Advertising Research - GBV · Chapter 16 Inferential Statistics 433 Statistical Significance 434...
Transcript of Advertising Research - GBV · Chapter 16 Inferential Statistics 433 Statistical Significance 434...
Second Edition
Advertising ResearchTHEORY AND PRACTICE
Joel J. DavisSchool of Journalism & Media Studies,
San Diego State University
Prentice HallBoston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
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CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition xx
PART I Foundations
Chapter 1 The Nature and Process of Advertising Research 1The Contributions of Advertising Research 3
The Market 3The Consumer 3
Creative 6
Media Analysis and Placement 7
Synthesis 7Tactics, Actions, Evaluation, and Revision 8
Who Conducts Research? 8Information Users 8
Research Specialists 9Media and Consulting Companies 9
Trade Associations 10
Field Services 10The Process of Advertising Research 11
Preliminary Discussions and Agreements 13Problem Definition 13Justifying the Need for Research 15
Specifying Informational Needs 16The Complete Problem Statement 16
Planning and Data Collection 17
Identify the Appropriate Type of Research 17Sampling and Data Collection 20Selection of Data Collection Method 21Determine the Research Budget and Timing 21
Prepare, Distribute, and Obtain Approval of Research Proposal 21Prepare Research Materials 22
Conduct the Research 22
Prepare Information for Analysis 22Application 23
Data Analysis 23
Present the Results 23Decision Making 24
vi Contents
Applying Chapter Concepts 24
Summary 25
Review Questions 26
Application Exercises 27
Endnotes 28
Chapter 2 Research Ethics 30
Ethics and Individual Respondents 32
Informed Decisions and Informed Consent 32
Mistreatment 34
Confidentiality and Privacy 35
Responsibilities to Respondents: Special Populations 35
Research with Children 35
Research in Online Communities 36
Research in Virtual Worlds 37
Responsibilities to Clients 39
Appropriate Research 39
Confidential and Proprietary 40
Presentation of Findings 40
Project Changes 43
Responsibilities to Research Companies 43
Pre-selection 44
Free Advise 44
False Promises 44
Responsibilities to Society 44
Complete Data and Findings 45
Proper Interpretation 45
Sound, Objective Research 45
Research Is Not a Guise for Other Activities 45
Summary 47
Review Questions 47
Application Exercises 48
Endnotes 51
PART II Sources of Information
Chapter 3 Secondary Research 53An Introduction to Secondary Research 54
Secondary Information Versus Secondary Sources 55
Contents vii
The Uses of Secondary Research 55
Advantages of Secondary Research 59
Limitations of Secondary Research 60
Evaluating the "Goodness" of Secondary Information 61
Locating Secondary Information 62
Non-indexed Online Sources 62
Indexed Online Sources: Search Strategies 63
Beyond the General Search Engines 69
Staying Current 70
E-mail Newsletters 70
Newsletter Publishers 70
Whitepapers, Research Reports, Webinars, andPresentations 72
Applying Chapter Concepts 74
Summary 75
Review Questions 75
Application Exercises 76
Endnotes 77
Chapter 4 Sampling 79
An Overview of Sampling 80
Random Sampling and Quantitative Research 81
Sample or Census 81
Define Target Population 83
Select Sampling Method' 87
Sample Frame 87
Types of Probability Sampling 88
Sample Size in Random Samples 96
Sample Selection Bias in Probability Samples 99
Nonprobability Sampling and Quantitative Research 102
Convenience Sampling 102
Judgment Sampling 103
Quota Sampling 104
Snowball Sampling 104
Sample Size in Nonprobability Samples 105
Sample Selection and Qualitative Research 106
Sample Size 107
Applying Chapter Concepts 107
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Summary 107
Probability Sampling 108
Nonprobability Sampling 108
Review Questions 109
Application Exercises 109
Theory Underlying Sample Size Determination 113
Sample Size When the Estimate Is a Proportion 113
Sample Size When the Estimate Is a Mean 116
Endnotes 117
PART III Qualitative Research
Chapter 5 Collecting Qualitative Insights 119Personal and Focus Group Interviews 121
Personal Interviews 121
Focus Groups and Minigroups 122
Approaches to Collecting Qualitative Insights 123
Direct Question Types 123
Projective Techniques 127
Techniques Using Verbal Stimuli 128
Techniques Requiring Imagination or Scenarios 130
Pictures as Stimuli 131
