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Advanced Research in Chemistry and Applied Science Volume 2 Issue 1, January 2020

Citation: Mahamuda Abu and Emmanuel Daanoba Sunkari. (2020), Geochemistry, Grain Size Characterization and Provenance of Beach Sands along the Central Coast of Ghana. Adv Res Chem & App Sci.2:1, 15-26

Advanced Research in Chemistry and Applied Science

Geochemistry, Grain Size Characterization and Provenance of Beach Sands along the Central Coast of Ghana

Research Article

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1Department of Earth Science, Faculty of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University for Development Studies, P.O. Box 24, Navrongo, Ghana2Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, 51240, Niğde, Turkey

Corresponding Author: Mahamuda Abu and Emmanuel Daanoba Sunkari1Department of Earth Science, Faculty of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University for Development Studies, P.O. Box 24, Navrongo, Ghana2Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, 51240, Niğde, Turkey. Tel: +905414086813,E-mail: [email protected]

Copyright: ©2020 Mahamuda Abu and Emmanuel Daanoba Sunkari. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited

Citation: Mahamuda Abu and Emmanuel Daanoba Sunkari. (2020), Geochemistry, Grain Size Characterization and Provenance of Beach Sands along the Central Coast of Ghana. Adv Res Chem & App Sci. 2:1, 15-26

Abstract

Received: November 22, 2019 Accepted: December 03, 2019 Published: January 04, 2020

Mahamuda Abu1, Emmanuel Daanoba Sunkari*2

A total of 45 beach sand samples from the central coast of Ghana were studied to understand their geochemical compositions and how the textures affect the grain size distribution. The coarse-grained sands have higher SiO2 content (~64 – 97 wt.%) than medium-grained sands (~84 – 96 wt.%) and fine-grained sands (~56 – 91 wt.%). However, the Al2O3 content is higher in the fine-grained sands (~1.7 – 13.8 wt.%) than the medium-grained sands (~0.7 – 5.8 wt.%) and the coarse-grained sands (~0.4 – 1.5 wt.%), reflecting source heterogeneity. The elemental compositions in the various grades of grain sizes are largely due to variations in the chemical composition and textural character of the source rocks with limited influence of hydraulic sorting. The sediments have a geochemically dominant quartz arenite facies together with some amount of Fe-sands that are moderately altered under semi-humid climatic conditions with high SiO2/Al2O3 pointing to a quartz-rich source rock. The sands are enriched in LREE against HREE with negative Eu anomalies when compared to chondrite supporting a felsic source derivation. But nearly flat patterns observed when correlated with the UCC highlight contribution from mafic sources. The major oxides, trace element ratios and REE patterns all point to a dominant fine-grained felsic-intermediate source (granodiorite) from the surrounding highland areas with limited mafic source (basaltic) contribution.

Keywords: Geochemistry, Texture, Provenance, Beach sand, Central coast of GhanaIntroductionThe texture and chemical composition of coastal sediments are largely controlled by the prevailing climatic conditions, waves and character of the source rocks (Corranza-Edwards et al., 2001). Most beach sands are dominated by feldspars and quartz together with other minerals which are not easily affected by seawater abrasiveness (Papadopou-los et al., 2014). Like any other clastic materials, beach sands are the products of weathering, fragmentation (Pettijohn et al., 1987) and chemical alteration of the source/highland rocks. Due to the immobili-ty of rare earth elements (REEs) during weathering and sedimentation processes, they are suitable in revealing the provenance of ancient as well as modern sediments such as beach sands (McLennan, 1989; Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2012, 2013, 2014; 2015; 2016). Sediments may be the source of chemicals present in coastal sands (Daessle et al., 2009) and to understand the concentration levels of heavy elements, it is important to initially understand the geochemical association of oxides and trace elements and sediments in which they reside. Pre-cious heavy minerals like ilmenite, rutile, sillimanite, zircon, monazite among others, usually have affinity for REEs (Alam et al., 1999). Thus, understanding the geochemical composition of beach sands can help in identifying precious heavy metals and can give vital constraints to decipher the provenance of the sediments. Abu and Sunkari (2020) re-cently documented evidence of the residence of zircon in beach sands along the western coast of Ghana. They suggested that the grain size and provenance (felsic igneous suites of the Paleoproterozoic Birimian highland rocks) of the sediments have a direct influence on the geo-chemistry of the beach sands. The central coast of Ghana is a 321 km embayed coast of rocky headlands, rocky shores, littoral sand barriers and coastal lagoons (Fig. 1).

