around the dusk time (6

to 10 pm).

F. Nematode extraction:

Collect 100 to 300 cm3 (200-300 g) representative soil sample. Mix soil sample and pass through a coarse sieve

to remove rocks, roots, etc. Take a 600 cc subsample of soil, pack lightly into a beaker uniformly. Place soil in one

of the buckets or pans half fi lled with water. Mix soil and water by stirring with paddle; allow to stand until water

almost stops swirling. Pour all but heavy sediment through 20-mesh sieve into second bucket; discard residue

in fi rst bucket; discard material caught on sieve. Stir material in second bucket; allow to stand until water almost

stops swirling. Pour all but heavy sediment through 60 mesh sieve to collect cysts into fi rst bucket; discard residue

in second bucket. Stir material in fi rst bucket; allow to stand until water almost stops swirling. Pour all but heavy

sediment through 325-mesh sieve into second bucket; discard residue in fi rst bucket. Backwash material caught

on 325-mesh sieve (which includes small to mid-sized nematodes and silty material) into 250-ml beaker. More

than 90% of the live nematodes are recovered in the fi rst 5-8 mm of water drawn from the rubber tubing and the

sample is placed in a shallow dish for examination.

10


III. ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING FOR PEST MANAGEMENT

Ecological engineering for pest management has recently emerged as a paradigm for considering pest management

approaches that rely on the use of cultural techniques to eff ect habitat manipulation and to enhance biological

control. The cultural practices are informed by ecological knowledge rather than on high technology approaches

such as synthetic pesticides and genetically engineered crops (Gurr et al. 2004a,b).

Natural enemies may require:

Food in the form of pollen and nectar for adult natural enemies.1.

Shelter such as overwintering sites, moderate microclimate etc.2.

Alternate hosts when primary hosts are not present.3.

Ecological engineering for pest management – Above ground:

Raise the fl owering plants / compatible cash crops along the fi eld border by arranging shorter plants • towards main crop and taller plants towards the border to attract natural enemies as well as to avoid

immigrating pest population

Grow fl owering plants on the internal bunds inside the fi eld•

Not to uproot weed plants those are growing naturally such as • Tridax procumbens, Ageratum sp,

Alternanthera sp. etc. which act as nectar source for natural enemies

Not to apply broad spectrum chemical pesticides, when the P: D ratio is favourable. The plant compensation • ability should also be considered before applying chemical pesticides.

Ecological engineering for pest management – Below ground:

Keep soils covered year-round with living vegetation and/or crop residue.•

Add organic matter in the form of farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost, crop residue which enhance • below ground biodiversity.

Reduce tillage intensity so that hibernating natural enemies can be saved.•

Apply balanced dose of nutrients using biofertilizers.•

Apply • Mycorrhiza and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)

Apply • Trichoderma viride/harzianum and Pseudomonas fl uorescens as seed/seedling/planting material,

nursery treatment and soil application (if commercial products are used, check for label claim. However,

biopesticides produced by farmers for own consumption in their fi elds, registration is not required).

Due to enhancement of biodiversity by the fl owering plants, parasitoids and predators (natural enemies)

number also will increase due to availability of nectar, pollen, fruits, insects, etc. The major predators are a wide

variety of spiders, ladybird beetles, long horned grasshoppers, Chrysoperla, earwigs, etc.


11

Ecological Engineering Plants

Attractant plants

Cluster bean

Sunfl ower

Alfalfa

Coreopsis spp.

Anise

Cowpea

Buckwheat

Mustard

Cosmos

Caraway

Carrot

French bean

Parsley

Dandelion

Dill

12


Sorghum

Marigold

Repellent plants

Maize

Border plants

Intercrops

Ocimum sp Peppermint

Maize Groundnut

Bajra

The fl owering plants suggested under Ecological Engineering for pest management strategy are known as attractant plants to the natural enemies of the selected pests. The information is based on published research literature. However, the actual selection of fl owering plants could be based on availability, agro-climatic conditions and soil types.


13

Biodiversity of natural enemies: Spiders

Biodiversity of natural enemies: Predators

Biodiversity of natural enemies: Parasitoids

Biodiversity of natural enemies observed in Ecological Engineering fi eld at NIPHM

14


A. Resistant/tolerant varieties:

Pest Tolerant /resistant variety

Powdery mildew Moongbean-TARM 1, Pusa 9072 & Urdbean LBG 17

Yellow mosaic virus Moong bean- Pant Mung , Pant Mung, PDM 54 (Moti), PDM

84-139(Samrat),PDM 84-143, PDM – 11.ML – 337, Pant Moong

MUM 2,MH-88-111 and MUM-2

Urd bean- Pant U 19, Pant U – 30,UG 218, PDU 1, PDU 88-31

*For detailed and updated information nearest KVK/state department/ SAU / ICAR Institute may be

contacted

IV. CROP STAGE-WISE IPM

Management Activity

Pre- sowing*

Common cultural practices:

Deep ploughing of fi elds during summer• After summer ploughing fi eld is left for solarization. • Timely sowing should be done • Field sanitation, rogueing• Destroy the alternate host plants• Apply manures and fertilizers as per soil test recommendations• Sow the ecological engineering plants• Rotate the crop with a non host cereal crop, cucurbit, or cruciferous vegetable• Sow/plant sorghum/maize/bajra in 4 rows all around blackgram and greengram • crop as a guard/barier crop.

Nutrients Apply well decomposed FYM @ 4 t/acre or vermicompost @ 2 t/acre treated with • Trichoderma 2-3 weeks before sowing.

Weeds At the time of fi eld preparation, adopt stale seed bed technique i.e. pre sowing • irrigation followed by shallow tillage to minimize the weeds menace in fi eld.

Soil borne pathogens nematodes,

resting stage of insects

Cultural control:

For anthracnose and BLB hot water treatment of seeds at 52• o C for 10 min.

Growing intercrops such as pigeonpea, marigold and castor for the control of • blister beetle, whitefl y and leaf hoppers.

Biological control:

Seed treatment with • Trichoderma viride1% WP @ 4g per Kg seeds.

Sowing*


Use tolerant/ resistant varieties • Select healthy, certifi ed, and weed seed free seeds•

Nutrients Seed treatment should be done with, • Trichoderma spp. (8-10 g/Kg seed) and Rhizobium spp., AMF/PSB cultures each @ 30 g/Kg seed.

Fertilizers should be applied on soil test basis. Generally, it is recommended to • apply 10 to 12 Kg N, 20 to 30 Kg P

2O

5 and 12 to 18 Kg K

2O per acre as basal dose.

In sulphur and zinc defi ciency areas, apply sulphur @ 10-12 Kg/acre and zinc • sulphate @ 10 Kg/acre in soil at the time of sowing.


15

Weeds Line sowing should be done to facilitate inter-cultural operations. • Optimum plant population should be maintained from beginning to minimize • the weed competition.

*Apply Trichoderma viride/harzianum and Pseudomonas fl uorescens as seed/seedling/planting material treatment and soil application (if commercial products are used, check for label claim. However, biopesticides produced by farmers for own consumption in their fi elds, registration is not required).

Vegetative stage*


Collect and destroy crop debris• Avoid water logging•

Judicious use of fertilizers• Avoid any stress to the crop as much as possible• Enhance parasitic activity by avoiding chemical spray, when 1-2 larval parasitoids • are observed

Common mechanical practices:

Collect and destroy disease infected and insect infested plant parts• Collect and destroy eggs and early stage larvae• Handpick the older larvae during early stages• Handpick the gregarious caterpillars and the cocoons which are found on stem • and destroy them in kerosene mixed water.

Use yellow/blue pan water/ sticky traps @ 4-5 trap/acre • Use light trap @ 1/acre and operate between 6 pm and 10 pm• Install pheromone traps @ 4-5/acre for monitoring adult moths activity (replace • the lures with fresh lures after every 2-3 weeks)

Erect of bird perches @ 20/acre for encouraging predatory birds such as King • crow, common mynah etc.

Set up bonfi re during evening hours at 7-8 pm• Common biological practices:

Conserve natural enemies through ecological engineering• Augmentative release of natural enemies•

Nutrients Correct micronutrient defi ciency if any in standing crop.• Weeds Keep fi eld boundary and bunds free from weeds. •

The crop fi eld should be weed free initially for 3-4 weeks by following timely • hoeing and weeding by power hand tiller and/or hand tools at 20 and 35 days after sowing.

