Advanced Phonetics and Phonology · PDF fileelement, while initial consonant /p/ and the final...

Advanced Phonetics and Phonology

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Lecture (9)

The Syllable

syllables

The concept of syllable is a unit at a higher level than that of the phoneme or sound segment, yet distinct from that of the word or morpheme (Gimson,1975:51) .

A syllable is plainly a unit of sound that is larger than a single segment and usually smaller than a word, but it is not always easy to define the number of syllables in a word or to identify where one ends and the next begins (Crystal,2006:71).

Syllable: Phonetic Vs Phonological Grounds

Phonetically syllables “are usuallydescribed as consisting of a centrewhich has little or no obstructionto airflow and which soundscomparatively loud; before andafter that centre (…) there will begreater obstruction to airflowand/or less loud sound” (Roach,2000: 70).

In the monosyllable (one-syllableword) cat /kæt/, the vowel /æ/ isthe “centre” at which littleobstruction takes place, whereaswe have complete obstruction tothe airflow for the surroundingplosives /k/ and /t/.

Phonologically, this involves thepossible combinations of Englishphonemes (or phonotactics).Laver (1994: 114) defines thephonological syllable as “acomplex unit made up of nuclearand marginal elements”. Nuclearelements are the vowels orsyllabic segments; marginalelements are the consonants ornon-syllabic segments.

In the syllable paint /peɪnt/, thediphthong /eɪ/ is the nuclearelement, while initial consonant/p/ and the final cluster /nt/ aremarginal elements.

Theories of SyllableProminence Theory

Attempts have been made to provide physiological,acoustic or auditory explanations and definitions of thesyllable.

According to the prominence theory, for example, which isbased mainly on auditory judgements, the number of syllablesin a word is determined by the number of peaks ofprominence. In the word entertaining /ˌentəˈteɪnɪŋ/ the peaksof prominence are represented by the vowels /e ə eɪ ɪ/.

However, this theory does not help much in discussions ofsyllable division.

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Theories of Syllable Chest Pulse Theory The chest pulse theory discusses the syllable in the

context of muscular activities and lung movements in theprocess of speech.

Experiments have shown that the number of chest pulses,accompanied by increase of air pressure can determine thenumber of syllables produced (Gimson, 1975: 56), thusallowing to associate the number of syllables with the numberof chest pulses.

This approach, however, cannot account for cases when twovowels occur one after the other – for example in words likebeing /ˈbi:ɪŋ/ or playing /ˈpleɪɪŋ/ the second chest pulse mightbe almost irrelevant and thus lead erroneously to theconclusion that such English words consist of one syllableonly.

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Theories of Syllable Sonority Theory

Another approach is presented by sonority theory according towhich the pulses of pulmonic air stream in speech“correspond to peaks in sonority” (Collins & Meer,2008:283).

The sonority of a speech sound is discussed as “its relativeloudness compared to other sounds” and each syllablecorresponds to a peak in the flow rate of pulmonic air. Thusnuclear elements, or syllabic segments can be described asintrinsically more sonorous than marginal, or non-syllabicelements.

Speech sounds can be ranked in terms of their intrinsicsonority according to a sonority scale. According to thesonority hierarchy sounds are organized as follows, from theleast to the greatest: voiceless obstruents, voiced obstruents,nasals, liquids, glides, and vowels.

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The….. syllable

The Syllable is a unit of spoken language consisting of a singleuninterrupted sound formed generally by a Vowel andpreceded or followed by one or more consonants.

Vowels are the heart of a syllable (Most Sonorous Element) Consonants act as sounds attached to vowels.

Sonority

• Loudness is also a highly context-dependent measure.

• Can vary wildly within speaker, from speaker to speaker, from room to room, and across speaking contexts.

• However, all things being equal, some speech sounds are louder than others.

• Course in Phonetics:

“The sonority of a sound is its loudness relative to that of other sounds with the same length, stress and pitch.”