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Figure 1: Photographs showing the central coast of Ghana and the studied beach sands

The geochemistry and grain size distribution of the coastal sediments here are poorly understood. Only Cheng (1981) studied beach sands from the central and eastern coasts of the country with the aim of un-derstanding the textural dissimilarities between the two coastal areas. However, this study poorly presented the geochemical evolution of the sediments. The geochemical composition, grain size distribution and provenance of the beach sands are not documented in any known works. This study was carried out with the aim of understanding the effects of grain size on geochemical distribution of the beach sands since grain sizes control the elemental levels in detritus through min-eral segregation during weathering, transportation and digenesis. This relation was deciphered from the past climatic conditions, degree of weathering and recycling of sediments and distance of the sediments from the source rocks using 15 samples each of coarse, medium and fine-grains.Geological settingThe coastal areas of Ghana can be located in the central, western and eastern parts of Ghana. The central coastal areas located along the

South Atlantic Ocean are characterized by an embayment reported to be that of the Benin embayment (Bansah et al., 2014), which compris-es of coastal headlands of rocks (Cheng, 1980). The coastal basin cov-ers a total land area of about 205 km2 with majority of its area extent covered by the ocean of about 12,089 km2 with large portions under shallow waters (Bansah et al., 2014). The geological setting of the cen-tral coast is characterized by discontinuation of beaches due to contin-uous actions of the adjacent highlands of crystalline and clastic rocks of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary constituents (Cheng, 1980; 1981). The rocks are Precambrian, Mesozoic and Paleozoic in age and are in association with some unconsolidated recent Quaternary sed-iments that are unceasingly under the abrasive action of sea waves. Ordovician – Silurian rocks that are overlain by Devonian sandstones of marine depositional environments (Bansah et al., 2014), rest on the Precambrian crystalline basement rocks of the Birimian. The area is largely covered by the Cape Coast Basin which has intrusives that are peculiar to Cape Coast and Winneba areas (Fig. 2), thus the Cape Coast Granite Complex and Winneba-type Granitoids (Hirdes et al., 1992).

Figure 2: Simplified geological map of the highland areas in the central coast of Ghana