Process Techniques 134
The Qualitative Interview 139
Active Listening and Probes 141
Setting the Right Environment 142
Summary 144
Review Questions 145
Application Exercises 146
Endnotes 148
Chapter 6 Focus Groups 150
Planning for Focus Groups 152
Select a Moderator 152
Brief the Moderator 153
Prepare, Evaluate, and Revise Discussion Guide 154
Determine Group Characteristics 156
Determine the Number and Location of Required Groups 157
Contents ix
Select the Facility 158
Schedule Groups, Specify Sample, and Recruit Participants 158
Conduct the Groups 160
Assess Group Success and, If Necessary, Revise the DiscussionGuide 162
Analyze and Present Findings; Apply Findings to DecisionMaking 162
Viewing Focus Groups 163
Online Focus Groups 164
Applying Chapter Concepts 166
Summary 168
Review Questions 169
Application Exercises 169
Endnotes 171
Chapter 7 Analysis of Qualitative Data 173
Activities Conducted Prior to Data Examination 174
Review Problem Definition and Informational Needs 174
Evaluate the Sample and Note Any Limitations 175
Data Examination 176
Understand the Intensity of Respondents' Feelings and Points ofView 177
Understand the Respondent, Not Individual Responses 177
Review with a Critical Eye and Ear 178
Reflection 179
Theme Identification, Analysis, and Revision 179
Theme Development 180
Coding Data According to Themes 181
Examining Relevant Data 181
Theme Evaluation and Revision 182
Relating Individual Themes to Form Metathemes 183
Serendipitous Discoveries 183
Evaluating the Analysis 184
CAQDAS: Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data AnalysisSoftware 185
Summary 186
Review Questions 187
Application Exercises 187
Endnotes 189
Contents
PART IV Quantitative Research
Chapter 8 Observation Research: Human and Automated 190Human Observation 191
Qualitative or Quantitative? 192
Types of Human Observation 193
Human Observation: Case Examples 196
Automated Observation 199
Observing Online Behaviors 199
Observing Offline Behaviors 203
Observing Consumer-Generated Media 203
Applying Chapter Concepts 213
Video Consumer Mapping Study 213
Campaigning with Social Media 216
Summary 216
Review Questions 217
Application Exercises 217
Endnotes 219
Chapter 9 Observation Research: Biometrics 221
Eye Tracking 222
Application of Eye Tracking to Advertising Planning 224
Application of Eye Tracking to Evaluation and Revision ofAdvertising Creative 228
Combining Eye Tracking with Retrospective Interviews 230
Combining Eye Tracking with Facial Coding and VerbalResponse 231
Additional Examples of Eye Tracking Applications toAdvertising 232
Neuromarketing 232
fMRI: Activation of Specific Brain Areas 234
Overall Brain Activation (EEG) Plus Physiological Measures 236
Exclusive Reliance on Physiological Measures 238
Alternative Views 238
Applying Chapter Concepts 239
Tobii Technology Eye Tracking Cases 239
Etre Web Site Analysis 240
One to One Insight: Emotion, Engagement, and InternetVideo 240
Contents xi
MindSign fMRI Advertising Test of Virgin Mobile Phones"Fantastic Journey" 241
Summary 241
Review Questions 242
Application Exercises 242
Endnotes 243
Chapter 10 Data Collection Through Surveys 246
Methods of Collecting Survey Information 247
Personal Interviews 247
Telephone Interviews 248
Mail Surveys 249
Online Surveys 253
Hybrid (Mixed-Mode) Surveys 253
Criteria for Selecting a Data Collection Method 254
Cost 254
Timing Requirements 255
Sample, Interview, and Administrative Control 255
Informational Needs 256
Complexity of the Topic and Questionnaire 256
Interview Length 257
Response Rate, Nonresponse Rate, and NonresponseError 258
Causes of Nonresponse Errors 260
Improving Response Rate to Reduce Nonresponse Error 260
Summary 264
Review Questions 264
Application Exercises 265
Endnotes 266
Chapter 11 Measurement 268
The Measurement Process 269
Task One: Identify and Define the Concept of Interest 269
Stage Two: Specify an Observable Event 274
Stage Three: Evaluate and Revise the Observable Event 284
Reliability and Validity: An Overview 285
Assessing Reliability 285
Assessing Validity 287
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Summary 288
Review Questions 289
Application Exercises 289
Endnotes 291
Chapter 12 Writing Survey Questions 292
Writing Closed-Ended Survey Questions 293
Nominal Level Questions 293
Ordinal Level Questions 299
Interval Level Questions 300