From Ladefoged

A Sonority Scale

low vowels

high vowels

glides

liquids

nasals

fricatives

stops

high sonority

low sonority

Sonority Sequencing

The sonority profile of the syllable is regulated by a universal principle:

The Sonority Sequencing: The sonority profile of the syllable must rise until it peaks, and then fall.

So, an onset such as ls, the converse of existing sl, would violate the Sonority Sequencing Principle.

Sonority and Syllables

• An old idea (e.g., Pike, 1943): syllables are organized around peaks in sonority.

• This is the Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP).

• Example: [bæd] is a well-formed syllable in English.

[æ]

[b] [d]

high sonority

low sonority

Sonority and Syllables

• An old idea (e.g., Pike, 1943): syllables are organized around peaks in sonority.

• This is the Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP).

• Example: [blænd] works well, too.

[æ]

[l] [n]

[b] [d]

high sonority

low sonority

Technical Terms

[æ]

[l] [n]

[b] [d]

high sonority

low sonority

sonority peak

Technical Terms

• The sonority peak forms the nucleus of the syllable.

[æ]

[l] [n]

[b] [d]

high sonority

low sonority

nucleus

Technical Terms• The sonority peak forms the nucleus of the syllable.

• The sounds that precede the nucleus form the syllable onset.

[æ]

[l] [n]

[b] [d]

high sonority

low sonority

onset

Technical Terms• The sonority peak forms the nucleus of the syllable.

• The sounds that precede the nucleus form the syllable onset.

• The sounds that follow the nucleus form the syllable coda.

[æ]

[l] [n]

[b] [d]

high sonority

low sonority

coda

Technical Terms•

[æ]

[l] [n]

[b] [d]

high sonority

low sonority

rhyme

Sonority Hierarchy [sli:p]

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5

s l i: p

Sonority

Sonority Hierarchy *[lsi:p]

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5

l s i: p

Sonority

Some basic principles

• Onsets must rise in sonority towards the syllable peak.

Examples:

stop - {liquid/glide} ‘play’ ‘quick’

fricative - {liquid/glide} ‘fling’ ‘thwack’

[s] - {liquid/nasal/glide} ‘slide’ ‘snow’ ‘sweet’

• What onset clusters should be ruled out?

• Can you think of any English examples where this principle might not work?

Some basic principles

• Codas must drop in sonority away from the syllable peak.

Examples:

nasal - {fricative/stop} ‘tenth’ ‘hand’

liquid - {fricative/nasal/stop} ‘help’ ‘helm’ ‘heart’

fricative - stop ‘test’

• What coda clusters should be ruled out?

• Can you think of any English examples where this principle might not work?

Syllable structure

A syllable consists of 3 major parts:- Onset (C) Nucleus (V) Coda (C)

Vowels sit in the Nucleus of a syllable Consonants may get attached as Onset or Coda. Basic structure (the Core Syllable) - CV

The Core Syllable

The core syllable is made up of a Nucleus preceded by an Onset:

σ

O(nset) N(ucleus)C V

The Core Syllable

Some languages only have CV syllables. More commonly, languages allow for syllables of greater

complexity. The core syllable is, however, found in every language. The fact that CV syllables are cross-linguistically attested

offers an interesting parallel with their invariable occurrence in early child language.

Vowel and Consonant Structures for English Syllables

V awe /ɔ:/ CV saw /sɔ: / VC ought / ɔ:t / CVC soon /su:n/ CVCC runs /rʌnz / CCV draw /drɔ: / CCVC drawn / drɔ:n / CCCVC straw / strɔ: / CCCVCCC strands /strændz / CCVCCCC glimpsed /glimpst /

Syllable Branching

Many phonologists envisage BRANCHING,HIERARCHICAL syllable structure. Katamba(1989:153f) presented a revamped version ofMULTI-TIERED PHONOLOGICAL THEORY.The syllable consists of Onset, Peak and Codaeach may further be branched into two C- or V-constituents respectively. Then we speak aboutbranching or complex Onsets etc. The Englishsyllable drowned /draʊnd/ is an example inwhich all three elements branch.As can be seen from the diagram, diphthongs aretreated as branching Peaks – each element of thediphthong occupies a single V-slot. The case isquite similar with “long vowels”: in terms ofsyllable structure, they are interpreted assequences of two identical V-elements – /i:/ isrepresented as V1 = [i] + V2 = [i], and /ɑ: ɔ: ɜ: u:/are [ɑ+ɑ, ɔ+ɔ, ɜ+ɜ, u+u], respectively. 27