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The sediment load of the central coast is influenced by sediment con-tribution from the meta-sedimentary rocks of the Cape Coast Basin as well as crystalline rocks of the Kibi – Winneba greenstone belt (Hirdes et al., 1992). Most of the rocks except some few shales and sandstones are resistant to the tidal wave action of the sea and hence believed not to be responsible for the sediment load of the beach. However, the highland exposures and other isolated cliff materials are believed to be responsible for the beach sediment budgets in the area (Cheng, 1981). The central coast sediments were deposited by a medium energy dep-ositional medium, with erosional features which suggest sediment transport from the west to the east. The study area may have suffered two episodes of tectonism associated with the Pan-African orogeny and rifting with its accompanying drifting of the South American and African continental plates (Bansah et al., 2014). The watercourses of some streams and the major Pra perennial river are underlain by py-roclastic rocks, phyllites, metamorphosed lavas, schists and granitic rocks (Fig. 2) and are hence the major drainage systems that drain these highland rocks and for a short period of time during the rainy season by the smaller streams/rivers (Cheng, 1981).Materials and MethodsForty – five (45) samples of beach sands at depths of 2 - 32 cm were collected on a 100 m × 100 m grid using a soil auger. The samples were collected from the central coastal area and at points where water waves end. The samples were oven-dried at 105oC for about 4 hrs after air-drying them in a clean room for 48 hours. About 1 kg of sand-sized samples were sieved through a 2 mm pore size mesh and packed into a 1 litre Marinelli beaker. ASTM sieve (63, 125, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 µm), Retsch vibratory sieve shaker AS 200, Ohaus CS2000 weighing balance, Newtronic oven, Stainless steel weighing tray, 4 inch brush with natural soft bristle, boar bristle brush, HP computer with Micro-soft Excel spread sheet program, and GRADISTAT version 4.0 software were the equipment and analytical set-up for the grain size distribu-tion of the samples. The samples were oven dried at about 100 0C for 24 hours. Cooling was achieved in a desiccator and about 500 g of the samples were run through a set of sieves (63, 125, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 µm) with the largest pore size at the top and the smallest at the base. The loaded sieves were clamped on the Retsch Vibrato-ry Sieve Shaker AS 200 and agitated intermittently at 5 minutes for a total time of approximately 20 minutes (Folk, 1960). The statistical data acquired during the course of the experiments were calculated using the particle size-based statistical software Gradistat version 4.0. Statistical details were arrived at using the Folk and Ward (1957) meth-od of grain size analysis. 45 beach sand samples of which 15 samples

each of coarse-grain, medium-grain and fine-grain were analysed for major, trace and REEs. The geochemical analysis was carried out in ALS, South Africa and analytical details follow the protocol of Hernan-dez-Hinojosa et al. (2018).Results Major and Trace Element ConcentrationsThe major and trace element concentrations of the beach sands from the central coast of Ghana are presented in Table 1. The coarse-grained sands have higher SiO2 content (~64 – 97 wt.%) than that in the me-dium-grained sands (~84 – 96 wt.%) and fine-grained sands (~56 – 91 wt.%). Likewise, the CaO content is higher in the coarse-grained sands (~0.2 – 18.8 wt.%) as compared to the medium-grained sands (~0.4 – 5.8 wt.%) and the fine-grained sands (~1.4 – 3.5 wt.%). However, the Al2O3 content is higher in the fine-grained sands (~1.7 – 13.8 wt.%) than in the medium-grained sands (~0.7 – 5.8 wt.%) and the coarse-grained sands (~0.4 – 1.5 wt.%). The Fe2O3 content is high in most of the samples with relatively higher content in the fine-grained sands (~2.0 – 13.8 wt.%) than in the medium-grained sands (~0.8 – 7.7 wt.%) and coarse-grained sands (~0.6 – 1.7 wt.%) reflecting a possible mafic or mixed felsic-inter-mediate source. The fine-grained beach sands are slightly enriched in Na2O, K2O and MgO than the medium and coarse-grained sands but appear to be depleted in MnO and P2O3 contents. The slight enrich-ment in the MgO content of the fine-grained sands suggests mixing of intermediate-mafic crustal materials with their felsic source materials. The beach sands show considerable differences in their trace element concentrations (Table 1). On chondrite and upper continental crust (UCC)-normalized diagrams (normalization values taken from Taylor and McLennan, 1985) the medium and coarse-grained sands are de-pleted in Nb and Eu but show positive anomalies in Th, Zr and Hf ele-ments (Fig. 3a and b). However, the fine-grained sands are enriched in high field strength elements like Y and Nb than the medium and coarse-grained sands. Overall, the fine-grained sands display enrich-ment in trace elements than the medium and coarse-grained sands when compared with chondrite and UCC (Fig. 3a and b), probably due to variation in the source rocks or some form of contamination might have taken place. Sr is enriched in the coarse-grained than in the fine and medium-grained samples. Among the transition elements, only Cr and V show higher concentrations in the sands whereas Sc concen-trations are very low. The highest Cr content is observed in the finer sands (90 – 330 wt.%) which have the lowest SiO2 content whilst the Cr content varied from 130 – 260 wt.% for the coarse-grained sands and that of the medium-grain sands changed from 50 – 270 wt.%. Similar patterns are observed in the V concentrations of the samples (Table 1).