Ratio Level Questions 305
Developing Open-Ended Questions 306
Considerations in Question Development 307
Question Writing: An Evaluation 309
Applying Chapter Concepts 314
Razorfish Digital Brand Experience Report/2009 315
People From Cossette 315
Summary 316
Review Questions 317
Application Exercises 317
Endnotes 322
Chapter 13 Questionnaire Design 323
Determine the Data Collection Method 325
Determine the Need for Disguise 325
Create Questionnaire Components 326
Introduction 326
Screener 327
Main Body 330
Classification 331
Physically Prepare the Questionnaire 331
Self-Administered Questionnaires 331
Online Questionnaires 333
Transitions 335
Interviewer and Respondent Instructions 335
Internal Evaluation 339
Pretest the Questionnaire 339
Prepare Field Support Materials 342
Contents xiii
Applying Chapter Content 342
VERB Campaign Evaluation 342
Generation Next 344
Summary 345
Review Questions 345
Application Exercises 346
Endnotes 359
Chapter 14 Experimentation 361
Surveys Versus Experiments 362
The Characteristics of Experiments 364
Independent and Dependent Variables 365
Requirements for Causality 365
Problems Affecting Internal Validity 367
Premeasurement and Interaction 367
Testing 368
Instrumentation 368
Maturation 369
Selection and Mortality 370
History 371
Researcher Bias 371
Experimental Design 372
Quasi-Experimental Designs 372
True Experimental Designs 377
More Complex Experimental Designs 381
Conducting Experiments Online 384
Internal Validity: A Broader View 384
External Validity 386
Applying Chapter Concepts 387
IAB Advertising Effectiveness Study 387
Massive Video Game Advertising Test 388
Summary 389
Review Questions 390
Application Exercises 391
Endnotes 393
Chapter 15 Descriptive Statistics 395
Basic Math and Key Measures 396
Percentage 396
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Average 396
Median and Mode 398
Standard Deviation 399
Making Certain You Have Good Data 404
Data Review, Decisions, and Editing 404
Data Analysis for Specific Question Types 406
Classification, Checklist, and Other Nominal LevelQuestions 408
Checklist Questions 411
Ranking and Other Ordinal Level Questions 414
Rating Scales and Other Interval Level Questions 415
Constant Sum and Other Ratio Level Questions 417
The Importance of Subgroup Analysis 418
Data Analysis in Action 420
The Situation 420
The Analysis 420
Conclusion 426
Summary 426
Review Questions 426
Application Exercises 427
Endnotes 431
Chapter 16 Inferential Statistics 433
Statistical Significance 434
Making Judgments about A Single Measure from One Sample 436
Comparing a Sample Average to a Population Average 437
Comparing a Sample Proportion to a Population Proportion 439
Examining the Internal Characteristics of a Single Sample 440
Making Judgments about a Single Measure from Two or MoreIndependent Samples 441
Comparing Two Means 441
Comparing Three or More Means 443
Factorial Designs: Making Judgments about the SimultaneousInfluence of Two or More Variables 445
Neither Factor Is Significant, No Interaction BetweenFactors 446
One Factor Is Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 447
One Factor Is Significant, There Is an Interaction BetweenFactors 449
Contents xv
Two Factors Are Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 451
Neither Factor Is Significant, There Is an Interaction BetweenFactors 452
Making Judgments about the Relationship betweenTwo or More Measures 453
Correlation 453
Chi-Square 456
A Caution Regarding Statistical Tests 457
Summary 457
Review Questions 458
Application Exercises 459
Theory Underlying Statistical Significance 461
The Normal Curve 461
The Standard Normal Curve, Standard Deviation and Area Underthe Curve 462
Area Under the Curve and Probability 463
Hypothesis Testing 463
Endnotes 466
PARTV Applied Topics
Chapter 17 Segmentation 468
How Advertisers Use Segmentation 471
Criteria for Selecting Segments 473
Variables Used in Segmentation 474
Demographic Segmentation 474
Geographic Variables 476
Psychographic Variables 477
Category and/or Brand-Related Attitudes and Behaviors 480
Conducting Original Segmentation Research 482
Explicitly State the Research Question(s) 482
Identify the Range of Classification and DescriptiveVariables 482
Reduce the List of Segmentation and DescriptiveMeasures 484
Sample and Survey the Population 484
If Necessary, Reduce the Data to a Manageable Number ofFactors or Dimensions 485