Closed And Open Syllables

Syllables ending in a consonant, e.g. cat /kæt/, it /ɪt/, eat/i:t/, are traditionally known as closed syllables, whereas thoseending in a vowel, as in sea /si:/ or eye /aɪ/, are called open. Interms of syllable structure, in closed syllables the Coda ispresent, i.e. we have a branching Rhyme, while open oneshave non-branching Rhymes – the Coda element is absent.Syllable Onset is irrelevant to this distinction.

Recent phonological theories move to tackle this issue undersyllable WEIGHT. Syllables are heavy when the rhyme isbranched to contain (1) a long vowel or a diphthong, optionallyfollowed by one or more consonants, as in tea or (2)a shortvowel followed at least by one consonant ,as in ten. Lightsyllables are those with no branched rhymes containing ashort vowel alone or a coda of no more than short consonant, as in a or pa. Light syllable are termed in phonological lengthas a mora whereas heavy syllables are being greater than onemora.

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Strong And Weak Syllables

Any syllable with a vowel (except /ǝ,ɪ,u/)as its peak ornucleus is strong .If the vowel is short, then the strong syllablewill always have a coda as well ,as in seat /si:t/ and in /ɪn/.Strong syllables are stressed.

A weak syllable can only have one of a very small number ofpossible peaks as in ‘postman’ /pǝustmǝn/. At the end of aword, we may have a weak syllable ending with a vowel (i.e.,with no coda) , as in ‘better’/betǝ/, ‘happy’ /hæpɪ/ ,and ‘thankyou’ /θæῃk ju/. We also find weak syllables in word-finalposition with a coda if the vowel is /ǝ/, as in ‘open’ /ǝupǝn/.Weak syllables are unstressed.

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Syllabification

Syllabification or syllabication is the separation of a wordinto syllables, whether spoken or written.

In some languages, the spoken syllables are also the basis ofsyllabification in writing. However, possibly due to the weakcorrespondence between sounds and letters in the spelling ofmodern English, written syllabification in English is basedmostly on etymological or morphological instead of phoneticprinciples.

For example, it is not possible to syllabify "learning" as lear--ning according to the correct syllabification of the livinglanguage.

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Syllable Structure: amore detailed look

Count of no. of syllables in a word is roughly/intuitively the no. of vocalic segments in a word.

Thus, presence of a vowel is an obligatory element in the structure of a syllable.

Basic Configuration: (C)V(C).

S ≡ Syllable, O ≡ OnsetR ≡ Rhyme, N ≡ NucleusCo ≡ Coda

Syllable Structure: Examples

‘word’

‘sprint’

Syllable Structure: Examples

‘may’

‘opt’

‘air’

No Coda.

No Onset.

No Coda, No Onset.

Syllable Division

There are still problems withphonetic description . Mostspeakers of English feel that‘going’ /gǝuɪῃ/ consists of twosyllables: Roach (2000:77) statesthat most speakers could decideon phonetic grounds that the /u/ inthe middle is the dividing pointbetween the two syllables, sincethe articulation is slightly closer toobstructing airflow than the vowelnext to it.

Another difficulty can be seen in‘extra’ /ekstrǝ/. One problem isthat by some definitions the /s/ inthe middle , between /k/ and /t/,would be counted as a syllable,which most English speakerswould reject. The mostcontroversial issue relates towhere the two syllables are to bedivided:

i- /e-kstrǝ/ ii- /ek-strǝ/ iii- /eks-trǝ/ iv- /ekst-rǝ/ v- /ekstr- ǝ/

Maximal onset principle

This principle states that where two syllables are to be divided, any consonants between them should be attached to theright-hand syllable, not the left as far as possible within therestrictions governing syllable onsets and codes. Thisprinciple will reject the first and fifth options of ‘extra’,leaving us with the other three ones (ii, iii, and iv). Roach(2000:78) ,under the maximum onsets rule ,chooses (ii) /ek-strǝ/. Thus, the syllable is the basic phonotactic unit followingparticular phonotactic rules or morpheme structure conditions(Katamba,1989:164f).

