Access to Music Education

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DOI: 10.1177/0022429409353142 2010; 57; 308 Journal of Research in Music Education

David Nabb and Emily Balcetis Attitudes Regarding Students With Physical Disabilities

Access to Music Education: Nebraska Band Directors Experiences and

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Access to Music Education: Nebraska Band Directors Experiences and Attitudes Regarding StudentsWith Physical Disabilities

David Nabb1 and Emily Balcetis2

Abstract

Students with physical disabilities frequently are excluded from participation in instrumental music programs, yet the obstacles band directors face that preclude integration of these students have not been documented systematically. The primary purpose of this study was to measure Nebraska High School band directors concerns regarding the integration of students with physical disabilities into their band programs. Results of a survey of 221 Nebraska high school music programs suggested that awareness of options for ways to include students with physical disabilities, availability of adapted instruments, and the cost of acquiring such instruments are among band directors primary concerns. Conclusions drawn from this survey serve as evidence that there is a need for adapted instruments and suggest that integration of students with disabilities and without disabilities in band would provide benefits for all.

Keywords

disability, assistive technology, adapted musical instrument, access to music education

As jazz singer Patty James reminded her audience, Everybody knows that you need two arms to play the saxophone (James, 1982). Modern woodwind instruments, including flutes, saxophones, and clarinets, designed for persons with disabilities are not readily available. As a result, children born with an upper limb disability and those who begin music study and later acquire a disability, particularly one that limits the use of the hands, cannot begin or may be forced to resign from their music studies (Mailhot, 1974). Meanwhile, MENC: The National Association for Music Education

1University of Nebraska at Kearney, USA2Ohio University, Athens, USA

Corresponding Author:David Nabb, FAB 226, University of Nebraska at Kearney, 905 W. 25th St., Kearney, NE 68849E-mail: [email protected]



Nabb and Balcetis 309

seeks to conduct programs and activities to build a vital musical culture and an enlight-ened musical public for the benefit and the general welfare of all persons (MENC, 2008). Such goals are difficult to achieve, given music teachers lack of awareness of how to integrate students with disabilities into instrumental music classes and the cur-rent difficulty in obtaining musical instruments designed for use by these students.

Instrumental music teachers who wish to include a student with a physical disability in their program face an array of challenges for which the teachers may not feel ade-quately prepared. For example, it is possible that teachers may not know that complex musical instruments can be made accessible to people with disabilities. Those who do know that adapted instruments are available may never have needed to locate instru-ments and may not know where to find them. Additionally, teachers may have concerns regarding time to learn and teach the adapted instruments and the availability and the cost of the instrument. Beyond concrete concerns, it is possible that teachers may con-sider the psychological costs of integrating students into mainstream education to out-weigh the benefits. Although these are possible concerns, a systematic investigation of the actual impediments to integrating students with disabilities into mainstream music education has not been conducted.

The primary goal of this article is to explore what difficulties instrumental music directors face when attempting to integrate students with physical disabilities into main-stream music education. We focused our own investigation on issues such as awareness of instruments meant to assist in the integration, problems experienced when attempting to do so, and perceptions of the benefits of integrated music programs. We approached these questions by surveying instrumental music instructors regarding their experiences with students with physical disabilities and their perception of integrated music programs.

Students with and without disabilities maintain remarkably similar interests with regard to music and musical instrument preferences (Jellison & Flowers, 1991). Music educators should recognize that it would be natural and perhaps even beneficial for a saxophone player, for example, undergoing a disabling event to return to his or her former instrument. Of course, a student who has experienced a medical procedure, such as an upper limb amputation, could participate in school instrumental music by playing bass drum or learning the trumpet. The review of adaptations in the following section makes clear that there are many possibilities other than requiring a student with a physi-cal disability to become a percussionist or trumpeter. If instructors are knowledgeable about the range of available options and various means to taking advantage of these options, students with a disability can make the choice that most interests and suits them and their music education goals. This investigation explored the degree to which instructors are knowledgeable about such options. In addition, this investigation explored what obstacles band directors face in trying to integrate students with disabilities into band and their perceptions of the costs and benefits of doing so.