Mulches like straw hay, plastic, etc. should be used in between the rows to • suppress the weed growth.

If mechanical/physical control measures are not adopted apply fenoxaprop-p-• ethyl 9.3% w/w EC (9% w/v) @ 250-300 ml/acre in 150 to 160 l of water at 15-20 DAS or propaquizafop 10% EC @ 300-400 ml/acre in 200 to 300 l of water or quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC @ 300-400 ml/acre in 200 l of water as per infestation of the specifi c weed species.

Grass blue butterfl y See the common cultural, mechanical and biological practices• Biological control:

Release egg parasitoid • Trichogramma spp. at weekly intervals @0.6 lakh/acre/ week for four times.

Bihar hairy caterpillar Cultural control:

• Irrigate once to avoid prolonged mid-season drought to prevent pre-harvest infestation.

16


Mechanical control:

• Dig the trenches of 1 inch depth between the fi elds & dust the trenches to kill the larvae in pits.

Chemical control:

• Spray quinalphos 25% EC 600ml diluted in 200-400 l of water/acre (blackgram)

• Spray phenthoate 50% EC 320 ml diluted in 200-400 l of water/acre (blackgram & greengram)

Stem fl y • See the common cultural, mechanical and biological practices

Chemical control:

• Phorate10%CG@4 Kg/acre (blackgram & greengram)

Pod weevil • See the common cultural, mechanical and biological practices

Bean aphid Cultural control:

• Abiotic factors such as rain and wind reduce aphid infestations.

• Prune curled leaves or new shoots and dispose them.

Leaf hopper Biological control:

• Spray neem oil @ 5 ml/l

Pod fl y • See the common cultural, mechanical and biological practices

Whitefl y Chemical control:

• Phorate10%CG @4Kg/acre (Blackgram)

Thrips • See the common cultural, mechanical and biological practices

Blister beetle • See the common cultural and biological practices

White grub** Cultural control:

• See the common cultural, mechanical and biological practices

Biological control

• Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) can be sprayed at the rate of 100 million nematodes per acre, in root grub infested blackgram and grenngram fi elds

Red spider mite** Cultural control:

• Provide adequate irrigation

• Sprays of water or soap water

Biological control:

• Spray neem or pongamia soap @ 1% on lower surface thoroughly.

Anthracnose, bacterial leaf blight, Cercospora leaf spot

Cultural control:

• Early planting i.e. immediately after onset of monsoon.

• Grow crop on bower system to avoid soil contact.

• Maintain proper drainage in the fi eld.

Powdery mildew Cultural control:

• Bower system (maintain gapping) of cropping reduces the disease incidence.

Chemical control:

• Spray penconazole 10% EC@ 20ml diluted in 200 l of water/acre (blackgram & greengram)

Rust Cultural control:

• Volunteer plants reduce the disease severity

Root rot, Macrophomina blight

Cultural control:

• Plant in well-draining soils.

• Prepare seed beds to enhance rapid germination

• Proper irrigation is provided to prevent fl ooding and saturated soil conditions.

• Soil amendment with farm yard manure @ 5 tonnes/acre


17

Yellow mosaic virus • See the common cultural, mechanical and biological practices

Leaf crinkle virus • See the common cultural, mechanical and biological practices

Flowering

Blue butterfl y, grass blue butterfl y, bihar hairy caterpillar, pod weevil, bean aphid, pod fl y, whitefl y, thrips, anthracnose, bacterial leaf blight, Cercospora leaf spot, powdery mildew, rust, yellow mosaic virus, leaf crinkle virus

• Same as in vegetative stage


• Same as in sowing/seedling stage

Reproductive (pod development)

Nutrients • Incorporate crop residues in soil immediately after harvest.

Weeds • Remove left over weeds to prevent weed seed spread in fi eld.

Gram pod borer, spotted pod borer, spiny pod borer

Cultural control:

• Their fl owers shall attract oviposition sites which can be plucked and disposed.

• Ridge planting + cover crops like soybean, cowpea, moth bean.

Chemical control:.

• Spray chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC @ 40 ml in 200 l of water/ acre (blackgram)

• Spray lufenuron 5.4% EC @ 240 ml in 200 l of water/ acre (blackgram)

• Spray methyl parathion 2% DP @ 10 Kg in 10000 l of water/acre (blackgram & greengram)

• Spray monocrotophos 36% SL @ 250 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre (blackgram & greengram)

• Spray phenthoate 50% EC @ 800 ml in 200-400 l of water/ acre (blackgram & greengram)

• Spray thiodicarb 75% WP @ 250-300 g in 150-200 l of water/ acre (blackgram)

• Spray fl ubendiamide 39.35 % M/M SC @ 40ml in 200 l of water/acre (blackgram)

Blue butterfl y, grass blue butterfl y, bihar hairy caterpillar, pod weevil, bean aphid, pod fl y, whitefl y, thrips, anthracnose, bacterial leaf blight, Cercospora leaf spot, powdery mildew, rust, yellow mosaic virus, leaf crinkle virus

• Same as in vegetative stage


• Same as in sowing/seedling stage

Note: The pesticide dosages and spray fl uid volumes are based on high volume sprayer.

** Pests of regional signifi cance

18


V. INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE AND ITS MANAGEMENT

Insecticide resistance: Resistance to insecticides may be defi ned as ‘a heritable change in the sensitivity of a pest

population that is refl ected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the expected level of control when used

according to the label recommendation for that pest species’ (IRAC). Cross-resistance occurs when resistance to

one insecticide confers resistance to another insecticide, even where the insect has not been exposed to the latter

product.

Causes of resistance development: The causes and rate at which insecticide resistance develops depend on

several factors, including the initial frequency of resistance alleles present in the population, how rapidly the

insects reproduce, the insects’ level of resistance, the migration and host range of the insects, the insecticide’s

persistence and specifi city, and the rate, timing and number of applications of insecticide made. For instance,

insect pests that survive in large populations and breed quickly are at greater advantage of evolving insecticide,

especially when insecticides are misused or over-used.

General strategy for insecticide resistance management: The best strategy to avoid insecticide resistance is

prevention and including insecticide resistance management tactics as part of a larger integrated pest management

(IPM) approach.

1) Monitor pests: Monitor insect population development in fi elds to determine if and when control measures

are warranted. Monitor and consider natural enemies when making control decisions. After treatment, continue

monitoring to assess pest populations and their control.

2) Focus on AESA: Insecticides should be used only as a last resort when all other non-chemical management

options are exhausted and P: D ratio is above 2: 1. Apply biopesticides/chemical insecticides judiciously after

observing unfavourable P: D ratio and when the pests are in most vulnerable life stage. Use application rates and

intervals as per label claim.

3) Ecological engineering for pest management: Flowering plants that attract natural enemies as well as plants

that repel pests can be grown as border/intercrop.

4) Take an integrated approach to managing pests: Use as many diff erent control measures as possible viz.,

cultural, mechanical, physical, biological etc. Select insecticides with care and consider the impact on future pest

populations and the environment. Avoid broad-spectrum insecticides when a narrow-spectrum or more specifi c

insecticide will work. More preference should be given to green labeled insecticides.

5) Mix and apply carefully: While applying insecticides care should be taken for proper application of insecticides

in terms of dose, volume, timing, coverage, application techniques as per label claim.

6) Alternate diff erent insecticide classes: Avoid the repeated use of the same insecticide, insecticides in the

same chemical class, or insecticides in diff erent classes with same mode of action and rotate/alternate insecticide

classes and modes of action.

7) Preserve susceptible genes: Preserve susceptible individuals within the target population by providing

unsprayed areas within treated fi elds, adjacent “refuge” fi elds, or habitat attractions within a treated fi eld that

facilitate immigration. These susceptible individuals may outcompete and interbreed with resistant individuals,

diluting the resistant genes and therefore the impact of resistance.


19

VI. COMMON WEEDS

1) Goose grass: Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertner (Poaceae)

4) Jungle rice: E. colona (L.) Beauv. (Poaceae)

7) Horse purslane: Trianthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae)

10) Common lambs quarter: Chenopodium album L.