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Maximal onset principle

“The Intervocalic consonants are maximally assigned to theOnsets of syllables in conformity with Universal andLanguage-Specific Conditions.”

Determines underlying syllable division Example

DIPLOMADIP LO MA & DI PLO MA

Ambisyllabic

When one consonant stands between vowels and it is difficultto assign the consonant to one syllable or the other ,as in‘better’ /betǝ/ or ‘carry’/kæri/. Roach (2000:78) states that theconsonant belongs to both syllables. Phonologists used theterm ambisyllabic for a consonant in this situation.

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Syllabic Consonants

A consonant is syllabic when (l) ,(r ),or a nasal) stands as the peak of the syllable instead of the vowel. It is usual to indicate that a consonant is syllabic by means of a small vertical mark ( ̩ ), as in :

Cattle /kætḷ/ Happen /hæpṇ/ and sometimes /hæpṃ/ Broken key /brǝukŋ ki:/ Hungary /hʌŋɡŗɪ/

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Morpheme Boundary Condition

Morpheme boundaries such as those between the elements ofa compound normally the /p/ of fee-paying to remain initial inthe second syllable, so that there is no pre-fortis clipping ofthe /iː/ (compare deep). The same applies in reprint (n.)/ˈriː.prɪnt/ (compare reaper /ˈriːp.ə/) and presuppose/ˌpriː.sə.ˈpəʊz/ (compare priest). There is pre-fortis clipping ofthe /aɪ/ in hyphen /ˈhaɪf.ən/, but not of that in high-faluting/ˌhaɪ.fə.ˈluːt.ɪŋ/. We need the following as a condition on themain principle:

In polymorphemic words, consonants belong to the syllableappropriate to the morpheme of which they form a part. Thisapplies only to synchronic, psychologically real morphemes.

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Phonotactic Constraints

The main syllabification principle does not operate in such away as to lead to consonant clusters which are phonotacticallyill-formed, according to the phonotactic constraints(Wells,1990:76):

Phonotactic constraints on syllable structure (as establishedwith reference to monosyllables) are not violated.

This means, for example, that timber is syllabified as/ˈtɪm.bə/, since /mb/ is not a possible final cluster: /b/ cannotbe captured into the stressed syllable. Similarly, anger is/ˈæŋ.gə/, at least in RP. But tender is /ˈtend.ə/, /nd/ being apermitted cluster . Notice how neatly this fits with permittedinitial clusters: tumbler /ˈtʌm.blə/, English /ˈɪŋ.glɪʃ/.

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Functions of the Syllable

1. The constitutive function : syllables constitute words: through the combination of their stress- loudness, duration-length, pitch-tone.

2. The distinctive function : the difference in the place of a syllabic boundary differentiates the meanings of the words and phrases:e.g. a 'name – an´aim; my 'train - might 'rain

The identificatory function : the listener can understand the exact meaning of the utterance only when the correct syllabic boundary is perceived: e.g. peace talks - pea stalks

The CV-tier

•the CV tier, a kind of phonological structure that is ‘above’ the root node.

•The CV tier is above the root node in the sense that root nodes are dependentsof, or dominated by, this type of structure.

•Different types of evidence will be used to motivate and explicate this type ofstructure, which will be used as a general introduction to higher level prosodicstructure.