Paving the Way for Adapted InstrumentsIt is an unnecessary and unfortunate loss for the entire community that students with physical disabilities are excluded from participation in instrumental music programs.



310 Journal of Research in Music Education 57(4)

However, anecdotal accounts provide preliminary evidence that individuals and some companies have laid the foundation for assisting students with participation in instru-mental music.

In some cases, it is possible to adapt an instruments repertoire to accommodate one-handed players, as is the case for the piano (Zeigler, 2007). Additionally, little modifi-cation or only minor changes to playing technique are necessary to allow a one-handed player to perform on some conventional brass and percussion instruments (Chadwick & Clark, 1980). Many musical instruments have been physically altered to serve play-ers with disabilities. Some of the most dramatic of these adaptations have been for woodwind instruments.

Available only intermittently or after individual request, some woodwind instru-ments originally designed for two-handed performers have been adapted for musicians with only one hand. For instance, Zen-On, Aulos, Mollenhauer, Dolmetsch, and Maarten Visser have intermittently offered one-handed recorders (Dickeson, 2004; Dolmetsch, 2005; Godby, 2002; Nabb, 2006; Peskin, 2004). Other woodwind instruments have been adapted at least as far back as 1822, when Cornelius Ward built a right-handed flute for Colonel Count Rebsomen (Lancaster, 2008). Rebsomen had lost his left arm and right leg while fighting in Napoleon Bonapartes army. Reportedly, Rebsomen was able to play his one-handed flute quite well. As a tribute to Rebsomens success, Antoine Bebiguier dedicated his own Opus 46 to him (Bate, 1995; Lancaster, 2008). Similarly, Edit van der Burg Mayer returned to professional playing on a one-handed flute adapted by Maarten Visser after surviving a serious head injury. In 2003, she won first prize in her age category at the 20th Dutch National Flute contest (Nabb, 2007; Niele, 2000). Unfortunately, the Rebsomen and Visser flutes were custom efforts for specific individu-als and were not developed for widespread distribution.

The saxophone has been adapted, and it is the Conn Company that likely developed the first one shortly after World War I (Cohen, 1987; Horwood, 1989). In the 1970s, the University of Alberta built a few adapted saxophones for amputees that relied on electronic solenoids to depress the keys of the missing hand (Charles, James, & Stein, 1988). Hank de Marco, a saxophone player who lost an arm to cancer, returned to pro-fessional playing using one of these adapted saxophones. The instruments allowed per-sons with disabilities to participate in music study; however, because they required at least a small stump to remain on the amputated limb, they cannot be considered a completely one-handed system. Additionally, they must be custom fitted to the ampu-tees stump, making production time-consuming and expensive.

With a privately designed and built one-handed saxophone by Martin Foag of Germany, Stephan Tiefenbacher returned to professional playing after losing an arm and suffering a serious head injury in a motorcycle accident (Tiefenbacher, 2008). In addition, the first author of this study returned to professional performing and university teaching following a major stroke he survived at the age of 37 (Nabb, 2005). Nabb performs on a one-handed toggle-key system (TKS; for the right hand) saxophone built by Jeff Stelling. The TKS is a completely one-handed system and has the potential to be used to make left-handed saxophones and could be integrated on other woodwind instruments. How-ever, at present, the TKS has been implemented only on two right-handed saxophones.




Of course, brass and percussion instruments often require fine motor skills in only one hand; therefore, many players with a physical disability in one hand can play these instruments normally or can simply switch to use the nonconventional hand. None-theless, brass instruments have been adapted as well. In 1998, Andrew Forster built a trumpet with valves operated by foot pedals (Snedecker, 2005). Other brass instruments have been engineered with compressed air or solenoids moving the valves (Snedecker, 2005). Amy Carol Parks performs as a professional French horn player and is now a dean at the Levine School of Music in Washington, D.C. (A. C. Parks, personal com-munication, November 17, 2008). Although she wears a prosthesis on her left arm, she performs on adapted horns played with the right-hand operating valves.