(Chenopodiaceae)

13) Field bindweed: Convolvulus arvensis L. (Convolvulaceae)

2) Rabbit/crow foot grass: Dactyloctenium aegyptium L.

Willd. (Poaceae)

5) Pigweed: Amaranthus viridis Hook. F. (Amaranthaceae)

8) Tick weed: Cleome viscose L. (Capparidaceae)

11) Burcloveru: Medicago denticulata Willd. (Fabaceae)

14) Three fl owered tickerfoil: Desmodium trifl orum (L.)DC

(Fabaceae)

3) Barnyard grass: Echinocloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. (Poaceae)

6) False amaranth: Digera arvensis Forssk. (Amaranthaceae)

9) Stonebreaker: Phyllanthus niruri L. (Euphorbiaceae)

12) Canada thistle: Cirsium arvensis (L.) Scop (Asteraceae)

15) Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L. (Cyperaceae)

20


VII. DESCRIPTION OF INSECT, MITE AND NEMATODE PESTS

1) Gram pod borer: Biology:

It is a polyphagous pest, infesting gram, lablab, saffl ower, chillies, groundnut, tobacco, cotton etc.

Egg: Spherical, yellowish eggs are laid singly on tender parts and buds of plants. The egg period lasts for 2-4

days.

Larva: Caterpillars are of varying colour, initially brown and later turn greenish with darker broken lines along

the side of the body. Body covered with radiating hairs. When full grown, they measure 3.7 to 5 cm in length.

The larval period lasts for 18-25 days. The full grown caterpillar pupates in the soil.

Pupa: Pupation takes place inside the soil in an earthen cell. Pupal stage lasts 7-15 days.

Adult: Moth is stout, medium sized with brownish/greyish forewings with a dark cross band near outer margin

and dark spots near costal margins, with a wing expanse of 3.7cm.

Life cycle:

Damage symptoms:

Young larva feeds on the leaves for some • time and then attacks fruits. Internal tissues

are eaten severely and completely hollowed

out. While feeding the caterpillar thrust its

head inside leaving the rest of the body

outside.

Bored fruits with round holes.• Fed leaves, shoots and buds.• The activity of • Helicoverpa starts on

Greengram, summer vegetables and maize

and continues their generation by Aug-Sept

months synchronizing with main crop.

1. http://www7.inra.fr/hyppz/RAVAGEUR/6helarm.htm; 2. http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/120/crops; 3. http://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=9408;

4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicoverpa_armigera

Favourable conditions:

Warm weather conditions followed by light rains and dry spells are favourable for multiplication.•

Natural enemies of gram pod borer:

Parasitoids: Trichogramma spp., Tetrastichus spp., Chelonus spp., Telenomus spp., Bracon spp., Ichneumon spp.,

Carcelia spp., Campoletis spp.

Predators: Lacewing, ladybird beetle, spider, red ant, dragon fl y, robber fl y, reduviid bug, praying mantis, black

drongo (King crow), wasp, common mynah, big-eyed bug (Geocoris sp), earwig, ground beetle, pentatomid

bug etc.

*For management refer to page number 17

2) Spotted pod borer: Biology:

It is a polyphagous, infesting gram, lablab, saffl ower, chillies, groundnut, tobacco, cotton etc.

Egg: Eggs are laid on the under surface of leaves, terminal shoots and fl ower buds. The freshly laid eggs were

milky white in colour and oval in outline, dorsoventraly fl attened and glued to the surface.

Larva: Greenish white with brown head. Larval duration is15 –20 days.


21

Pupa: Pupates in dry leaves and debris

Adult: Brown forewings and white hind wings

Life cycle:

Damage symptoms

Bore holes on the buds, fl ower or pods• Infested pods and fl owers are webbed • together

Natural enemies of spotted pod borer:

Parasitoids: Trichogramma spp., Tetrastichus spp., Chelonus spp., Telenomus spp., Bracon spp.

Predators: Lacewing, ladybird beetle, spider, red ant, dragon fl y, robber fl y, reduviid bug, praying mantis etc.


3) Spiny pod borer:Biology:

Larva: Greenish initially, turns pink before pupation. It has 5 black spots on the prothorax

Adult: Brownish grey moth. Prothorax – orange in colour. Fore wing has a white stripe along the anterior

margin.

Life cycle:

Damage symptom:

Dropping of fl owers and young pods•

Older pods marked with a brown spot where • a larva has entered

1. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=pdb&PdbID=38337; 2. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=pdb&PdbID=38335; 3. http://www.insectimages.org/browse/detail.

cfm?imgnum=5368270; 4. http://www.nbaii.res.in/insectpests/images/Etiella-zinckenella12.jpg


22


4) Red spider mite:Biology:

Egg: Hyaline, globular laid in mass

Nymph: Yellowish in colour

Adult: Red coloured small size

Life cycle:

Damage symptoms:

• Aff ected leaves become reddish

brown and bronzy

• In severe infestation silken

webbing on the leaves

• Leaves wither and dry

• Flower and fruit formation

aff ected

1. http://www.simplepestcontrol.com/spider-mite-control.htm; 2. http://entomology.k-state.edu/extension/insect-photo-gallery/Corn-Insects.html; 3. http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/

grapeipm/spidermites.ht

Natural enemies of red spider mite:

Predators: Predatory mite, predatory thrips, oligota spp., orius spp., hover fl y, mirid bug etc.


5) Bihar hairy caterpillar:Biology:

This pest occurs during October to December and of late it is also occuring from July. In recent years, it has

become an important pest on groundnut also.

Egg: Female lays eggs in masses on leaves.

Larva: The larvae are pale yellow coloured with yellow hair over the body. They are polyphagous, feed on

leaves and cause loss by way of defoliation. In severe cases only stems are left behind. In defoliated crops it

also feeds on capsules.

Pupa: Pupates in leaf litter close to the plants.

Adult: Adult moth is reddish brown with black spots. Both the wings are pinkish and posses black spots.

There are several generations per year.

Life cycle:

Damage symptoms:

Young larvae feed gregariously mostly on the under surface of • the leaves.

Caterpillars feed on leaves and in severe infestation the whole • crop is defoliated.

Drying up of infected leaves is the main symptom.•

1,2 http://uasr.agropedia.in/content/Blackgram & Greengram-bihar-hairy-caterpillar ; 3,4 ttps://www.

google.co.in/search?q=Bihar+hairy+caterpillar+in+Blachk gram & Greengram


23

Natural enemies of bihar hairy caterpillar:

Parasitoids: Trichogramma spp., Bracon spp.

Predators: Lacewing, ladybird beetle, spider, red ant, dragon fl y, praying mantis, ground beetle, shield bugs

etc.

*For management refer to page numbers 15, 16, 17

6) Aphid:

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are very tiny, shiny-black, and are found in the crevices of bud, stems, and barks of the plant. Aphids

usually do not lay eggs in warm parts of the world.

Nymph: Nymphs are young aphids, they look like the wingless adults but are smaller. They become adults

within 7 to 10 days.

Adult: Adults are small, back to dark brownish colour, 1 to 4 mm long, soft-bodied insects with two long

antennae that resemble horns. Most aphids have two short cornicles (horns) towards the rear of the body.

Life cycle:

Damage symptoms:

In addition, plants may become contaminated by • honeydew produced by aphids and sooty mould

growing on honeydew.

Blackgram contaminated with honeydew and / or • sooty moulds are not marketable.

Aphids are also vectors of diseases, including the • bean common mosaic virus.

The black bean aphid is a widely distributed pest • of beans. The black legume aphid usually attacks

beans grown at low altitudes

Natural enemies of aphid:

Parasitoid: Aphidius colemani, Aphelinus sp

Predators: Syrphid larva, lacewing, ladybird beetle,

spider etc.,

*For management refer to page numbers 16, 17 Aphids infested twigs

7) Stem fl y:Biology:

Egg: The stem fl y inserts eggs on the under side of young leaves. Oviposit ing sites present as pale pin prick spots

when infested leaves are held up to the light.

Larva: The lar vae are whitish, torpedo-shaped maggots that reach little more than 2mm. Larva pupate after

8-11 days. Before pupa tion, which takes place inside the stem, the larva makes an exit hole for the emer gence

of the adult.