Figure 3: Chondrite and upper continental crust-normalized multi-elements and REE plots for the central coast beach sand (nor-malization values taken from Taylor and McLennan, 1985).

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Table 1: Major, trace and rare earth element (REE) concentrations of the beach sands of the central coast of Ghana (CRC = Central region coarse-grained sands; CRM = Central region medium-grained sands; CRF = Central region fine-grained sands).

Rare Earth Element (REE) ConcentrationsThe total REE concentrations (ΣREE) varied from ~ 17 – 795 ppm for the fine-grained sands, ~9 – 53 ppm for the medium-grained sands and ~6 – 13 ppm for the coarse-grained sands (Table 1). This suggests that the fine-grained sands are highly enriched in REE than the medium and coarse-grained sands. The chondrite-normalized REE patterns (Fig. 3c) for all the samples show enrichment in LREE and relatively flat HREE with a negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.2 – 1.0). One fine-grained sam-

ple shows the highest REE content compared to chondrite, which may be related to sorting of sediments during transportation or concentra-tion of heavy minerals probably zircon (Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2015). On UCC-normalized REE diagram (Fig. 3d), all the samples show rela-tively flat patterns for both LREE and HREE with a weak Eu anomaly indicating a likely common andesitic-felsic source for their evolution. Moreover, except a few fine-grained sands, all the samples are deplet-ed in ΣREE with respect to the UCC may be due to dilution by quartz (Cullers, 2000).

Figure 3: Chondrite and upper continental crust-normalized multi-elements and REE plots for the central coast beach sand (normalization values taken from Taylor and McLennan, 1985).

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DiscussionsPaleoclimatic ConditionsThe elemental constituents of sediments are largely controlled by the mineralogy of the source rocks and these elements are decoupled from their parent minerals through mechanical and chemical weath-ering. Suttner and Dutta (1986) used bivariate diagram of SiO2 versus Al2O3+Na2O+K2O to infer the climatic conditions under which any possi-ble chemical weathering at the source of detrital material would have

taken place. The beach samples show increasing chemical alteration in a dominant semi-humid climatic environment (Fig. 4). Some of the coarse-grained sands fall in the humid environment whereas two fine-grained samples fall in the humid and arid environments. These climat-ic conditions favor chemical weathering allowing the detritus to retain the source rock mineralogy.

Figure 4: Paleoclimatic conditions of the studied beach sands (after Suttner and Dutta, 1986).

Sediment Maturity and ReworkingOn the log (Fe2O3/K2O) against log (SiO2/Al2O3) geochemical classifica-tion diagram of Herron (1988), the fine-grained sands plot within the Fe-sand field except two samples (Fig. 5). However, save for two medi-um-grained sands that plot in the Fe-sand field, all the medium-grained and coarse-grained sands cluster in the quartz arenite field, reflecting variation in their quartz and feldspar contents. The other samples that plot in the Fe-sands field suggest that their detritus are of Fe-rich min-eralogical source which is usually not stable under low temperature re-gimes and should have weathered out from the clastic material during reworking. Hence, the quartz arenite and Fe-sand dominant geo-chemical facies of the coastal sediments support a dominant mixed felsic-mafic source. Such findings agree with the recent work on beach sands along the western coast of Ghana by Abu and Sunkari (2020), suggesting that both the central and western coasts might be periph-eral extensions or evolved together.