Benefits of Integrated Instrumental Music ProgramsAlthough the pioneering musicians who perform on adapted instruments came upon their disabilities differently, their experiences after receiving their adapted instruments are similar. These musicians report that receiving an adapted instrument played a piv-otal role in their physical and psychological recovery. For instance, when describing his first session playing Amazing Grace on his new instrument, Hank de Marco (1982) said, Suddenly I was lifted out of a complete depression, and I was just flying, like I was on cloud nine. . . . It was just a great feeling. I mean it was the greatest feeling Ive ever had in my whole life.

Kyung Sun Orr lost his left arm in an airplane accident when he was 16 years old. According to his parents, when Kyungsun regained consciousness, he immediately became aware that he had lost his arm, yet his first statement was, I want to play the saxophone (quoted in Loss of Arm Doesnt Deter Saxophonist, 2005). Kyungsun Orr participated in the university band and took saxophone lessons at Clemson University on a TKS saxophone designed by Stelling Brass and Winds. Common among these testimo-nials is that participation in instrumental music played an important role in recovery.

Benefits to students with disabilities. The exclusion of persons with physical disabilities from music making continues, despite substantial evidence that they would benefit from musical activity. During and immediately following World War II, the medical community began exploring the use of music in the rehabilitation of injured military personnel (Barksdale, 2003). The results were consistent and clear: Music was remark-ably effective in rehabilitation. Results indicated that music allowed for expression of creativity within populations limited in communication skills. Music also provided opportunities for positive social experiences, self-growth, self-awareness, and improved well-being (Barksdale, 2003). Involvement in music confers physical and cognitive benefits as well. Students with physical disabilities involved in musical instrument study experienced improved handeye coordination; endurance when pursuing challenging, long-term learning goals; concentration during complex cognitive and motor tasks; tol-erance to overcome frustration; and self-confidence (Probst, 1991).

Benefits to musical community. Students with disabilities included in music education experience substantial benefits, but these benefits are not specific only to them. In a survey of Texas music educators, 85% of the respondents indicated that music




instruction was equally beneficial for students with and without a disability (Jellison, 1992). Positive collaborative experiences improve the attitudes of students without a disability toward students with disabilities. A recent review of 32 studies published from 1975 to 2005 that examined attitudes toward persons with disabilities in music programs indicated that extended, direct interactions between students with and with-out disabilities positively influenced attitudes and decreased prejudice (Jellison & Tay-lor, 2007). Including students with disabilities in instrumental music programs thus can provide substantial benefits to these musicians and to peers as well.

Costs of integrated music education. There are reasons to suspect that some instructors may not perceive integrated music education as beneficial. Because of a lack of special-ized training to deal with students with disabilities, perceptions of the time, training, and specialized knowledge needed to integrate students may seem too costly, prohibi-tive, or unavailable. And teachers may believe that to gain the necessary knowledge would come at the cost of the educational experiences of the students without physical disabilities. Additionally, band directors, like other teachers, parents, and administra-tors, may be concerned about the possible disruptions, financial cost, emotional con-sequences, and psychological distress that come from such a transition (Hayasaki & Moore, 2002). One goal of the current investigation was to explore whether band instructors believed integrated education would provide benefits.

Research ObjectivesThe primary purpose of this study was to identify the obstacles band directors encoun-tered when actually attempting to integrate students with physical disabilities into instrumental music education. We also explored directors reactions to one particular adapted instrument that could assist in integrating students into instrumental music education. We focused on the adapted flute because (a) according to Yamaha Corpora-tion, more flutes are sold in the United States annually than any other woodwind instru-ment (K. Witt, personal communication, March 28, 2005), and (b) the flute can be adapted easily, given the use of plateau-style (closed-hole) keys. This research had three additional objectives. First, we measured perceptions of the size of the population of students with a disability. Second, we assessed whether band directors were aware of ways to involve these students. Third, we asked directors who integrated students into music education about the limitations they experienced in addition to the benefits that they perceived all students experienced as a result of integrated music education.

