Edited by

Roman Gr. Maev

Advances in Acoustic Microscopy and High Resolution Imaging

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Advances in Acoustic Microscopy and High Resolution Imaging

From Principles to Applictaions

Edited by Roman Gr. Maev

The Editor

Prof. Roman Gr. MaevNSERC Indust. Research ChairUniversity of Windsor401, Sunset AvenueWindsor ON N9B 3P4Canada

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V

Contents

ListofContributors XIII Introduction XVII AuthorBiographies XIX

PartOne Fundamentals 1

1 FromMultiwaveImagingtoElasticityImaging 3MathiasFinkandMickaelTanter

1.1 Introduction 31.2 RegimesofSpatialResolution 31.3 TheMultiwaveApproach 41.4 WavetoWaveGeneration 51.5 WavetoWaveTagging 71.6 WavetoWaveImaging:MappingElasticity 81.7 Super-resolutioninSupersonicShearWaveImaging 141.8 ClinicalApplications 161.9 Conclusion 19 References 21

2 ImagingviaSpeckleInterferometryandNonlinearMethods 23JeffreySadlerandRomanGr.Maev

2.1 GeneralIntroduction 232.2 PartI:SpeckleInterferometry 242.2.1 Introduction 242.2.2 Labeyrie’sMethod 252.2.3 Knox–ThompsonMethod 292.2.4 ImportanceofPhaseDifferenceCalculation 322.2.5 LabeyrieandKnox–ThompsoninTwoDimensions 332.2.6 OtherImprovementstoSpeckleInterferometry 342.3 PartII:NonlinearImaging 342.3.1 Introduction 342.3.2 Deviation(DifferenceSquared),orAbsoluteDifference 36

VI Contents

2.3.3 FourierTransform-BasedMethodology 362.3.4 FourierMethodology:HowtoCreateanImage 382.3.5 FourierTransform:ProblemswithUsing 392.3.6 HilbertTransform-BasedMethodology 392.3.7 HilbertMethodology:HowtoCreateanImage,and

3DImage 422.4 SummaryandClosing 44

SelectedReferences(BySubject) 45Speckle:BaseMethods 45Speckle:MoreAdvancedMethods 45NonlinearImaging 45

PartTwo NovelDevelopmentsinAdvancedImagingTechniquesandMethods 47

3 FundamentalsandApplicationsofaQuantitativeUltrasonicMicroscopeforSoftBiologicalTissues 49KazutoKobayashiandNaohiroHozumi

3.1 GeneralIntroduction:BasicIdeaofanUltrasonicMicroscopeforBiologicalTissues 49

3.2 SoundSpeedProfile 503.2.1 Fundamentals 503.2.2 SpecimentobeObserved 503.2.3 ExperimentalSetupandAcquiredSignal 513.2.4 CalculationofSoundSpeed 523.2.4.1 FrequencyDomainAnalysis 523.2.4.2 Time–FrequencyDomainAnalysis 543.2.5 Two-DimensionalSoundSpeedProfiles 563.2.6 AttemptsatBetterSpatialResolution 583.3 AcousticImpedanceProfile 603.3.1 Fundamentals 603.3.2 ExperimentalSetup 613.3.3 SpecimentobeObserved 623.3.4 AcquiredSignal 633.3.5 CalibrationforCharacteristicAcousticImpedance 633.3.6 ObservationofCerebellarCortexofaRat 653.3.7 CellSizeObservation 673.3.8 CommercializedEquipment 693.4 Summary 70

References 70

4 PortableUltrasonicImagingDevices 71SergeyA.Titov,RomanGr.Maev,andFedarM.SeverinReferences 91

Contents VII

5 High-FrequencyUltrasonicSystemsforHigh-ResolutionRangingandImaging 93MichaelVogtandHelmutErmert

5.1 GeneralIntroduction 935.2 High-FrequencyUltrasonicSystemComponents 945.2.1 UltrasoundEchoSystems 945.2.2 TransmitterandReceiverComponentsforHigh-FrequencyUltrasonic

EchoSystems 955.2.3 SpectralandRangeResolutionProperties 975.2.4 MeasurementandOptimizationofthePulseTransferProperties 995.2.5 RangeResolutionOptimization:InverseEchoSignalFiltering 1015.2.6 MeasurementofAcousticScatteringParametersinPlaneWave

Propagation 1025.3 EngineeringConceptsforHigh-FrequencyUltrasonicImaging 1045.3.1 Single-ElementTransducerB-ScanTechniques 1045.3.2 LateralResolutionOptimization 1055.3.2.1 B/D-ScanTechnique 1065.3.2.2 SyntheticApertureFocusingTechniques(SAFT) 1065.3.3 LimitedAngleSpatialCompounding(LASC) 1105.3.4 MultidirectionalTissueCharacterization 1125.4 High-FrequencyUltrasoundImaginginBiomedicalApplications 1155.4.1 SkinImaging 1155.4.2 ImagingofSmallAnimals 1175.5 Summary 118