Pupa: Pupae are smooth, light brown to pale brown, cylin dri cal in shape with rounded ends. Pupal stage lasts

6–12 days.

Adult: Adult fl ies are shiny black and about 2mm long with a pair of clear wings of wingspan 4-5 mm.

24


Life cycle:

Damage symptoms:

Infected stems are often red inside (some-• times pale) and a dis tinct zig-zag tun nel

may be observed — with mag gots or pupae

inside. Apart from the exit holes, the plants

will ini tially appear healthy on the out side.

Large infes ta tions (3 or more mag gots per • plant) may cause wilt ing and may even

cause plant death, espe cially in younger

plants par tic u larly if dam age occurs in the

plant’s hypocotyl (basal stem) region.

2,3,4: http://thebeatsheet.com.au/-stem-fl y-outbreak-in-gram-crops/

Natural enemies of stem fl y:

Parasitoids: Tiny wasps


8) Whitefl y: Biology:

Egg: Pear shaped, light yellowish.

Nymph: On hatching - Oval, scale-like, greenish white.

Adult: White, tiny, scale-like adult.

Life cycle:

1. http://m.animal.memozee.com/m.view.php?q=%EB%8B%B4%EB%B0%B0%EA%

B0%80%EB%A3%A8%EC%9D%B4&p=3

2. http://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=2511050

3 http://www.fera.defra.gov.uk/plants/publications/documents/factsheets/bemisia.

pdf

4. http://www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/inter/inmine/Whitefg.html

Natural enemies of whitefl y:

Parasitoids: Encarsia formosa, Eretmocerus sp

Predators: Ladybird beetle, spider, lacewing, mirid bug, reduviid bug etc.

*For management refer to page numbers 16, 17

9) Thrips:Biology:

Egg: Eggs are white or yellow in colour and are microscopic and almost impossible to see. Eggs are inserted one

by one by the females in the plant tissue. Only one end of the egg will be near the surface of the tissue to allow

the immature to emerge. Adults prefer to lay their eggs in leaf, cotyledon, or fl ower tissues.


25

Nymph: Very small. Thrips pupae appear as an intermediate form between the immature and the adult. They

have short antennae and the wing buds are visible but short and not functional.Pale yellow to brown. In the

base of the plant neck or in the soil.At this stage thrips do not feed.

Adult: Adults measure up to 2 mm. Adults have fully developed wings. The wings are very diff erent from other

insects. They have a single longitudinal vein in which there are several hairs connected perpendicular to the

vein. The wing appears as fringe with hairs. When at rest, the wings are folded along the back of the insect. Pale

yellow to dark brown. The same as immatures. Adults are more mobile than immatures and pupae because

they can fl y. They are attracted to yellow and white colors. They often will fl y to one’s clothes or land on exposed

skin.

Life cycle:

Damage symptoms:

The appearance of the damage is silvery • patches or streaks on the leaves that shine in

the sun. When damage is severe, these small

patches can occupy most of the surface of

the leaf and the plant cannot adequately

photosynthesize. The plant loses more water

than normal through the damaged tissues

and plant pathogens penetrate the injured

plant easily.

1,2, http://web.entomology.cornell.edu/shelton/veg-insects-global/english/thrips.html

Natural enemies of thrips:

Parsitoid: Ceranisus menes

Predators: Predatory mite, predatory thrips, Oligota spp., Orius spp., hover fl y, mirid bug etc.


10) Blister beetle: The beetles are found to occur throughout the year in red gram, cowpea, greengram and blackgram. Peak

incidence is generally observed during September, causing a maximum fl ower damage of 95 per cent.

Adults feed on the fl owers, tender pods and young leaves resulting in fewer pods. In locations where

pigeon pea is grown over large areas, blister beetles cause little damage. However, in small plots that are

in the fl owering stage during the period of peak adult activity (August-October in southern India), most

of the fl owers may be eaten by the beetles and crop losses may be substantial. The adults are medium

to large (2.5 cm in length), usually black with large yellow spots and a red band across the abdomen,

which sometimes changes into yellow spots. The antennae are orange or yellow. The immature stages

(larvae) do not feed on plants. They live in the soil and eat grasshopper eggs, and are therefore benefi cial.


11) Root-knot nematode:Biology:

Most species of plant parasitic nematodes have a relatively simple life cycle consisting of the egg, four • larval stages and the adult male and female.

Development of the fi rst stage larvae occurs within the egg where the fi rst molt occurs. Second stage • larvae hatch from eggs to fi nd and infect plant roots or in some cases foliar tissues.

26


Under suitable environmental conditions, the eggs hatch and new larvae emerge to complete the life • cycle within 4 to 8 weeks depending on temperature.

Nematode development is generally most rapid within an optimal soil temperature range of 70 to • 80°F.

Life cycle:

Damage symptoms:

Infected plants in patches in the fi eld• Formation of galls on host root system is the • primary symptom

Roots branch profusely starting from the gall • tissue causing a ‘beard root’ symptom

Infected roots become knobby and knotty• In severely infected plants the root system • is reduced and the rootlets are almost

completely absent. The roots are seriously

hampered in their function of uptake and

transport of water and nutrients

Plants wilt during the hot part of day, • especially under dry conditions and are often

stunted

Nematode infection predisposes plants to • fungal and bacterial root pathogens

1. http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/sweetpotato/key/;

2.http://nematology.umd.edu/rootknot.html;

3.http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/pgg/dan_webpage/Introduction/Images/pyroform.html

Root-knot galls on roots

Survival and spread:

Primary• : Egg masses in infected plant debris and soil or collateral and other hosts like Solonaceous,

Malvaceous and Leguminaceous plants act as sources of inoculum.

Secondary• : Autonomous second stage juveniles that may also be water dispersed.


Loamy light soils.• *For management refer to page number 14

Natural Enemies of Blackgram and Greengram Insect Pests

Parasitoids

1. Trichogramma spp . 2. Tetrastichus spp.

Egg-larval parasitoidEgg parasitoids

3. Telenomus spp. 4. Chelonus spp.


27

9. Aphidius sp

8. Campoletis spp.7. Carcelia spp.6. Ichneumon sp5. Bracon spp.

10. Encarsia formosa

Larval parasitoids

11. Eretmocerus spp.

Nymphal/larval and adult parasitoids

1. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured_insects/Trichogrammatids.php; 2. http://www.pbase.com/image/135529248; 3. http://baba-insects.blogspot.in/2012/02/telenomus.html 4. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/chelonus.htm; 5. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/Bracon%20brevicornis.htm; 6. http://www.organicgardeninfo.com/ichneumon-wasp.html; 7. http://72.44.83.99/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=40633&pid=178398; 8. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/Campoletis.htm; 9. http://biobee.in/products-and-services/solutions/bio-aphidius/; 10. http://www.buglogical.com/whitefl y-control/encarsia-formosa/; 11. http://www.dongbufarmceres.com/main/mboard.asp?strBoardID=c_product01_en

Predators

1. Lacewing

5. Robber fl y

2. Ladybird beetle

6. Red ant

3. Reduviid bug

7. Black drongo

4. Spider

8. Common mynah

28


9. Big-eyed bug

13. Preying mantis

10. Earwig

14. Dicyphus hesperus

11. Ground beetle

15. Predatory mite

12. Pentatomid bug

16. Predatory thrips

VIII. DESCRIPTION OF DISEASES

1) Cercospora leaf spot:Disease symptoms:

Moist weather and splattering rains are conducive to disease development. Most outbreaks of the • disease can be traced back to heavy rainstorms that occur in the area.

Infected leaves show small, brown, water soaked, circular spots surrounded with yellowish halo.•

On older plants the leafl et infection is mostly on older leaves and may cause serious defoliation. The • most striking symptoms are on the green fruit. Small, water-soaked spots.

First appear which later become raised and enlarge until they are one-eighth to one-fourth inch in • diameter.

Centres of these lesions become irregular, light brown and slightly sunken with a rough, scabby • surface.

Ripe fruits are not susceptible to the disease. Surface of the seed becomes contaminated with the • bacteria, remaining on the seed surface for some time.

