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Transcript of Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925)...
![Page 1: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer
Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925)
Professor Ian K Smith(CM308, Ext 8114)
Dr Russel Lockett
![Page 2: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
ADVANCED ENERGY SYSTEMSwww.staff.city.ac.uk/~sj376/energy.htm
Low-Pollution Combustion Fuel and Combustion Boilers and Furnaces,
Renewables
Energy Management
Calculation examples and problems Coursework
![Page 3: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Low-pollution Combustion:
Fuels and Combustion
General on fuels and combustion
Theoretic relations, Excess of air, Combustion products
Callorific value, H-t Diagram, Combustion temperatures
Monitoring of combustion
Fuel reserves, Environmental impacts
![Page 4: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Low Pollution Combustion
Boilers and Furnaces
General on furnaces and boilers, Boiler types, balance, Coefficient of utilization
Heat-Temperature chart
Monitoring of boiler processes,
Radiation in furnaces, chambers and channels, Combined heat transfer
‘Zero emission’ combustion
Fuel cells
![Page 5: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Energy Management
Plant lifetime costs
Fuel switching
Storage Systems, thermal and mechanical
Building management
Industrial refrigeration
![Page 6: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Low-pollution Combustion:
Fuels and Combustion
General on fuels and combustion
Solid fuel, coal, brown coal
Liquid fuel, oil, oil derivatives
Gaseous fuel, natural gas
![Page 7: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Fuels and Combustion Example 1
Theoretic relations, Fuel components
c - Carbon, h – Hydrogen, S – Sulphur
o – Oxigen
n – Nitrogen
w – Water
a - ashes
c+h+s+n+o+w=1
![Page 8: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Fuels and Combustion Example 2
Theoretic relations, Air, Excess of air, Combustion products
2 2
2 2
2 2
3 32 2
3 3
2 2
12 22.4 22.4
1.867 1.867
C O co
C O CO
M C M O M CO
kgC m O m CO
m mcC c O c CO
kg kg
![Page 9: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
3 32 2 2
3 3
2 2 2
2 2
3 3
2 2
1
21
21
2 22.4 22.42
5.6 11.2
0.7 0.7
H O H O
H O H O
M H M O M H O
kgH m O m H O
m mhH h O h H O
kg kg
S O SO
m msS s O s SO
kg kg
![Page 10: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Fuels and Combustion
Air, Excess of air
2
2
2 2
3
,
2 2
3
, ,
,
,
, ,
1.867 5.6 0.7 0.7
: 0.21 0.79
1 11.867 5.6 0.7 0.7
0.21 0.21
1
0.21 1 1
O m
Air m O m
Air Air m
Air Air m
O Air m O m
mV c h s o
kg
Air O and N by volume
mV V c h s o
kg
V V
V V
V V V
![Page 11: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
3
, ,
2 2 2 2
3
, , ,
3
, , ,
2 2,max, , ,
2
1.867 11.2 1.244 0.7 0.8 0.79
1.867 0.7 0.8 0.79
1
1.867 1.867 1.867
1
11.2
CP m Air m
CP m dry Air m
CP CP m Air CP m Air m
CP CP m Air m CP m
mV c h w s n V
kg
CO H O SO N
mV c s n V
kg
mV V V V V
kg
c c cCO CO
V V V V
hH O
2 max, , ,
, ,2
, ,
1.244 11.2 1.244
1
0.21 1 0.21 1
1
CP m Air m CP m
Air m Air m
CP CP m Air m
w h wH O
V V V
V VO
V V V
Fuels and Combustion Combustion products
![Page 12: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Combustion Control,
Measured are O2 and CO2
, ,2
, ,
, ,
2
2 2,max, , ,
, ,
, 2,max
2 2
1 0.21 1
1
0.21
0.21
1.876 1.876 1.876,
1
1.867
Air m Air m
CP CP m Air m
CP m Air m
CP CP m Air m CP m
CP m Air m
CP m
V VO
V V V
If V V
O
c c cCO CO
V V V V
If V V
cV CO
CO CO
![Page 13: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Fuels and Combustion
Ostwald triangle and Bunte diagram
Example 63
, , ,
2,max, ,
max, ,
'2 max
, ,
1.876 0.7 0.8 0.79
1.876
1.876
0.9335
0.9335 1
2
CP m dry Air m
CP m dry
CP m dry
CP m dry
mV c s n V
kg
cCO
V
cCO
V c
cO CO
V
![Page 14: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Combustion Products
Specific Heat Example 3
Polynomial expression in function of temperature
Cp = a + bT + cT2
Mean specific heat
Cp = a + 0.5 b(T+To) + 0.333c(T2+TTo+T2o)
Mean specific heats for air,
N2,O2, H2O, SO2, CO2, CO, NO, OH, H2 and CH4
![Page 15: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Comp a kJ/kmolK 103 b kJ/kmolK2 106c kJ/kmolK3 M kg/kmol
AIR 26.719 7.372 -1.1113 28.964 N2 27.016 5.811 -0.2887 28.01 O2 25.593 13.251 -4.205 32. H2O 29.857 11.046 0.192 18.02 SO2 31.163 33.394 -10.752 64.02 CO2 27.286 38.469 -11.262 44.05
CO 26.568 7.577 -1.119 28.01 NO 26.945 11.255 -1.76 30.01 OH 29.754 -0.881 1.7547 17.01 H2 29.062 -0.82 1.99 2.016 CH4 13.405 77.027 -18.744 16.04
Specific Heat: Table of Coefficients
![Page 16: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Combustion Products
Enthalpy
H =SVi hi = TSVi cpi =T[V CO2 cpCO2 +VH2O cpH2O
+V SO2 cpSO2 + VN2 cp N2 +(l -1) VAir,m cpAir ] kJ/kg
where:
V CO2 = 1.867c; V H2O = 11.2h + 1.244w ;
V SO2=0.7 s and VN2 = 0.8 n + 0.79 VAir,m m3 /kg
H-t diagram, Example 4 gives relation between the temperature and enthalpy where excess of air is parameter. From it, either enthalpy, temperature or excess of air can be estimated graphically. Also these can be calculated, Example 5.