References 119

6 QuantitativeAcousticMicroscopyBasedontheArrayApproach 125SergeyTitovandRomanGr.Maev

6.1 GeneralIntroduction 1256.2 MeasurementofVelocityandAttenuationofLeakyWaves 1266.3 MeasurementofBulkWaveVelocitiesandThicknessof

Specimen 1416.4 Conclusions 150

References 150

PartThree AdvancedBiomedicalApplications 153

7 StudyoftheContrastMechanisminanAcousticImageforThicklySectionedMelanomaSkinTissueswithAcousticMicroscopy 155BernhardR.Tittmann,ChiakiMiyasaka,ElenaMaeva,andDavidShum

7.1 Introduction 1557.1.1 WhatIsMelanoma? 1557.1.2 HowIsMelanomaDiagnosed? 156

VIII Contents

7.1.3 PresentProblemsforBiopsy 1577.1.4 ObjectiveofPresentStudy 1577.2 PhysicalandMathematicalModelingforFiveLayerWavePropagation

inanAcousticMicroscope 1587.3 SamplePreparation 1627.4 DigitalImaging–OpticalandUltrasonic 1637.4.1 OpticalImage 1637.4.2 AcousticImagingPrinciple(Pulse-WaveMode) 1647.4.3 Resolution 1687.4.4 AcousticImages 1697.4.5 WaveformAnalysis 1717.5 HighFrequencyAcousticMicroscopy 1747.5.1 NormalControlSkinTissue 1747.5.2 AbnormalSkinTissue 1757.5.3 AcousticVelocity 1757.5.4 ComputerSimulation 1777.5.4.1 ExperimentalV(z)Curve 1777.5.4.2 TheoreticalV(z)Curve(SimulationofV(z)Curve) 1787.6 Conclusions 181

Acknowledgment 183References 183

8 NewConceptofPathology–MechanicalPropertiesProvidedbyAcousticMicroscopy 187YoshifumiSaijo

8.1 Introduction 1878.2 PrincipleofAcousticMicroscopy 1888.3 ApplicationtoCellularImaging 1898.4 ApplicationtoHardTissues 1918.5 ApplicationtoSoftTissues 1938.5.1 GastricCancer 1938.5.2 MyocardialInfarction 1958.5.3 Kidney 1978.5.4 Atherosclerosis 1978.6 UltrasoundSpeedMicroscopy(USM) 2008.7 ArticularTissues 2028.8 Summary 202

References 204

9 QuantitativeScanningAcousticMicroscopyofBone 207PascalLaugier,AmenaSaïed,MathildeGranke,andKayRaum

9.1 Introduction 2079.1.1 HierarchicalStructureofBoneandProperties 2079.1.2 RelevanceofMultiscaleElasticProperties 2099.1.3 HistoryofMeasurementPrinciples 210

Contents IX

9.2 QuantitativeSAM-BasedImpedanceofBone 2139.2.1 Theory 2139.2.2 Time-ResolvedMeasurements 2169.2.3 MeasurementswithTime-GatedAmplitudeDetection 2179.2.3.1 Calibration 2189.3 TissueMineralization,AcousticImpedance,andStiffness 2199.4 ElasticAnisotropyattheNanoscale(Lamellar)Level 2229.5 ElasticAnisotropyattheMicroscale(Tissue)Level 2239.6 ApplicationsinMusculoskeletalResearch 2259.7 Conclusions 226

References 228

PartFour AdvancedMaterialsApplications 231

10 ArrayImagingandDefectCharacterizationUsingPost-processingApproaches 233AlexanderVelichko,PaulD.Wilcox,andBruceW.Drinkwater

10.1 Introduction 23310.2 ModelingArrayData 23710.2.1 Introduction 23710.2.2 Ray-BasedDescriptionofUltrasonicArrayData 23810.2.2.1 DeterminingtheRay-Paths 23810.2.2.2 PredictingtheSignalAssociatedwithaRay-Path 24010.2.2.3 SimpleExample 24010.2.3 MathematicalModelofUltrasonicArrayData 24210.3 Imagingwith1DArrays 24510.3.1 ClassicalBeam-FormingImagingMethodsinPost-processing 24510.3.2 TotalFocusingMethod 24610.3.3 WavenumberMethod 24710.3.4 Back-PropagationMethod 24910.3.5 TheoreticalComparisonofImagingMethods 25010.3.6 ComputationalBurden 25110.3.7 FocusingPerformance 25210.3.8 ExperimentalExample 25310.4 Imagingwith2DArrays 25510.4.1 Optimizationof2DArrayLayout 25510.4.1.1 OptimizationCriterion 25510.4.1.2 RegularSampling 25610.4.1.3 Non-uniformSampling 25710.4.2 ExperimentalComparisonof2DArrayLayouts 25810.4.2.1 SphericalInclusion 25910.4.2.2 AluminumBlockwithFlatBottomHoles 26010.4.2.3 Surface-BreakingFatigueCrack 26010.5 ScatteringMatricesandTheirExperimentalExtraction 260