17. Oligota spp. 18. Orius spp. 19. Hover fl y 20. Mirid bug

5. http://www.warpedphotosblog.com/robber-fly-and-prey; 6. http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/queensland-launched-a-war-against-the-fire-ant-

invasion-but-12-years-later-they8217re-still-on-the-march/story-fnihsrf2-1226686256021; 7. http://nagpurbirds.org/blackdrongo/picture/1639; 8. http://nickdobbs65.

wordpress.com/tag/herbie-the-love-bug/; 9. http://bugguide.net/node/view/598529; 10. http://www.flickr.com/photos/johnhallmen/2901162091/; 11. http://www.

mattcolephotography.co.uk/Galleries/insects/Bugs%20&%20Beetles/slides/Ground%20Beetle%20-%20Pterostichus%20madidus.html; 12. http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/ndsu/

rider/Pentatomoidea/Genus_Asopinae/Eocanthecona.htm; 13. http://spirit-animals.com/praying-mantis/; 14. http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/hemipt/Dicyphus.htm; 15. http://

www.dragonfl i.co.uk/natural-pest-control/natural-enemies; 16. http://biocontrol.ucr.edu/hoddle/persea_mite.html; 17. http://www.fugleognatur.dk/forum/show_message.

asp?MessageID=560188&ForumID=33; 18. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orius_insidiosus_from_USDA_2_(cropped).jpg; 20. http://www.britishbugs.org.uk/heteroptera/

Miridae/blepharidopterus_angulatus.html


29

The organism survives in alternate hosts, on volunteer blackgram plants and on infected plant debris.•


The fungus is soil borne on diseased plant debris and it survives only on the tissues which it colonizes • as a parasite.

Fungus spreads abort 3 m through the soil in one season, apparently along roots.•

The fungus was found to survive in infected plant stubble for 2.5 in vertisols and 3 years in alfi sols.•


Moist weather and splattering rains.•

High humidity or persistent dew•


2) Bacterial leaf blight: Disease symptoms:

This is a common disease of blackgram occurring on the foliage at any stage of the growth.• The fungus attacks the foliage causing characteristic leaf spots and blight. Early blight is fi rst observed • on the plants as small, black lesions mostly on the older foliage.

Spots enlarge, and by the time they are one-fourth inch in diameter or larger, concentric rings in a bull’s • eye pattern can be seen in the center of the diseased area.

Tissue surrounding the spots may turn yellow. If high temperature and humidity occur at this time, • much of the foliage is killed.

Lesions on the stems are similar to those on leaves, sometimes girdling the plant if they occur near the • soil line.

Transplants showing infection by the late blight fungus often die when set in the fi eld. The fungus also • infects the fruit, generally through the calyx or stem attachment.

Lesions attain considerable size, usually involving nearly the entire fruit; concentric rings are also present on the fruit.


The bacterium is seed-borne and through vines grow perennially.• Favourable conditions:

Rain splashes play an important role in the development and spreading of the disease.• Warm, rainy and wet weather.•


3) Anthracnose:Disease symptoms:

Symptoms are circular, black, sunken spots with dark center and bright red orange margins on leaves • and pods

In severe infections, the aff ected parts wither off .•

Seedlings get blighted due to infection soon after seed germination.•


The pathogens survive on seed and plant debris •

Disease spreads in the fi eld through air-borne conidia•


The disease is more sever in cool and wet seasons.•


30


4) Powdery mildew: Disease symptoms:

White powdery patches appear on leaves and other green parts which later become dull coloured• These patches gradually increase in size and become circular covering the lower surface also• When the infection is severe, both the surfaces of the leaves are completely covered by whitish powdery • growth

In severe infections, foliage becomes yellow causing premature defoliation• The disease also creates forced maturity of the infected plants which results in heavy yield losses. •


The pathogen has a wide host range and survives in conidial form on various hosts in off -season• Secondary spread is through air-borne conidia produced in the season. •


Cool (10-20 ºC) and wet weather (90% RH) favours disease development.• *For management refer to page numbers 16, 17

5) Root rot and leaf blight:Disease symptoms:

The pathogens cause seed decay, root rot, damping-off , seedling blight, stem canker and leaf blight • in greengram

The disease occurs commonly at pod development stage• In the initial stages, the fungus causes seed rot, seedling blight and root rot symptoms. • The aff ected leaves turn yellow in colour and brown irregular lesions appear on leaves. • On coalescence of such lesions, big blotches are formed and the aff ected leaves start drying • prematurely.

Roots and basal portion of the stem become black in colour and the bark peels off easily. • When the tap root of the aff ected plant is split open, reddening of internal tissues is visible. •


Species are • saprotrophic, occurring in the soil which is the source of primary infection.

Secondary infection occurs by means of asexual spores.• Favourable conditions:

Moist soil and humid conditions favour the development of disease.• *For management refer to page numbers 16, 17

6) Rust: Disease symptoms:

The disease appears as circular reddish brown pustules which appear more commonly on the • underside of the leaves

When leaves are severely infected, both the surfaces are fully covered by rust pustules• Shrivelling followed by defoliation resulting in yield losses.•


The pathogen survives in the soil through teliospores and as • uredospores in crop debris. Primary infection is by the sporidia developed from teliospores. Secondary spread is by wind-borne uredospores. The fungus also survives on other legume hosts.


Cloudy humid weather, temperature of 21-26˚ C.• Nights with heavy dews•



31

7) Stem canker and Macrophomina blight:

Disease symptoms:

In rice fallows, symptoms appear on 4 weeks old blackgram crop as raised white cankers at the base • of the stem

These enlarge gradually and turn as raised brown streaks spreading upwards•

Plants are stunted and leaves dark green, mottled and reduced in size•

Normal leaves on the aff ected plants drop suddenly and dry•

Flowering and podding is greatly reduced.•


The pathogens survive in soil and plant debris.•


Warm humid weather.•

The disease is severe generally during late • kharif and rabi seasons.


8) Yellow mosaic disease: Disease symptoms:

Initially mild scattered yellow spots appear on young leaves•

The next trifoliate leaves emerging from the growing apex show irregular yellow and green patches • alternating with each other

Spots gradually increase in size and ultimately some leaves turn completely yellow•

Infected leaves also show necrotic symptoms. •

Diseased plants are stunted, mature late and produce very few fl owers and pods•

Pods of infected plants are reduced in size and turn yellow in colour. •

Transmission and favourable conditions:

The disease is transmitted in semi persistent manner by aphid • Aphis gossypii.

Aphids are more active in warm summer conditions and increase in their population leads to increased • spread of the viruses.


9) Leaf crinkle:Disease symptoms:

The symptoms appear on youngest leaves as chlorosis around some lateral veins and its branches near • the margin

The leaves show curling of margin downwards•

The veins show reddish brown discoloration on the under surface which also extends to the petiole•

Plants showing symptoms within 5 weeks after sowing invariably remain stunted and majority of these • die due to top necrosis within a week or two.

Transmission and favourable conditions:

Virus is transmitted by • Henosepilachna dodecastigma. The disease develops in the fi elds mainly

through seed or rubbing of diseased leaves


32


Disease cycles:

1. Anthracnose: 4. Powdery mildew:

2. Bacterial leaf blight: 5. Root rot and leaf blight:

3. Cercospora leaf spot: 6. Rust:


33

7. Stem canker and Macrophomina blight:

IX. SAFETY MEASURES

A. At the time of harvest:

During harvesting, proper care should be taken.

Harvesting should be done timely. Timely harvesting ensures optimum grain quality and • consumer acceptance.

Dry beans should be harvested when most pods are fully mature and have turned color. To • minimize shatter, harvesters should not shake the vines.

The cutter consists of 2 broad blades set to cut 2 adjacent rows about 5 cm below the ground. • Then prongs pull plants from both rows into one windrow in wet weather; plants are forked into

fi eld stacks ca. 1.3 m in diameter and 2–3 m high that are supported by a center stake.

Harvesting before the crops mature, usually result lower yields, higher proportion of immature • seeds, poor grain quality and more chances of disease attack during storage.

Delay in harvesting of blackgram & greengram, results in shattering of pods and other losses • caused by birds, rats, insects etc.

Avoid harvesting during adverse weather conditions i.e. rains and overcast weather. • The best time to harvest the crop, when large (80) percent of the pods are fully matured. • Right kind of harvest equipment (sickle) should be used. • Avoid pest infestation prior to harvesting. • Rogue out the admixtures prior to harvesting, it helps in fetching good price in the market. • After cutting, if the weather permits, leave the harvested plant to dry in the fi eld. •

B. During post-harvest storage:

The post-harvest losses of blackgram & greengram can be minimised in the process of threshing, • winnowing, storage, processing, handling and transportation.