![Page 17: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Calorific Value
Hl=34,000 c+120,000(h-o/8)+10,900 s-2500w kJ/kg
Hu=34,000 c+142,000(h-o/8)+10,900 s kJ/kg
![Page 18: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Incomplete Combustion
Complete combustion:
C+O2->CO2 H2+1/2O2-> H2OS+O2->SO2
Incomplete combustion due to dissociation
Formation Heat T0=288KReaction H0 kJ/kmol lnKp0
CO2 <-> CO+1/2O2 283,197 -103,010H2O<-> H2+1/2O2 241,710 -91,870H2O<-> OH+1/2H2 284,030 -106,510NO <-> 1/2N2+1/2O2 90,624 -34,925
![Page 19: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Combustion Kinetics
aA+bB->cC+dD, w=kCIi w1=k1CA
aCBb w2=k2CC
cCDd
w1/w2= k1CAaCB
b /k2CCcCD
d=1
K= k1/k2= CCcCD
d/CAaCB
b Kp= pCc pD
d/pAa pB
b
d(lnKp)/dT=H/RT2 =[aT+1/2bT2+1/3cT3+C1] /RT2
=[a/T+1/2bT+1/3cT2+C1/T] /R
lnKp=a lnT/R+bT/2R+cT2/6R+C1/RT+C2
R is universal gas constant, 8314 J/kmol, C1 and C2 are constants determined for T0 Example 7
![Page 20: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Combustion:
Kinetic: Premixed fuel and air, slow chemical reaction determines the combustion speed
Diffusive: Simultaneous mixing andchemical reaction, slow mixing determines the speed
Combustion speed: 1/w=1/wm+1/wc
Control combustion: distribution of air or fuel
![Page 21: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Steam Boilers
Heat apparatus to produce steam or hot water
Combustion chamber, furnace Water heaterEvaporator SuperheaterAir preheater
![Page 22: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
History:
Early 1800 quality fuel, low efficiencylow capacity and low steam pressure
1900 the same principles as today
1930 the same technology as today,Forging and welding
Today, 2000 MW, 130 m high, big plant
![Page 23: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Associate topics in:
Combustion: flow and chemical reaction
Heat transfer: radiation and convection
Fluid dynamics, turbulent flow
Structure and strength of materials
Process control: combustion, water feed,steam temperature
![Page 24: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Q - heat into boiler, kW (MW)Q1- energy used in the boiler, kWD - boiler production of steam, kg/s (t/h)B - consumption of fuel, kg/sHl - fuel calorific value, kJ/kghs - enthalpy of superheated steam, kJ/kghs - enthalpy of feed water, kJ/kgb – boiler efficiency
Mass and energy balance of a steam boiler
Q=BHl
Q1=D(hs -hs)=Qb=BHlb B=D(hs -hs)/(Hlb)
b= Q1/Q
![Page 25: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Q - heat into boiler, kW (MW)Q1- energy used in the boiler, kWLoses
Efficiency coefficient of a steam boilerb= Q1/Q=1-ui
Gasification loses u1-u3 because of unburned fuelu1- drop through grid u2- unburned in flying ashesu3- unburned in laying ashes
Furnace loses u1-u6 because combustion products did not receive heatu4- chemically unburned u5- heat lost through carbonization u6- heat lost with laying ashes
Boiler loses u1-u8 because water did not receive heat
u7- loss with the combustion products u8- external cooling
![Page 26: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Heat exchanged mainly by radiationQe- heat exchanged in the evaporator, kWHF0 – theoretical enthalpy in the furnace, kJ/kgHF2 – enthalpy of CP at the end of the furnace, kJ/kgh” - enthalpy of saturated steam at boiler pressure, kJ/kgh’ - enthalpy of water at boiler pressure, kJ/kg
Mass and energy balance of an evaporator (furnace)
Qe=D(h” –h’)=B(HF0 –HF2), kW
![Page 27: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Heat Transfer in Furnaces
Dominated by radiation2
0.62
30.6 10.62 0.6
1 11 11
1
F F F F
F F
T Bo M MBo
T M Bo
M
1 10 5 21
0.6 6 3 3Since
0 20 0 24 3
0 20 0 0 2
03
0 0 2
21003
3 220
1.7610 11
F FCP CP F F F
R F Fo F o F F F
o F F F
Fo
FF F
B H HBV c T T TQBo
Q T TA T A T T T
Q
A T T T
TA
M TMT
82 4
5.7610W
Sincem K
Example 10
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Heat exchanged mainly by convectionQs- heat exchanged in the superheater, kWks- heat transfer coefficient in the superheater, kW/m2Kh1- convection heat transfer coefficient for combustion products, kW/m2Kh2- convection heat transfer coefficient for steam, kW/m2K - conduction heat transfer for the pipe, kW/mK– pipe and fouling thickness, mtlog, th, tl – logarithmic and higher and lower