The SiO2/Al2O3 ratios of sediments have been effectively used to infer their textural and compositional maturity in which a high value usual-ly points to compositionally matured sediments (Rashid et al., 2015; Anani et al., 2017). The average SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of felsic source rocks is 5 while that of mafic source rocks is 3 (Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2012, 2013; Hernandez-Hinojosa et al., 2018). This suggests that SiO2/Al2O3 ratios higher than 5 in clastic sediments indicate sediment maturity. However, using only SiO2/Al2O3 as a factor to conclude whether sed-iments are compositionally matured, which largely implies that they are to some extent chemically reworked or otherwise can be mislead-ing as felsic source rocks which have SiO2 > 66 wt.% can show high SiO2/Al2O3 values with/without chemical alteration. For instance, the studied samples which have higher SiO2 content have SiO2/Al2O3 ratios varying from ~ 4 – 53 for the fine-grained sands, ~15 – 123 for the me-dium-grained sands and ~57 – 183 for the coarse-grained sands. This implies that all the three classes of samples are compositionally highly matured but this conclusion is equivocal.

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Moreover, Cox et al. (1995) applied an index of variability termed as the index of compositional variability (ICV = (Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O + CaO + MgO + TiO2)/Al2O3) to weathered materials to infer the composition-al maturity of sediments. The ICV has since been used extensively to infer the compositional maturity of sediments than the conventional SiO2/Al2O3 ratios (e.g., Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2014; Hernandez-Hinojo-sa et al., 2018). Accordingly, rock-forming minerals such as amphibole, pyroxenes and feldspars have ICV values > 1 whereas the secondary alteration products like muscovite, illite, gibbsite and kaolinite have ICV values < 1 (Cox et al., 1995; Cullers, 2000). The ICV values for the fine-grained (~2.01 – 4.20), medium-grained (~1.44 – 10.27) and coarse-grained (1.86 – 52.2) beach sands (Table 1) reveal that the samples are compositionally immature sands that most probably have not ex-perienced any recycling of any sort. The high values especially in the coarser sands support source rock(s) with amphiboles, pyroxenes and feldspars (especially sodium feldspars) mineralogical composition. Sediments with increasing distance away from the source will be ex-posed to reworking condition and sediments that are reworked/recy-cled usually have all/almost all the labile constituents removed during the process. Therefore, sands are also expected to have trace or zero content of Na2O, Fe2O3, K2O and CaO. However, the samples still have unstable oxides like Na2O which suggest the presence of plagioclase. The oxide concentrations may imply that the beach sands of the cen-tral coast have not experienced any reasonable recycling in contrast to the dominant chemical weathering they underwent. This is unlikely, perhaps chemical weathering has not proceeded to a stage at which significant amounts of the alkali and alkali earth elements are removed and that might account for the presence of the oxides. Sr may have substituted for Ca in plagioclase and K in K-feldspar in the source rocks which behaved as a compatible element at low pressure during dia-genesis where plagioclase formed early (Winter, 2001). This caused the high content of the oxides rich in plagioclase as well as Sr though the sediments were chemically weathered. PaleoweatheringThe mineralogy of clastic sediments is controlled by the degree of chemical weathering the sediments are subjected to. The labile cat-

ions Na2+, Ca+ and K+ are removed during chemical weathering of detri-tal material as compared to residual cations such as Al3+ and Ti4+ (Nes-bitt et al., 1980). This as a result of the conversion of the feldspars to clay minerals (Selvaraj et al., 2016; Hernandez- Hinojosa et al., 2018). According to Zaid (2016), the alteration of these cations in the upper continental crust occurs without the associated clay minerals and as such the quantitative levels of these cations residing in the beach sands depends on the index of chemical weathering processes that took place at the source together with that which occurred during the sediment travel time to their point of deposition (Nesbitt et al., 1997). In determining the chemical weathering in the source area of clastic materials, the index of chemical alteration (CIA = [Al2O3/(Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)] × 100) has been widely used. Magmatic rocks that have undergone no/low weathering rates have CIA values close to 50, whereas clay minerals such as kaolinite, gibb-site, and chlorite that have been subjected to intensive weathering conditions have CIA values ~100 (Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2015). For the studied sands, the CIA values range from 1.1 – 46 (average = 10.3) in the coarse-grained samples, 5.9 – 65.1 (average = 21.5) in the medi-um-grained samples and 23.2 – 80.7 (average = 37.2) in the fine-grained samples (Table 1). The samples are generally indicating moderate to intense chemical weathering and reflect semi-humid to humid climatic conditions in the source area but the low CIA values, generally < 100 disagrees with this. However one cannot preclude the fact that some few samples in the medium and fine-grained suites have experienced moderate to intermediate level of weathering in their source areas. The relatively high CIA values in the fine-grained sands could be ex-plained by the dominance of unstable minerals possibly coming from the volcaniclastics of the Winneba Basin, the Cape Coast Granitoid Complex, or the bordering Kibi – Winneba belt. Also, the index of plagioclase alteration (PIA) values can give con-straints regarding the weathering intensity of the source rocks and higher values usually indicate intensive weathering rates (Fedo et al., 1995). The computed PIA values (Table 1) of the beach sands are low in the coarse-grained (~0.7 – 25.7) and medium-grained (~4.4 – 65.3) sands but quite high in the fine-grained sands (~20.1 – 80.3), indicat-