(i) Threshing and Winnowing: The loss at threshing yard is 0.5 percent. In order to reduce the • losses, threshing and winnowing operations are required to be completed within a short period

through improved equipment.

(ii) Transport losses: During transportation, the losses are report to be extent of 0.5% percent • and necessitating quick transportation to reduce the losses.

(iii) Storage: Due to improper and ineffi cient methods of storage, the loss upto 7.5 percent is •

34


X. DO’S AND DON’TS IN IPM

S.

No.Do’s Don’ts

1 Deep ploughing is to be done on bright sunny

days during the months of May and June. The fi eld

should be kept exposed to sun light at least for 2-3

weeks.

Do not plant or irrigate the fi eld after ploughing, at

least for 2-3 weeks, to allow desiccation of weed’s

bulbs and/or rhizomes of perennial weeds.

2 Adopt crop rotation. Avoid monocroping

3 Grow only recommended varieties. Do not grow varieties not suitable for the season

or the region.

4 Sow early in the season Avoid late sowing as this may lead to reduced yields

and incidence of white grubs and diseases.

5 Always treat the seeds with approved biopesticides

/chemicals for the control of seed borne diseases/

pests.

Do not use seeds without seed treatment with

biopesticides/chemicals.

6 Sow in rows at optimum depths under proper

moisture conditions for better establishment.

Do not sow seeds beyond 5-7 cm depth.

7 Apply only recommended herbicides at recomme-

nded dose, proper time, as appropriate spray

solution with standard equipment along with fl at

fan or fl at jet nozzles.

Pre-emergent as well as soil incorporated herbicides

should not be applied in dry soils. Do not apply

herbicides along with irrigation water or by mixing

with soil, sand or urea.

8 Maintain optimum and healthy crop stand which

would be capable of competing with weeds at a

critical stage of crop weed competition

Crops should not be exposed to moisture defi cit

stress at their critical growth stages.

9 Use NPK fertilizers as per the soil test recommen-

dation.

Avoid imbalanced use of fertilizers

10 Use micronutrient mixture after sowing based test

recommendations.

Do not apply any micronutrient mixture after

sowing without test recommendations.

11 Conduct weekly AESA in the morning preferably

before 9 a.m. Take decision on management

practice based on AESA and P: D ratio only.

Do not take any management decision without

considering AESA and P: D ratio

12 Install pheromone traps at appropriate period. Do not store the pheromone lures at normal room

temperature (keep them in refrigerator).

estimated during storage. Quantitative losses result from spoilage, driage, infestation by insects,

rodents or birds. Therefore, improved storage facilities should be adopted to reduce the losses.

To avoid post-harvest losses, following preventive measures should be considered: � Harvest timely to reduce losses.

� Use proper method of harvesting.

� Avoid the losses in threshing and winnowing by adopting modern mechanical methods.

� Use improved techniques of processing.

� Adopt grading for getting remunerative prices inter-alia to avoid fi nancial loss.

� Use good packaging materials for storage as well as for transport i.e. B-Twill Jute bags or HDPE

bags.

� Use proper techniques in storage.

� Use pest control measures during storage.

� Timely and proper handling (loading and unloading) with suitable transportation facilities at

farm and market level.

� Avoid use of hooks by labour during handling.


35

13 Release parasitoids only after noticing adult moth

catches in the pheromone trap or as pheromone

trap or as per fi eld observation

Do not apply chemical pesticides within seven days

of release of parasitoids.

14 Apply HaNPV at recommended dose when a

largenumber of egg masses and early instar larvae

are noticed. Apply NPV only in the evening hours

after 5 pm.

Do not apply NPV on late instar larva and during

day time.

15 In case of pests which are active during night like

fruit moth spray recommended biopesticides/

chemicals at the time of their appearance during

evening time.

Do not spray pesticides at midday since; most of

the insects are not active during this period.

16 Spray pesticides thoroughly to treat the under-

surface of the leaves, particularly for mites,

whitefl ies, thrips and other sucking pests harbour-

ing the lower side of leaves.

Do not spray pesticides only on the upper surface

of leaves.

17 Apply short persistent pesticides to avoid pesticide

residue in the soil and produce.

Do not apply pesticides during preceding 7 days

before harvest

18 Follow the recommended procedure of trap crop

technology.

Do not apply long persistent pesticides on trap

crop, otherwise it may not attract the pests and

natural enemies.

36


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ic s

alin

e). W

ear

rub

ber

glo

ves

wh

ile

was

hin

g c

on

tact

are

as.

In a

dd

itio

n t

o a

tro

pin

e g

ive

2 –

PAM

(2 –

pyr

idin

e

ald

oxi

mem

eth

iod

ide)

. 1 g

an

d 0

.25g

for

infa

nts

intr

aven

ou

sly

at s

low

rat

e o

ver

a p

erio

d o

f 5 m

inu

tes

and

ad

min

iste

r ag

ain

per

iod

ical

ly a

s in

dic

ated

. Mo

re

than

on

e in

ject

ion

may

be

req

uir

ed.

Avo

id m

orp

hin

e, t

heo

ph

yllin

e, a

min

op

hyl

ln,

bar

bit

ura

tes

Phen

oth

iazn

ines

7 d

ays


37

4.O

xyd

emet

on

-met

hyl

Hig

hly

to

xic

Cla

ss Ib

Mo

der

atel

y

Haz

ard

ou

s

-do

--d

o-

7 d

ays

5.Ph

ora

te

Extr

emel

y to

xic

Cla

ss I

a

Extr

emel

y

haz

ard

ou

s

Nau

sea,

vo

mit

ing

, res

tles

snes

s, t

rem

or,

app

reh

ensi

on

, co

nvu

lsio

ns,

co

ma,

resp

irat

ory

failu

re a

nd

dea

th

Mild

– a

no

rexi

a, h

ead

ach

e, d

izzi

nes

s,

wea

knes

s, a

nxi

ety,

tre

mo

rs o

f to

ng

ue

and

eye

lids,

mio

sis,

imp

airm

ent

of

visu

al a

cuit

y.

Mo

der

ate-

nau

sea,

sal

ivat

ion

,

lacr

imat

ion

, ab

do

min

al c

ram

p,

vom

itin

g, s

wea

tin

g, s

low

pu

lse,

mu

scu

lar

trem

ors

, mio

sis.

Seve

re –

dia

rrh

ea, p

inp

oin

t an

d n

on

-

reac

tive

pu

pils

, res

pir

ato

ry d

iffi c

ult

y,

pu

lmo

nar

y ed

ema,

cya

no

sis,

loss

of

sph

inct

er c

on

tro

l, co

nvu

lsio

ns,

co

ma

and

hea

rt b

lock

.

Firs

t a

id m

ea

sure

s: R

emo

ve t

he

per

son

fro

m t

he

con

tam

inat

ed e

nvi

ron

men

t

In c

ase

of (

a) S

kin

co

nta

ct R

emo

ve a

ll co

nta

min

ated

cl

oth

ing

s an

d im

med

iate

ly w

ash

wit

h lo

t o

f wat

er

and

so

ap. (

b) E

ye c

on

tam

inat

ion

Was

h t

he

eyes

wit

h

ple

nty

of c

oo

l an

d c

lean

wat

er; (

c) In

hal

atio

n –

Car

ry

the

per

son

to

th

e o

pen

fres

h a

ir, lo

ose

n t

he

clo

thin

gs

aro

un

d n

eck

and

ch

est,

an

d (d

) In

dig

esti

on

– If

th

e vi

ctim

is fu

lly c

on

scio

us,

ind

uce

vo

mit

ing

by

tick

ling

b

ack

of t

he

thro

at. D

o n

ot

adm

inis

ter

milk

, alc

oh

ol a

nd

fa

tty

sub

stan

ces.