The CV-tier

The CV-tier

The application of CV-tier predicts how gliding in Luganda occurs; that, in[9. 7] the vowel /u/ is initially assigned to the V -element because it ishigher up the sonority hierarchy than the consonant /m/ which precedes it.But when the fact that it is followed by /a/ is taken into account, associationlines need to be re-drawn, making /a/ the only [-cons] dominated by V andlinking /u/ instead with the preceding C-element. This makes it anonsyllabic glide

The CV-tier

Syllabification

The ONSET FIRST PRINCIPLE (Kahn 1976, Clements and Keyser 1983)has been proposed to deal with such situations. It is stated in [9. 9]:

[9. 9] (a) 'Syllable-initial consonants are maximised to the extentconsistent with the syllable structure conditions of the language in question.

(b) Subsequently, syllable-final consonants are maximised to theextent consistent with the syllable structure of the language inquestion.’ (Clements and Keyser 1983:3 7)

Syllabification

The ONSET FIRST PRINCIPLE (Kahn 1976, Clements and Keyser 1983)has been proposed to deal with such situations. It is stated in [9. 9]:

[9. 9] (a) 'Syllable-initial consonants are maximised to the extentconsistent with the syllable structure conditions of the language in question.

(b) Subsequently, syllable-final consonants are maximised to theextent consistent with the syllable structure of the language inquestion.’ (Clements and Keyser 1983:3 7)

In potentially ambiguous cases initial consonant clusters take precedenceover syllable final ones. This means that unless there is an overridinglanguage-specific reason for doing otherwise, given a string like VCV, theOnset First Principle requires that the string be divided up as V -CV ratherthan VC-V : a word like ever [evə] is divided up as [e-və] and not *[ev-ə].

Syllabification

The theory incorporates the following algorithm (formal, step-by-stepprocedure) for building syllables, with the procedures being applied startingfrom V outward to successive C-elements in the order specified in [9. 10]below, which is based on Clements and Keyser (1983:38):

[9. 10] (a) Underlyingly every V of the CV-tier is linked to o; this merelyreflects the fact that no syllable exists without a V element (as nucleus).

(b) Link each C element to the nearest V –element to its rightprovided the resulting sequence of segments does not violate any languagespecific rules. This procedure creates syllable onsets.

(c) Repeat the procedure in (b), this time linking the C-elements tothe nearest V to its left. This procedure creates syllable margins.

Syllabification

Functions of the syllable

1. The syllable as the basic phonotactic unit

The rules which reflect speakers' knowledge of what combinationsof sounds are allowed in their language are variously referred to asPHONOT ACTIC RULES or MORPHEME STRUCTURECONDITIONS.


2. The syllable as the domain of phonologicalrules

nasalisation rule of French (which is similar to a nasalisationrule found in numerous languages):

Vowels are nasalised when followed by a preconsonantal nasal asin /enfle/ [ɑ̃fle] enfle 'swollen' or word-finally as in /bon/ [bɔ]̃ bon'good'.



Californian language Yawelmani. In this language consonant clusters are allowed only if they do not exceed two consonants.


3. The syllable and the structure of complexsegments

One of the main functions of the syllable is to provide an analysis of the internal structure of segments and to indicate the number of rhythmic units present in a syllable. This depends on the way C and V elements present on the CV -tier are linked with consonant and vowel segn1ents onthe segmental tier (Hyman 198 5).



Simultaneous association of one segment with two C or V slots.That is the case when consonants are GEMINATED (i.e. the sameconsonantal articulation is held for the duration of two consonantalbeats) or when a vowel is lengthened (i.e. the same vowel quality ismaintained over two V slots). I represent both possibilities with aLuganda example in [9.20]. The word ttaala [t:a:la] 'lamp', beginswith a geminate t followed by a geminate vowel.



The third possibility is the simultaneous association of a single Cslot with two segmental distinctive feature matrices. This is whathappens when complex segments like affricates occur. Affricateslike [pf], [tf] and [dʒ] are described using the feature [+delayedrelease] in SPE (see section J.J.6). But they can be morerevealingly represented in this way:


In many languages, if an underlying syllabic segment is deleted or isreleased as nonsyllabic, an adjacent syllabic gets lengthened 'incompensation'.