Figure 5: Geochemical classification of beach sands in the central coast of Ghana using log(SiO2/Al2O3)–log(Fe2O3/K2O) diagram (after Herron, 1988).

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ing low to moderate weathering in the source areas. This supports the possible plagioclase-rich source rock (a possible basalt or granodiorite) where the unstable minerals would have been high in the fine-grained sands. The A – CN – K ternary diagram (Fig. 6), also supports an unal-tered plagioclase-rich source rock with the majority of the samples in all three classes plotting along the A – CN line within the plagioclase zone. They are not comparable to the alteration levels of upper con-tinental crustal (UCC) rocks. A few samples (4 fine-grained, 1 medi-um-grained and 1 coarse-grained) have indication of weak weathering and a sample each of fine and medium-grained suites fall in the inter-mediate weathering field whereas only one fine-grained sample plot in the strongly weathered field (Fig. 6). The general plotting of the sam-ples along the A – CN line is an indication of clastic materials belonging to an intermediate/mafic source rock with dominant plagioclase and anorthite minerals. This is supported by the oxides with high Na2O/

Figure 6: Ternary diagram showing the weathering conditions of the studied beach sands (after Nesbitt and Young, 1982)

K2O values as well as high content of CaO (Table 1). But the high SiO2 contents preclude a dominant intermediate/mafic source but perhaps a mixed felsic-intermediate source such as granodiorite. The mafic ma-terials might be weathered remnants from basalts carried as detrital grains which were mixed with the felsic-intermediate sources of the sands. Th/U ratios of sediments have been considered in the source area weathering conditions of clastic sediments (e.g., McLennan et al., 1993; Zaid, 2016). The researchers mentioned that Th/U values in the excess of 3.8 is suggestive that there has been some level of weath-ering due to oxidation of U4+ to U6+ which is much soluble. Except one fine-grained sample with Th/U of 5.4, all the samples belonging to the three classes of grain sizes have Th/U < 3.5 suggesting non-weather-ing conditions. It is however worth noting that some few samples of the fine-grained suite have Th/U approaching 3.5 (Table 1) pointing to some minor level of weathering in the fine-grained samples.

Grain Size Effect on Chemical CompositionThe effect of hydraulic sorting and grain size effect in obscuring the chemical composition of source rocks to some extent has been studied in many works (e.g., Spagnoli et al., 2008; Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2012; Zaid, 2016). The proportional composition of primary rock forming minerals like quartz, amphibole, pyroxenes, biotite as well secondary minerals like illite, chlorite, kaolinite and muscovite can influence the chemical composition of beach sands (Culler, 2000; Cox et al., 1995; Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2012; Zaid, 2016). The textural character of the source to some extent determines the elemental association with the grain sizes of the detritus. The mean grain size may sometimes not be suitable in the interpretations of the elemental patterns in beach sands particularly when the beach sands are the weathered products of mafic source rocks (Marsaglial, 1993). ICV has been used to infer the level of amphiboles, biotite and plagioclase in source rocks. If the ICV values are > 0.84, then rock-forming minerals are likely to be dominant (Cullers, 2000). However, alteration products like illite, kaolinite and muscovite have ICV values < 0.84. The samples of the studied three grain sizes have average ICV values of 17.1, 5.2 and 3.2 for the coarse,