MethodsSurvey Instrument

We designed a survey instrument (see appendix online at http://jrme.sagepub.com/supplemental) in light of reviewed research, discussions with professional physical therapists and public school music teachers, and input from music education and psy-chological testing experts. We pilot-tested an online draft survey and revised it with




assistance from researchers in psychological testing and music education. The final survey explored several areas. As follows, we describe the specific questions we asked.

Perceptions of the size of population of students with disabilities. We gathered information regarding perceptions of the size of the population of students with physical disabilities. We asked respondents whether physical disabilities limited instrument choice, or the abil-ity to participate in music entirely, for any student(s) in any school in which they worked and whether one or more students discontinued instrumental music study after becoming disabled or developing physical problems in one hand. Respondents checked either yes or no to answer these questions. In addition, respondents reported the number of students with physical disabilities (or family members on their behalf) who expressed interest in playing an instrument during the past five years. Awareness of options for students. We measured awareness of adapted instrument programs. Respondents reported by checking yes or no whether they were aware that conventional musical instruments, of any kind, can be adapted to compensate for a student with a physical disability.

Attitudes toward one-handed flute programs. We assessed impressions of the potential of a one-handed flute to increase accessibility to instrumental music programs. Respon-dents indicated the degree to which they believed that the availability of a one-handed flute would enable more students, particularly those with physical limitations, to par-ticipate in school instrumental music. Respondents responded using a Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Obstacles to integrating students. We assessed the actual problems experienced by respondents regarding the integration of students with physical disabilities into music training. We asked these questions of a subset of the full samplenamely, those respon-dents who reported including students with physical disabilities in instrumental music programs. Using a Likert-type scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (a great deal), respondents indicated the degree to which seven factors limited their ability to accommodate stu-dents. Respondents indicated whether time constraints, awareness of options for how to include students with physical disabilities, availability of adapted instruments, personal qualifications to instruct on and maintain adapted instruments, and cost of acquiring and maintaining such instruments limited their ability to accommodate students.

Benefits to integrated music education. We measured teachers views regarding whether students with physical disabilities and/or their peers without disabilities benefited from the inclusion of the students with physical impairments in instrumental music. Using a Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), respondents indi-cated the degree to which they believed that the student(s) with physical disabilities included in their programs benefited from their experience in instrumental music. They also indicated the degree to which they believed students without physical disabilities benefited from working with those students.

SampleThe population included head band directors from all of Nebraskas 301 high schools with music programs. We sent a survey to every high school on the music program list maintained by the Nebraska School Activities Association (2007). We sent all schools




an initial notice informing them of an upcoming opportunity to assist in a survey of music programs in the state. Three weeks later, we sent an initial survey to all schools. We later sent two reminder letters, including additional copies of the survey, to schools that had not responded at the time of the mailing. We instructed schools to have their head band director, or the band director with the most experience, complete the survey. We monitored responses via coded return envelopes to avoid multiple responses from a single school. This process yielded a return of 221 surveys, a 74% response rate.

Because a schools music program class rating can be different from its athletic class rating, we used the Nebraska High School Athletic Association Music Class rankings to assess school size. To ensure that the response rate was equal across all sizes of music programs, we performed a chi-square analysis of the return rate against the expected return rate given the actual distribution of schools across each class size. As seen in Table 1, the proportion of returns closely reflected the actual proportion of schools across all music program class sizes. Comparison of the return rate in each class against the actual percentage of schools in each class suggests that there were no differences between the collected and actual (i.e., observed and expected) percentages, c2(4, n = 222) = 1.92, p = .75. Survey responses from schools of classes AA, A, or B (n = 73) were considered a part of the large school group, whereas those from schools of classes C or D (n =148) were considered a part of the small school group (see Table 1).