Luganda in [9.24].•/ba+a+lab+a/ [ba:laba] 'they saw'•(but /ba+ku+lab+a/ [bakulaba] 'they see you')•/ba+e+lab+a/ [be:laba] 'they see themselves'•/tnu+a+lab+a/ [mwa:laba] 'you saw'•(but /mu+tu+lab+a/ [mutulaba] 'you see us')•/li +a to/ [lja:to] 'boat, canoe'•/ma+ato/ [ma:to] 'boats, canoes'

The rule is that a high vowel is realised as a nonsyllabic glide if it appears followed by another vowel; it is delinked from a V slot and re-associated with a C slot

4. Compensatory lengthening


The rule is that a high vowel is realised as a nonsyllabic glide if it appears followed by another vowel; it is delinked from a V slot and re-associated with a C slot (glide formation rule):



We can interpret compensatory lengthening as follows: when the first vowel is deleted or realised as a nonsyllabic glide, its V -slot (and timing unit) is inherited by the second vowel which becomes simultaneously associated with two V slots and hence has virtually the duration of two vowels in the phonetic representation:



In many languages, higher prosodic phenomena like stress,nasalisation, and quantity (length) can only be insightfully described interms of the syllable because often, in order to determine whether agiven rule is applicable, the number of syllables in a word (or part of aword) has to be counted.

There are rules which require main word stress to fall on a certainsyllable of the word which could be, say, the last syllable or secondsyllable from the end (penultimate syllable) of a word.

5. The syllable as indispensable building block for higher phonological domains



stress in Swahili falls on the penultimate syllable. The relative position ofstress remains the same even when the word grows longer with theaddition of affixes.



The noun class 9 nasal prefix in Swahili is syllabic.

This rule also takes the number of syllables in a word into account: ifattached to MONOSYLLABIC roots, the nasal prefix is syllabic but ifattached to longer roots, it is non-syllabic:



Clitics:•Typically a clitic is an unstressed particle which is attached to a HOST (i.e.main) word and is incapable of standing on its own.•Often ditics affect the stress pattern of the host word. A clitic attached tothe beginning of a word is called a PROCLITIC and a clitic attached to theend of a word is called an ENCLITIC.•Some ditics are derived from self-standing words. For example, theFrench first person•pronoun form je (as in je le vois 'I see him') is an independent word. But inj'ai (from je ai) 'I have' it is a PROCLITIC.•In English not is a separate word in she is not but it is an ENCLITIC in sheisn't.•Other clitics are not derived from independent words e. g. Latin -que 'and'as in mensamque 'and the table' (accusative case). The process of addingclitics is called CLITICISATION.



Clitics: in Luganda all monosyllabic roots end in a long vowel in the underlyingrepresentation. That longvowel is shortened in most contexts in the phonetic representation. But it isprotected and shows up before enclitics like the interrogative marker as you cansee:

Syllable weight

In numerous languages a factor that determines the applicability of certain phonological rules is the WEIGHT of the rhyme.

Essentially, a syllable is LIGHT if it contains a non branching rhyme as in [9. 31]. But a syllable is HEAVY if it contains a branching rhyme as in [9.32].

The onset seems never to play any role in the computation of syllable weight. Consequently, its internal structure is irrelevant.

Syllable weight

Abstract segments

Abstract segments

In the light of the solution provided above, how shouldwords below commencing with the so-called 'HASPIRE’ be represented in underlying lexicalrepresentations? Justify the rule which you propose.

Abstract segments

In the case of h-aspire words, there is an unattached C which inhibits the application of the vowel truncation (deletion) rule although it is not linked to any concrete sound on the segmental tier. The situation can be represented in this way:

Extrasyllabicity

Extrasyllabicity

Where the next word begins with a consonant as in petit prince [9. 50a],the floating underlying final /t/ of petit remains unattached at the end ofthe derivation and consequently fails to surface. But where the next wordbegins with a vowel as in petit enfant [9. 50b], a C-element is inserted atthe CV -tier and the floating underlying /t/ is attached to it. The OnsetFirst Principle ensures that the inserted C (and the segment it dominates)is attached as a syllable onset. The /t/ is then able to surfacephonetically.

/ ði end əv lektʃə naɪn/

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