temperature differences
Mass and energy balance of a superheater
Qs=D(hs-h” )=B(HF2 –Hg1)=As ks tlog, kW1/ks =1/h1+ +1/h2
tlog=(th- tl)/ln th/ tl
![Page 29: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Heat exchanged mainly by convectionQa- heat exchanged in the water heater, kWka- heat transfer coefficient in the water heater, kW/m2Kh1- convection heat transfer coefficient for combustion products, kW/m2Kh2- convection heat transfer coefficient for steam, kW/m2K - conduction heat transfer for the pipe, kW/mK– pipe and fouling thickness, mtlog– logarithmic temperature difference
Mass and energy balance of a water heater
Qa=D(h’-ha )=B(Hg1 –Hg2)=Aa ka tlog, kW1/ka =1/h1+ +1/h2
Q1=D(hs -hs)= D(hs-h” )+D(h” –h’)+ D(h’-ha )
![Page 30: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Heat exchanged mainly by convectionQz- heat exchanged in the air preheater, kWkz- heat transfer coefficient in the air preheater, kW/m2Kh1- convection heat transfer coefficient for combustion products, kW/m2Kh2- convection heat transfer coefficient for steam, kW/m2K - conduction heat transfer for the pipe, kW/mK– pipe and fouling thickness, mtlog– logarithmic temperature difference
Mass and energy balance of an air preheater
Qz=B(HL-Hl )=B(Hg1 –Hg2)=Az kz tlog, kW1/kz =1/h1+ +1/h2
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Q-t (Lentz) DiagramGives a graphical presentation of heat transfer in a steam boiler
Abscissa: Temperature Ordinate: Heat transferred
A ka=Q/t
Area in the Q:1/ t diagram represents a measure of a heat transfer efficiencyExample 8
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Low-Polluting Combustion
Particles, CO, SO2, CmHn, NOx
Staged CombustionFluidized Bed GasificationFuel Cells‘Zero’ Pollution
Reduce CO2 means to increase user efficiency, Cogeneration
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Staged Combustion
Initially rich mixture, shortage of air orRecirculation
Low combustion temperature, heat transfer
Later add air, still low temperature
Low temperature for formation of SO2 and NOx
Add limestone, helps retention of SO2
![Page 34: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Fluidized Bed
Air velocity:
Stationary layer, Fluidized bed, Particle flight
Good mixing, no excess of air
Good heat transfer, low combustion temperature
Nice concept, but
Intensive pipe abrasion
Pressurized fluidized bed, no success
![Page 35: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Gasification
Rich mixture, lack of air
Low combustion temperature, no formation of SO2 and NOx
CP used in gas turbine
Nice concept, but
Particle removal still a problem, no success
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Fuel Cells
Direct conversion of chemical into electrical energy, efficient if temperatures are low and pressures are high
Hydrogen or hydrocarbons
Nice concept, but
Low efficiency of electrical to mechanical conversion
Fuel storage problems
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‘Zero’ Pollution
Combustion of hydrocarbons in pure oxigen
Condensation of water vapour, CO2 used as by-product in extraction of mineral oil
Nice concept, but
a‘cheating’ technology, CO2 returned to environment
![Page 38: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Renewables:
Hydro energy and Nuclear energy
Hydro a real potential, but expensive and irreversible
Nuclear, the only long-term choice, since fission material is not in demand any more, still expensive
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Renewables:
Wind energy, solar energy, wave energy, biomass, biogas
Large and ugly units ‘stealing’ from environment
Very expensive, need a buy-product
Usually extremely favourable legislation
![Page 40: Advanced Energy Systems and Heat and Mass Transfer Professor Nikola Stosic (CM308, Ext 8925) Professor Ian K Smith (CM308, Ext 8114) Dr Russel Lockett.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062619/551994115503463d068b474b/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Rational use of existing power sources
Fuel switching, accumulation, investment/operational cost trade-off
Topping and bottoming cycles, cogeneration
Passive solar, appropriate architecture, energy management, heat and cool at the same time