ResultsPerceptions of the Number of Students with Physical Disabilities in Student Body

Respondents reported their perceptions of the size of the population of students with physical disabilities in their school. In general, 55% of respondents indicated that the stu-dent body included at least one such student. As expected, the likelihood that respondents indicated that students with physical disabilities were in attendance at their school depended on size of the school, c2(1, n = 219) = 26.88, p < .001. Of respondents from large schools, 80% knew of at least one student, as did 43% of respondents from smaller schools.

Beyond perceptions of the prevalence of students with disabilities within the school body, 61% (n = 122) of all respondents indicated that within their career, they

Table 1. Actual Proportion of Schools and Sample Return Rate as a Function of School Size

School Size

Variable AA A B C D

Actual 12.0% (n = 36) 6.0% (n = 18) 16.3% (n = 49) 32.9% (n = 99) 32.9% (n = 99)population

Sample return 10.9% (n = 24) 6.3% (n = 14) 15.8% (n = 35) 30.3% (n = 67) 36.7% (n = 81)rate




experienced firsthand a time when a students physical disability limited that students participation in instrumental music. In addition, 30.7% (n = 68) of all respondents indicated that at least one if not more students with a physical disability had expressed an interest to the respondent in playing an instrument. Moreover, 7% (n = 16) of respondents indicated that at least one of their own students had to discontinue music study after developing physical problems in one hand. These statistics did not depend on size of school, c2(1, n = 122) = 0.07, p = .80.

Awareness of Options for Students with Physical ImpairmentsIn general, 67% of survey respondents indicated being aware that conventional musical instruments could be adapted to accommodate students physical needs. However, this awareness depended on the school class size, c2(1, n = 221) = 10.02, p = .002. Of respondents from large schools, 81% indicated awareness that instruments could be adapted, whereas only 60% of respondents from smaller schools indicated awareness.

Attitudes Toward a One-Handed Flute for Use in Instrumental Music ProgramsRespondents agreed that the availability of a one-handed flute would enable more students to participate in instrumental music education. Specifically, on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), participants, on average, circled 5.7. In fact, 84% of all respondents indicated some form of agreement with this statement, be it mild, moderate, or strong, as indicated by their response of 5, 6, or 7 on this scale. Belief that one-handed flutes would enable students with limitations to participate did not depend on respondents size of school, F(1, 218) = 0.05, p = .82.

Obstacles to Integrating Students with Physical DisabilitiesTo explore the primary concerns instructors have regarding the feasibility of integrat-ing students with physical disabilities into music education, we focused the next anal-ysis on respondents who indicated that one or more students with a disability or their family members expressed an interest to the respondent in playing an instrument (31%, n = 68). These respondents indicated the degree to which seven factors influ-enced their ability to include the student in their music program. Respondents used a 1-to-7 Likert-type scale where higher numbers indicated greater concern for the factor. As seen in Table 2, from the list of seven, the two most highly endorsed factors were the availability of instruments, of any kind, to accommodate students needs (M = 4.4) and awareness of options for how to include students (M = 4.3). Respondents indicated that their third biggest concern was the cost of acquiring instruments. Interestingly, the factor respondents indicated as least influential was their knowledge of how to maintain such instruments (M = 3.1). These results did not depend on the school class, Fs < 1.




Benefits of Integrating Students in Instrumental Music Classes

To assess perceptions of the benefits of integrating students, we focused the next anal-ysis on the subset of respondents with experience integrating students with physical disabilities into instrumental programs. In our sample, 26% (n = 56) of respondents indicated having included such students in instrumental music programs. These respondents strongly agreed with the statement that students with physical disabilities benefited from their experience in instrumental music class. On a Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), participants circled, on average, 6.7. In addition, respondents strongly agreed that the students without physical disabilities in their music program benefited from working with the students with disabilities (M = 6.3).

General DiscussionData from this study support and supplement the scant research previously reviewed regarding the obstacles band directors face when attempting to integrate students with physical disabilities into mainstream instrumental music study. Results of this exten-sive survey indicated that instrumental music instructors, and particularly those teach-ing in smaller schools, were not fully aware of the options available to students. In fact, respondents who were approached by families of the students indicated that one of the primary factors affecting their ability to accommodate such students was the awareness of options for how to include the students. Additionally, band directors were con-cerned about the availability of instruments, the cost of acquiring them, how or where to get them, or how to finance their purchase.