Use the Classification Variables to Form Segments 485
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Describe Segments Using Descriptive Variables 487
Create a Summary Sheet, Narrative or Persona for Each Segment 487
Evaluate Segments for Communication Priority 491
Syndicated Approaches to Segmentation 491
Psychographic Segmentation: VALS™ 493
Category and Brand Usage Behaviors 497
Geodemographic Segmentation 502
Applying Chapter Concepts 503
A Typology of Information and Communication TechnologyUsers 503
Generation C 506
Summary 506
Review Questions 508
Application Exercises 509
Endnotes 512
Chapter 18 Brand Mapping 515
Perceptual Maps 516
What Perceptual Maps Tell Us 516
Constructing a Perceptual Map 518
Perceptual Maps and Advertising Strategy 524
Correspondence Maps 529
Application to Advertising Strategy 530
Brand Concept Maps 531
Elicitation 532 ,
Mapping 532
Aggregation 532
Application to Advertising Decision Making 533
Additional Considerations in the Use of Perceptual,Correspondence, and Concept Maps 537
Perceptual Maps for the Same Brands Often Change AcrossDifferent Consumer Segments 538
Comparing Current and Potential Customers Contributes toStrategic Decision Making 538
Before and after Maps Can Track Advertising Impact 538
Summary 542
Review Questions 542
Application Exercises 543
Endnotes 545
Contents xvii
Chapter 19 Advertising Testing: Concept and Communications Tests 546
Concept Tests 547
Product and Non-Product Focused Concept Tests 547
Preparing Stimulus Materials for a Concept Test 551
Communication Tests 552
Reasons for Communication Research 552
Preparing Stimulus Materials for a Communication Test 555
Approaches to Data Collection 555
Custom or Syndicated Options 556
Measurement in Message Concept and Communication Tests 556
Introduction: Setting the Stage 557
Show Concept or Execution 567
Spontaneous Initial Reactions 567
Essential Message 567
Reactions to the Message 568
Affective Reactions 568
Message or Execution Specific Issues 569
Attitudinal and Behavioral Impact 569
Analysis of Concept and Communication Test Data 569
Data Summarization 570
Finding Relationships Among Measures 574
Applying Chapter Concepts 578
Healthy Eating 578
Secondhand Smoke 579
Summary 581
Review Questions 582
Application Exercises 582
Endnotes 591
Chapter 20 Post-Production Advertising Testing and Optimization 593
Copy Testing Research 594
Copy Testing Television Advertising 594
Evaluating Alternative Copy Testing Methodologies 596
Split-Run Tests 597
Split-Run Test Design 597
Split-Run Test Data Analysis 600
A/B Tests 600
A/B Test Data Analysis 602
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Additional A/B Test Considerations 602
Limitations of A/B Testing 605
Full Factorial Designs 605
Multivariate Testing 608
An E-mail Multivariate Test 608
Advantages and Limitations of Multivariate Testing 610
Campaign Evaluation 612
Considerations in Campaign Evaluation 612
Applying Chapter Concepts 615
Mapes and Ross Natural Exposure Copy Test 615
National Tobacco Youth Campaign Evaluation 616
Summary 617
Review Questions 618
Application Exercises 619
Copy Testing from a Legal Perspective 625
Universe Definition and Sample Selection 626
Research Design and Use of Control Groups 627
Questionnaire Design and Question Formats 629
Interviewer Qualifications, Training, and Techniques 630
Data Analysis and Presentation 630
Research Project Administration 631
Endnotes 632
Chapter 21 Reporting Research 635
Characteristics of Good Report Writing 636
Clarity and Conciseness 636
Completeness 638
Coherence 638
Care 638
The Need for Review 639
The Written Research Report 640
Title Page 640
Table of Contents and List of Illustrations/Figures 640
Executive Summary 641
Background 643
Methodology 645
Findings 646
Conclusions 647
Contents xix
Recommendations and Next Steps 647
Appendices 647
The Oral Research Presentation 647
Improving Powerpoint or Similar Slide-Based Presentations 648
The Researcher As Presenter 650
Using Tables and Charts Effectively 651
Considerations for all Tables and Charts 651
Numeric Tables 654
Bar Charts 654
Pie Charts 657
Line Charts 659
Software Options for Chart Creation 600
Special Considerations for Presenting Qualitative Data 661
Applying Chapter Concepts 662
Summary 663
Review Questions 663
Application Exercises 664
Endnotes 665
Index 667