In c

ase

the

per

son

is u

nco

nsc

iou

s m

ake

sure

th

e b

reat

hin

g p

assa

ge

is k

ept

clea

r w

ith

ou

t an

y o

bst

ruct

ion

. Vic

tim

’s h

ead

sh

ou

ld b

e lit

tle

low

ered

an

d fa

ce s

ho

uld

be

turn

ed t

o o

ne

sid

e in

th

e ly

ing

d

ow

n p

osi

tio

n. I

n c

ase

of b

reat

hin

g d

iffi c

ult

y, g

ive

mo

uth

to

mo

uth

or

mo

uth

to

no

se b

reat

hin

g.

Med

ical

aid

: Tak

e th

e p

atie

nt

to t

he

do

cto

r/Pr

imar

y H

ealt

h C

entr

e im

med

iate

ly a

lon

g w

ith

th

e o

rig

inal

co

nta

iner

, lea

fl et

and

lab

el

Tre

atm

en

t o

f p

ois

on

ing

: Gas

tric

lava

ge

wit

h 2

-4

L. t

ap w

ater

. Cat

har

sis

wit

h 3

0 g

m (1

0 o

z) s

od

ium

su

lph

ate

in t

he

cup

of w

ater

- B

arb

itu

rate

s in

ap

pro

pri

ate

do

sag

es re

pea

ted

as

nec

essa

ry fo

r re

stle

ssn

ess

or

con

vuls

ion

s.

- Wat

ch b

reat

hin

g c

lose

ly, a

spir

ate

oxy

gen

an

d/o

r ar

tifi c

ial r

esp

irat

ion

, if n

eed

ed.

- Avo

id o

ils, o

il la

xati

ves

and

ep

inep

hri

ne

(Ad

ren

alin

) –

do

no

t g

ive

stim

ula

nts

.

- Giv

e ca

lciu

m g

luco

nat

e (1

9% in

10

ml A

mp

ule

s)

intr

aven

ou

sly

ever

y fo

ur

ho

urs

.

38


For

extr

eme

sym

pto

ms

of O

.P p

ois

on

ing

, in

ject

ion

of

atro

pin

e (2

-4 m

g, f

or

adu

lts,

0/5

-1.0

mg

for

child

ren

) is

reco

mm

end

ed, r

epea

ted

at

5-10

min

ute

inte

rval

s u

nti

l si

gn

s o

f atr

op

iniz

atio

n o

ccu

r.

Spee

d is

imp

erat

ive

- Atr

op

ine

inje

ctio

n –

1 t

o 4

mg

. Rep

eat

2 m

g,

wh

en t

oxi

c sy

mp

tom

s b

egin

to

recu

r (1

5-16

min

ute

inte

rval

s), E

xces

sive

sal

ivat

ion

go

od

sig

n, m

ore

atro

pin

e n

eed

ed.

- Kee

p a

irw

ays

op

en, A

spir

ate,

use

oxy

gen

, in

sert

end

otr

ach

eal t

ub

e. D

o t

rach

eoto

my

and

giv

e ar

tifi c

ial

resp

irat

ion

as

nee

ded

.

- Fo

r in

ges

tio

n la

vag

e st

om

ach

wit

h 5

% s

od

ium

bic

arb

on

ate

if n

ot

vom

itin

g. F

or

skin

co

nta

ct, w

ash

wit

h s

oap

an

d w

ater

(eye

was

h w

ith

iso

ton

ic s

alin

e).

Wea

r ru

bb

er g

love

s w

hile

was

hin

g c

on

tact

are

as.

In a

dd

itio

n t

o a

tro

pin

e g

ive

2-PA

M (2

- pyr

idin

e

ald

oxi

mem

eth

iod

ide)

1g

an

d 0

.25

g fo

r in

fan

ts

intr

aven

ou

sly

at a

slo

w r

ate

ove

r a

per

iod

of 5

min

ute

s

and

ad

min

iste

r ag

ain

per

iod

ical

ly a

s in

dic

ated

. Mo

re

than

on

e in

ject

ion

may

be

req

uir

ed.

Avo

id m

orp

hin

e, t

heo

ph

yllin

e, a

min

op

hyl

lin,

bar

bit

uar

ates

ofr

ph

eno

thia

zin

es.

Do

no

t g

ive

atro

pin

e to

a c

yan

oti

c p

atie

nts

. Giv

e

arti

fi cia

l res

pir

atio

n fi

rst

then

ad

min

iste

r at

rop

ine.

-

6.Q

uin

alp

ho

s

Hig

hly

to

xic

Cla

ss II

Mo

der

atel

y

Haz

ard

ou

s

-do

--d

o-

-


39

7.C

arb

ofu

ran

Extr

emel

y to

xic

Cla

ss I

b h

igh

ly

haz

ard

ou

s

Co

nst

rict

ion

of p

up

ils,

saliv

atio

n, p

rofu

se s

wea

tin

g,

mu

scle

inco

rdin

atio

n, n

ause

a,

vom

itin

g,d

iarr

hea

, ep

igas

tric

pai

n,

tig

htn

ess

in c

hes

t

Tre

atm

en

t o

f p

ois

on

ing

: Atr

op

ine

inje

ctio

n-1

-4 m

g.

rep

eat

2 m

g w

hen

sym

pto

ms

beg

in t

o re

cur

(15-

16

min

inte

rval

) exc

essi

ve s

aliv

atio

n- g

oo

d s

ign

, mo

re

atro

pin

e n

eed

ed

--

8.Fl

ub

end

iam

ide

Slig

htl

y to

xic

Un

likel

y p

rod

uce

acu

te h

azar

d

--Tr

eat

me

nt

of

po

iso

nin

g: T

reat

sym

pto

mat

ical

ly a

s

ther

e is

no

kn

ow

n s

pec

ifi c

anti

do

te

5 d

ays

9.In

do

xaca

rb

Mo

der

atel

y to

xic

Alt

ered

blo

od

ch

emis

try

Ab

no

rmal

dec

reas

e in

nu

mb

er o

f red

blo

od

cells

(an

aem

ia) w

hic

h c

ou

ld p

rod

uce

tire

dn

ess,

rap

id h

eart

bea

t, d

izzi

nes

s,

pal

e sk

in, l

eg c

ram

ps,

sho

rtn

ess

of

bre

ath

, Cen

tral

ner

vou

s sy

stem

eff

ects

Firs

t a

id m

ea

sure

s: H

ave

per

son

sip

a g

lass

of w

ater

if

able

to

sw

allo

w. D

o n

ot

ind

uce

vo

mit

ing

un

less

to

ld t

o

do

so

by

a d

oct

or.

Do

no

t g

ive

anyt

hin

g b

y m

ou

th t

o

an u

nco

nsc

iou

s p

erso

n

Tre

atm

en

t o

f p

ois

on

ing

: No

sp

ecifi

c an

tid

ote

.

Trea

tmen

t is

ess

enti

ally

sym

pto

mat

ic.

5 d

ays

Syn

the

tic

pyr

eth

roid

s

10.

Lam

bd

a-cy

hal

oth

rin

Toxi

c if

swal

low

ed o

r in

hal

ed. I

rrit

atin

g

to e

yes

and

ski

n. V

apo

rs m

ay c

ause

dro

wsi

nes

s an

d d

izzi

nes

s. M

ay b

e

har

mfu

l if s

wal

low

ed a

nd

en

ters

airw

ay.

May

cau

se t

emp

ora

ry it

chin

g, t

ing

ling

,

bu

rnin

g o

r n

um

bn

ess

of e

xpo

sed

ski

n,

calle

d p

ares

thes

ia

Firs

t a

id m

ea

sure

s:

Do

no

t in

du

ce v

om

itin

g u

nle

ss t

old

to

do

so

by

a d

oct

or,

do

no

t g

ive

anyt

hin

g b

y m

ou

th t

o a

n

un

con

scio

us

per

son

Tre

atm

en

t o

f p

ois

on

ing

: Th

ere

is n

o s

pec

ifi c

anti

do

te.

Trea

tmen

t is

ess

enti

ally

sym

pto

mat

ic.

4 d

ays

40


XII. BASIC PRECAUTIONS IN PESTICIDE USAGE

Purchase A.

Purchase only just required quantity e.g. 100, 250, 500, 1000 g/ml for single application in specifi ed area.1.

Do not2. purchase leaking containers, loose, unsealed or torn bags; Do not purchase pesticides without

proper/approved labels.

While purchasing insist for invoice/bill/cash memo 3.