Table 2. Endorsement of Factors That Influenced Inclusion of Students With Physical Impairments in Music Programs

School size

Factor Large Small Overall

Availability of instruments that accommodate 4.4 (0.3) 4.3 (0.4) 4.4 (0.3) physical limitations

Awareness of options to include students with 4.5 (0.3) 4.2 (0.3) 4.3 (0.2) physical impairments

Cost of acquiring such instruments 3.9 (0.4) 4.0 (0.4) 3.9 (0.3)Having enough time to come up with solutions 3.6 (0.3) 3.7 (0.3) 3.6 (0.2)Personal qualifications to instruct students with 3.5 (0.4) 3.7 (0.4) 3.6 (0.3) physical impairments on the instruments

Cost of maintaining of such instruments 3.2 (0.4) 3.6 (0.4) 3.4 (0.3)Knowledge of how to maintain such instruments 3.1 (0.3) 3.1 (0.4) 3.1 (0.3)

Note: Items were rated on a Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Standard errors appear in parentheses.




It is unfortunate that directors, particularly those at smaller schools, lacked aware-ness of options, because there are students who could benefit from, and would provide benefits to, the instrumental music program. In fact, the majority of instrumental music instructors indicated an awareness of students in their school who had physical disabili-ties and had experienced firsthand how this disability affected one or more students participation in instrumental music. Instructors impressions of the size of the population of students with disabilities were supported by statistics reported by the Nebraska Department of Education (2008). In Nebraska alone, there were 472 students with ortho-pedic disabilities that affected educational performance. Such disabilities involved skel-etal system, bones, joints, limbs, muscles, or central nervous system and affected the ability to move, use, feel, or control certain parts of the body. In other words, hundreds of students in just the state of Nebraska experienced physical limitations that could preclude them from traditional instrumental music education.

Although awareness of options for integrating students was limited, respondents believed that integration would be beneficial. Nebraska band directors felt strongly that students with physical disabilities benefited from studying instrumental music, a result that supports other research suggesting that instrumental music study benefited students with and without disabilities (Jellison, 1992; Johnson & Darrow, 1997; Probst, 1991).

Although there is still a population of band directors, particularly those at small schools, who lack awareness of options, including adapted instruments of any kind, to assist in the integration of students with disabilities into mainstream music education, some attention has been paid in the literature to students with special needs. For exam-ple, a recent report offered suggestions to assist band directors in integrating students with disabilities into mainstream music education, including color coding music nota-tion to assist students with visual processing deficits and reconsideration of evaluation practices to fairly assess the progress of students with needs (Zdzinski, 2001). How-ever, a fundamental step required to involve students with disabilities in instrumental music education is to provide them with instruments that function with the students physical limitation. Understanding the hindrances instructors face, including lack of adapted instrument availability or knowledge of options, can allow educators to better serve this population.

ConclusionThe results from this study indicate that band directors continue to face obstacles to integrating students with physical disabilities into instrumental music programs. We suggest the following steps that can be taken by individuals wishing to improve this situation: (a) Inform music educators of existing programs and devices to assist these students, and (b) lobby instrument builders and manufacturers to consider supporting development of instruments designed for persons with disabilities. In combination, these steps may help to improve the educational experiences offered to a population of students that currently appears to be underserved.




Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

This research was carried out with support from the University of Nebraska at Kearney Research Services Council, the University of Nebraska at Kearney One-Handed Woodwinds Program, and Yanda's Music of Kearney, Nebraska.

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Bios

David Nabb is a professor of music at the University of Nebraska at Kearney. Since surviving a stroke in 2000, he has worked to develop woodwind instruments that can be played with one hand and continues to work to make adapted musical instruments available to people with disabilities.

Emily Balcetis is an assistant professor of psychology at New York University. Her research interests include motivations and perceptions.

Submitted May 28, 2008; accepted May 5, 2009.



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