medium and fine-grained suites, respectively (Table 1) implying the dominance of rock-forming minerals in their source rocks. Due to in-creasing phyllosilicate content in fine-grained beach sands, there is an expected decrease in the SiO2/Al2O3 and Na2O/K2O (Ohta, 2004). The SiO2/Al2O3 of the central coast beach sands of Ghana agree with this, considering the decrease in average SiO2/Al2O3 ratios (129.5 – coarse-grained, 78 – medium-grained and 52.5 – fine-grained). Th/Sc v Zr/Sc is a suitable indicator of zircon enrichments and reflects the source composition (Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2012). The Zr/Sc enrichment in detritus can be due to the source rock composition as well as recy-cling/sorting. The bivariate plot of Th/Sc v Zr/Sc (Fig. 7) only indicates clastic materials in the boundary between mafic and UCC sources with implication for zircon enrichment and therefore suggests that the high concentration levels of Zr may be due to an interplay of hydraulic sort-ing and chemical composition of the source rocks. Also, Fe2O3 and TiO2 levels progressively increased from the coarse-grained sands towards the medium-grained sands with higher concentration levels recorded in the fine-grained sands. This suggests the residence of heavy miner-als in the fine-grained sands.

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Figure 7: Bivariate plot Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc (after Taylor and McLennan, 1985)

ProvenanceAl2O3/TiO2 ratios have proven to be effective in source discrimination of clastic sediments due to the resistance of these oxides to weath-ering, transportation and diagenesis processes and have been used to a larger extent by many workers in sediment source characteri-zation (Garcia et al., 1994; Girty et al., 1996 and Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2012). Mafic source rocks have Al2O3/TiO2 ratios



Ratios of trace elements like Sc, Th, Co and Cr have been effectively used in characterizing the source of clastic materials due to their resil-ience during weathering and digenesis (Cullers, 2000; Armstrong-Al-trin et al., 2014; Tawfik et al., 2017). Selected ratios of trace elements for source characterization of the sands are presented in Table 2. The samples point largely to a mixed mafic-felsic sources having some sim-ilarity with the UCC. On the bivariate plot of Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc (Taylor and McLennan, 1985), the samples straddle the boundary between the UCC and mafic source but largely closer to the UCC with implication of zircon input (Fig. 7). This further corroborates limited mixing of mafic source materials with the felsic sources of the sands. It is interpreted that the older sediments from the Winneba Basin are the likely source for the sands which were mixed with mafic-intermediate materials during sediment transport. The La/Th vs Hf diagram of Floyd and Leve-ridge (1987) is used to infer the provenance among the three suite of samples. The fine-grained samples plot in the mixed felsic/intermedi-ate source of this diagram (Fig. 9), the coarse-grained samples plot in the felsic source, the medium-grained samples plot both in felsic and

intermediate sources, revealing a provenance difference for the beach sands. Ferromagnesian trace elements like V, Co, Ni and Cr are suit-able source indicators of clastic sediments (Garver et al., 1996; Arm-strong-Altrin et al., 2016; Zaid, 2016). Accordingly, Cr concentrations > 150 indicate contribution from ultramafic source rocks or minerals (Garver et al., 1996). All the different suites of grain sizes for the beach sands have high Cr concentrations (Table 1). The average Cr concen-trations for the coarse, medium and fine-grained sands are 199.3, 146, and 169.3, respectively. The Cr concentration levels in the coarse and fine-grained samples are indicative of contribution from ultramafic minerals and sediments derived from mafic-intermediate sources as supported by high V concentration (Table 1). Rb content according to Wronkiewicz and Condie (1990), is a possible source indicator and has been used in source characterization of detritus (Hernandez-Hinojosa et al., 2018) where Rb > 40 ppm implies felsic-intermediate source rock input and Rb < 40 points to a mafic-intermediate source rock. All the 45 samples of the three grain size groups indicate a mafic-intermediate source rock as the Rb values in the samples are all < 40 (Table 1).