StorageB.

Avoid storage of pesticides in house premises.1.

Keep only in original container with intact seal.2.

Do not3. transfer pesticides to other containers; Do not store expose to sunlight or rain water; Do not

weedicides along with other pesticides

Never keep them together with food or feed/fodder.4.

Keep away from reach of children and livestock.5.

HandlingC.

Never carry/ transport pesticides along with food materials.1.

Avoid carrying bulk pesticides (dust/granules) on head shoulders or on the back.2.

Precautions for preparing spray solutionD.

Use clean water.1.

Always protect your nose, eyes, mouth, ears and hands.2.

Use hand gloves, face mask and cover your head with cap. 3.

Use polythene bags as hand gloves, handkerchiefs or piece of clean cloth as mask and a cap or towel to 4.

cover the head (Do not use polythene bag contaminated with pesticides).

Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution. 5.

Prepare the spray solution as per requirement 6.

Do not7. mix granules with water; Do not eat, drink, smoke or chew while preparing solution

Concentrated pesticides must not fall on hands etc while opening sealed container. Do not smell 8.

pesticides.

Avoid spilling of pesticides while fi lling the sprayer tank. 9.

The operator should protect his bare feet and hands with polythene bags 10.

Equipments E.

Select right kind of equipment. 1.

Do not2. use leaky and defective equipments

Select right kind of nozzles 3.

Don’t blow/clean clogged nozzle with mouth. Use old tooth brush tied with the sprayer and clean with 4.

water.

Do not5. use same sprayer for weedicide and insecticide.

Precautions for applying pesticides F.

Apply only at recommended dose and dilution 1.

Do not2. apply on hot sunny day or strong windy condition; Do not apply just before the rains and after

the rains; Do not apply against the windy direction

Emulsifi able concentrate formulations should not be used for spraying with battery operated ULV 3.

sprayer

Wash the sprayer and buckets etc with soap water after spraying4.

Containers buckets etc used for mixing pesticides should not be used for domestic purpose 5.

Avoid entry of animals and workers in the fi eld immediately after spraying6.

Avoid tank mixing of diff erent pesticides7.

DisposalG.

Left over spray solution should not be drained in ponds or water lines etc. throw it in barren isolated area 1.

if possible

The used/empty containers should be crushed with a stone/stick and buried deep into soil away from 2.

water source.

Never reuse empty pesticides container for any other purpose. 3.


41

XIII. PESTICIDE APPLICATION TECHNIQUES

Equipment

Category A: Stationary, crawling pest/disease

Vegetative stage

i) For crawling and

soil borne pests

ii) For small sucking

leaf borne pests

Insecticides and

fungicides

• Lever operated knapsack sprayer (droplets of

big size)

• Hollow cone nozzle @ 35 to 40 psi

• Lever operating speed = 15 to 20 strokes/min

or

• Motorized knapsack sprayer or mist blower

(droplets of small size)

• Airblast nozzle

• Operating speed: 2/3rd throttle

Reproductive stage Insecticides and

fungicides

• Lever operated knapsack sprayer (droplets of

big size)

• Hollow cone nozzle @ 35 to 40 psi


Category B: Field fl ying pest/airborne pest

Vegetative stage Insecticides and

fungicides

• Motorized knapsack sprayer or mist blower

(droplets of small size)

• Airblast nozzle

• Operating speed: 2/3rd throttle

Or

• Battery operated low volume sprayer (droplets

of small size)

• Spinning disc nozzle

Reproductive stage

(Field Pests)

Mosquito/ locust

and spatial

application

(migratory Pests)

Insecticides and

fungicides

• Fogging machine and ENV (exhaust nozzle

vehicle) (droplets of very small size)

• Hot tube nozzle

Category C: Weeds

Post-emergence

application

Weedicide • Lever operated knapsack sprayer (droplets of

big size)

• Flat fan or fl oodjet nozzle @ 15 to 20 psi


Pre-emergence

application

Weedicide • Trolley mounted low volume sprayer (droplets

of small size)

• Battery operated low volume sprayer (droplets

of small size)

42


XIV. OPERATIONAL, CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE GUIDELINES IN BRIEF

1. For application rate and dosage see the label and leafl et of the

particular pesticide.

2. It is advisable to check the output of the sprayer (calibration) before

commencement of spraying under guidance of trained person.

3. Clean and wash the machines and nozzles and store in dry place

after use.

4. It is advisable to use protective clothing, face mask and gloves while

preparing and applying pesticides.

Do not apply pesticides without protective clothing and wash

clothes immediately after spray application.

5. Do not apply in hot or windy conditions.

6. Operator should maintain normal walking speed while undertaking

application.

7. Do not smoke, chew or eat while undertaking the spraying

operation

8. Operator should take proper bath with soap after completing

spraying

9. Do not blow the nozzle with mouth for any blockages. Clean with

water and a soft brush.


43

XV. REFRENCES

Strauss, S.Y., Agrawal, A.A. (1999). “The ecology and evolution of plant tolerance to herbivory”. • Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 14: 179-185.

Rahman MM 2000 oar.icrisat.org/3449/1/LegumesInBangladesh5-34.• http://www.statesymbolsusa.org/Tennessee/ insect_ladybug.html • http://micropics.org.uk/Chrysopidae/Chrysoperla/ carnea/chrysoperla%20carnea.htm • http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Syrphid_Fly_on_Water_ Hyssop_(Brahmi)_(6427943391).jpg• http://www.treknature.com/gallery/photo154489.htm• http://www.eduwebs.org/bugs/predatory_mites.htm• http://www.gipsa.usda.gov/VRI/Insects/bug_28.html• http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/farm_enterprises/ Farm%20enterprises_%20bio%20pesticides.html• https://www.google.co.in/search?q=Leaf+Crinkle-Leaf+Crinkle+Virus+of+black+gram&espv=210&e• s_sm=93&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source

https://www.google.co.in/search?q=cercospora+leaf+spot+of+black+gram&espv=21• https://www.google.co.in/search?q=bacterial+leaf +blight+of+black+gram&espv=210&es_s• https://www.google.co.in/search?q=root+rot+and+leaf+blight+of+black+gram&espv• https://www.google.co.in/search?q=rust+of+black+gram&espv=210&es_sm=93• https://www.google.co.in/search?q=stem+canker+of+black+gram&espv=210&es-• https://www.google.co.in/search?q=yellow+mosaic+of+black+gram&espv=210&es• http://advanceagripractice.in/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Cercospora.jpg• http://media.padil.gov.au/species/143001/50895-large.jpg• http://media.padil.gov.au/species/143001/50970-large.jpg• http://uasr.agropedia.in/sites/default/fi les/Cercospora%20leaf%20spot_0.jpg• http://advanceagripractice.in/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Bacterial_Leaf_Blight.jpg• http://s3.amazonaws.com/plantvillage/images/pics/000/001/530/large/Picture12.jpg?1379699590• http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/orgfarm_agridiseases_clip_image002_0004.jpg• http://2.bp.blogspot.com/EjixaImKe8o/TqkPO1glzqI/AAAAAAAABL8/kyEJ2zT_wYY/s1600/Black-gram-• crop-aff ected-podery+mildew.jpg

http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~asparagus/image/spore1.jpg• http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-pticoCJDN-8/TqkO8by48TI/AAAAAAAABL0/dJPSxTa1m-Q/s1600/Copper-• coloured-veins-in-black+gram.jpg

http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http• http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Close_up_of_M.phaseolina..jpg• http://www.greenwaymyanmar.org/sites/www.greenwaymyanmar.org/fi les/fi eld/image/Greengram_• fi eld.jpg

http://icaap.indialocal.co.in/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Greengram_fi eld.jpg• • Gurr, GM, Wratten, SD and Altieri MA (2004a) Ecological Engineering for Pest Management

Advances in Habitat Manipulation for Arthropods. CSIRO PUBLISHING, Collingwood, Australia.

• Gurr GM, Wratten SD and Altieri MA (2004b) Ecological Engineering: a new direction for pest management.

AFBM Journal 1: 28-35.

Ecological Engineering Plants for Blackgram & Greengram

Dill Sunfl ower Carrot

Marigold Cluster bean Mustard

Parsley Alfalfa French bean

Cowpea Buckwheat Maize

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