X Contents

10.5.1 FeatureExtractionfromArrayData 26210.5.1.1 Concept 26210.5.1.2 InverseImaging 26310.5.1.3 ExtractionofScatteringMatrix 26610.6 DefectCharacterizationandSizing 26710.6.1 CrackSizing 26710.6.1.1 1DArray 26710.6.1.2 2DArray 26810.6.2 ExperimentalResults 26910.6.2.1 1DArray 26910.6.2.2 2DArray 27110.7 Conclusions 272

References 273

11 UltrasonicForceandRelatedMicroscopies 277AndrewBriggsandOlegV.Kolosov

11.1 Introduction 27711.2 MechanicalDiodeDetection 27911.3 ExperimentalUFMImplementation 28011.4 UFMContrastTheory 28311.5 QuantitativeMeasurementsofContactStiffness 28711.6 UFMPictureGallery 28911.7 ImageInterpretation–EffectsofAdhesionandTopography 29311.8 Superlubricity 29511.9 DefectsBelowtheSurface 29711.10 Time-ResolvedNanoscalePhenomena 299

Acknowledgments 303References 304

12 UltrasonicAtomicForceMicroscopy 307KazushiYamanakaandToshihiroTsuji

12.1 Introduction 30712.2 Principle 30712.2.1 ForcedVibrationofCantileverfromtheBase 30712.2.2 QuantitativeInformation,DirectionalControl,andResonance

FrequencyTracking 30812.2.3 EffectiveEnhancementofCantileverStiffness 30912.2.4 CriteriontoAvoidPlasticDeformation 30912.3 Theory 31112.3.1 Overview 31112.3.2 LinearAnalysisofStiffnessandtheQFactor 31212.3.3 LinearTheoryofSubsurfaceImaging 31412.3.4 AdvantageofAppropriateLoad 31612.3.5 NonlinearAnalysisofSpectra 31612.3.6 DuffingModel 318

Contents XI

12.3.7 NumericalModelwithDoubleNodes 31912.4 Instrumentation 32012.5 Experiments 32212.5.1 EfforttoAvoidNonlinearityatTip–SampleContact 32212.5.2 RelationbetweenUAFMandUFM 32312.5.3 QuantitativeEvaluationofElasticity 32412.6 ObservationofDefectsinLayeredMaterials 32512.6.1 DefectsinGrapheneSheets 32512.6.2 DislocationinMolybdenumDisulfide 32812.6.3 ObservationofDislocationBehaviorunderDifferentLoads 32912.6.4 AnalysisofDislocationMotionunderVaryingAppliedLoad 33112.6.5 ModelfortheReversibleLong-RangeMotionofDislocation 33312.6.6 DelaminationinMicroelectronicandMechanicalDevices 33412.7 Conclusion 335

References 336

13 AcousticalNear-FieldImaging 339WalterArnold

13.1 PrincipleofNear-FieldImaging 33913.1.1 EarlySystemsofAcousticalNear-FieldImaging 33913.2 Near-FieldAcousticalImagingandAtomicForceMicroscopy 34213.2.1 ForceModulation 34313.2.2 LocalAccelerationMicroscopy 34413.2.3 Pulsed-ForceMicroscopy 34513.2.4 AtomicForceAcousticMicroscopyorAFMContact-Resonance

Imaging 34513.2.4.1 PrincipleofOperation 34513.2.4.2 FlexuralCantileverResonances 34613.2.4.3 RelationshipofContactStiffnesstoIndentationModulus 35013.2.4.4 TorsionalResonances 35613.2.4.5 Piezo-modeImaging 35713.2.4.6 NonlinearContactResonancesandRelatedPhenomena 35813.2.4.7 SubsurfaceImagingUsingContactResonances 359

Acknowledgment 362References 362

Index 371

XIII

ListofContributors

Walter ArnoldSaarland UniversityDepartment of Material Science and TechnologyCampus D 2.266123 Saarbrücken, GermanyandGöttingen University1. Phys. InstitutFriedrich-Hund Platz 137077 Göttingen, Germany

Andrew BriggsOxford UniversityDepartment of Materials16 Parks RoadOX1 3PH Oxford, UK

Bruce W. DrinkwaterUniversity of BristolFaculty of EngineeringUniversity WalkBristol BS8 1TR, UK

Helmut ErmertRuhr-Universität BochumDepartment of Electrical Engineering and Information TechnologyHigh Frequency Engineering Research GroupBuilding ID 03/34344780 Bochum, Germany

Mathias FinkEcole Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de ParisCNRSINSERMInstitut Langevin10 rue Vauquelin75005 Paris, France

Mathilde GrankeUniversité Pierre et Marie CurieCNRS UMR 7623Laboratoire d’Imagerie Paramétrique15 rue de l’ecole de médecine75006 Paris, France

Naohiro HozumiToyohashi University of Technology1-1 Hibarigaoka, Tempaku-choToyohashi 441-8580, Japan

Kazuto KobayashiHonda Electronic Co., Ltd.20 Oyamazuka, Oiwa-choToyohashi 980-857, Japan

Oleg V. KolosovLancaster UniversityDepartment of PhysicsRoom A30, Physics BuildingBailrigg, LA1 4YW Lancaster, UK