Table 2: Selected trace element ratios for source indication of the beach sands of central coast of Ghana (data from Cullers, 1994; 2000, Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2004)

Figure 9: La/Th v Hf for source rock discrimination (after Floyd and Leveridge, 1987)

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High field strength elements like Zr, Hf, Nb and Y are also good source indicator trace elements that have been extensively used over the years in sediment provenance studies (Culler, 1994; 2000; Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2012, 2014, 2015; Tawfik et al., 2017). Due to similar atomic radii of Zr4+ and Hf 4+, they tend to exhibit similar chemical characteristics and are elements that are high in felsic igneous rocks. Generally, elevated levels of Zr is indicative of felsic rocks particularly intrusives. However, Zr in sediments could be explained by the presence of detrital heavy minerals such as zircon and sphene. The high levels of Zr and Hf in the samples particularly in the fine-grained suite are indicative of the presence of detrital zircon and sphene in the detritus of the central coastal areas most probably coming from the metasediments of the Winneba Basin (Hirdes et al., 1992). The coupling of Zr and Hf in the multi-element diagrams (Fig. 3a and b) supports the derivation of the sands from felsic-intermediate sources. Moreover, the REE patterns of the adjacent rocks (granite and granodiorite) in the central coast of Ghana were correlated with those of the beach sands (Fig. 3c and d). The samples show overlapping patterns with the compared rock types especially the granodiorite. They are enriched in LREE against HREE in the chondrite-normalized diagram (Fig. 3c) supporting a felsic source derivation. However, the nearly flat patterns observed in the UCC-normalized diagram (Fig. 3d) highlights limited contribution from mafic sources. Negative Eu anomalies are observed in both chondrite and UCC-normalized REE plots implying fractionation of plagioclase in their felsic-intermediate source rocks during their evolution or control of accessory minerals on the sediment composition (Fu et al., 2011). But the granodiorite displays a distinctive positive Eu anomaly which might be due to complete removal of plagioclase feldspars in the melt. ConclusionBeach sands of the central coast of Ghana are largely quartz aren-ites with some Fe-sands that are moderately to intensely weathered under semi-humid to humid climatic conditions. The sediments are compositionally immature beach sands with ICV > 1 showing very low/first cycle recycling with the most unstable feldspar oxides retained in the weathered residue although with high levels of SiO2 and SiO2/Al2O3 values. The beach sands are chemically unaltered to weakly al-tered sediments with low CIA, PIA, Th/U values together with A – CN – K ternary diagram indications. The major oxides together with the trace element ratios point to felsic-intermediate source rocks (gran-odiorite) with limited contribution from a mafic source (basalt). The sediments are largely from the volcaniclastics, metamorphosed pillow lavas and Cape Coast Granitoid Complex in the Cape Coast Basin and the Kibi-Winneba greenstone belt with minor sediment input from the Winneba type granitoids. The elemental concentrations in the various grain sizes are due largely to chemical composition and textural char-acteristics of the source rocks with limited hydraulic sorting.

AcknowledgementThe authors appreciate the valuable help rendered by Mr. Patrick Sun-chullo BAYOWOBIE and Elizabeth NYARKO of CWSA, Kumasi during sample collection and efforts towards providing us with a good geo-logical map for the study area. The second author also thanks the Sci-entific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) for the continuous support during the time of this research as a doctoral research fellow of BIDEB 2215 Graduate Scholarship Program for Inter-national Students.

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Advanced Research in Chemistry and Applied Science · 2020. 1. 28. · soft Excel spread sheet...

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