Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 1 A quick guidetoacademic writing. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 2 Features of academic writing Introduction Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form of the language. There are six main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. Complexity Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives. Formality Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions. Objectivity Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you.Explicitness Academic writing is explicit about the relationships int he text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 3 Hedging In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a hedge. Responsibility In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use. A check list Here are some useful questions to ask yourself about your essay: 1.Does the essay deal with the topic that was set?2.Does the essay answer the question that was set?3.Does it cover all the main aspects and in sufficient depth?4.Is the content accurate and relevant?5.Is everything in the essay relevant to the question?6.Is the material logically arranged?7.Is each main point well supported by examples and argument?8.Is there a clear distinction between your ideas and those of other authors?9.Have you acknowledged all the sources you have used?10. Is the length of the essay right for its purpose?11. Is it written plainly and simply, without clumsy or obscure phrasing?12. Is the grammar, punctuation and spelling acceptable?13. Is it neat and legibly written? Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 4 Contents: What do you want to know? Page 1. How to write an Essay Pg 5 2.How to write a reportPg 9 3. Understanding the question Pg 11 4. How to research your essay Pg 14 5.How to use paragraphs correctl y. Pg 16 6 Avoiding PlagarismPg 19 7. How to report ideas in your work Pg 21 8. How to referencePg 22 9 Quick guide to referencingPg 25 10 Referencing different media Pg 26 11 Referencing weird sourcesPg 31 12 Citing your sources in your work Pg 32 13 The correct language to use when citing references Pg 35 14 Reporting, quoting and concluding Pg 37 15 Notes on punctuationPg 30 Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 5 Essays. The aim of the essay should be deduced strictly from the wording of the title or question, and needs to be defined at the beginning. The purpose of an essay is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas, rather than reproducing their words, but your own voice should show. The ideas and people that you refer to need to made explicit by a system of referencing. Your essay should have the following sections: PreliminariesTitle page Main text Introduction Main body Conclusion End matterReferences Preliminaries Before you start the main part of your essay or assignment, there should be a title page. The title page should contain information to enable your lecturer and departmental office to identify exactly what the piece of work is. It should include your name and course; the title of the assignment and any references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your department for clear information. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 6 Main text English essays are linear: - they start at the beginning and finish at the end, with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetition. Writers are responsible for making their line of argument clear and presenting it in an orderly fashion so that the reader can follow. Each paragraph discusses one major point and each paragraph should lead directly to the next. The paragraphs are tied together with an introduction and a conclusion. An essay has three main parts 1.An introduction2.A main body3.A conclusion1. The introduction.The introduction consists of two parts: a.It should include a few general statements about the subject to provide a background to your essay and to attract the readers attention. It should try to explain why you are writing the essay. It may include a definition of terms in the context of the essay, etc.b.It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question.It should introduce the central idea or the main purpose of the writing. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 7 2. The main body. The main body consists of one or more paragraphs. Each paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic. The paragraphs of the essay contain the main ideas and arguments of the essay together with illustrations or examples. The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the ideas. The purpose of the essay must be made clear and the reader must be able to follow its development. 3. The conclusion. The conclusion includes the writers final points. a.It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the main bodyb.and explain the overall significance of the conclusions. What general points can be drawn from the essay as a whole?It should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the essay has been achieved.End Matter At the end of the essay, there should be a list of references. This should give full information about the materials that you have used in the assignment. See Writing a list of references for more information on the reference list. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 8 Structure of an Essay I. INTRODUCTION General Statement Organisation Statement

II. MAIN BODY A. Introductory Sentence Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 ... Concluding Sentence

B. Introductory Sentence Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 ... Concluding Sentence

C. Introductory Sentence Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 ... Concluding Sentence

III. CONCLUSION Recall issues in introduction;draw together main points; final comment.

Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 9 Reports. Many students, particulary science and business students, will at some time be expected to write a report.Your report should have the following sections: Preliminaries Title page Abstract Contents Main text IntroductionMethodologyFindings/ResultsDiscussionConclusionEnd matter References Appendices Preliminaries Before you start the main part of your report, there should be a title page. The title page should contain information to enable your lecturer and departmental office to identify exactly what the piece of work is. It should include your name and course; the title of the assignment and any references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your department for clear information. A report should also normally include an abstract and a contents page Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 10 End Matter At the end of the report, there should be a list of references. This should give full information about the materials that you have used in the report. See Writing a list of references for more information on the reference list. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 11 Understanding the question. Introduction Students often do worse when writing assignments in English in the UK, not because their writing skills are weak or because their knowledge of the subject matter is insufficient, but because they have not fully understood what they have been asked to do. To score high marks in an examination or an essay, it is important to fully understand what a question means and how it should be answered. In order to understand the question it is useful to analyse the questions and to search for certain components. The following technique is very useful (Swales, 1982). The components of a question Most essay titles or examination questions contain the following components:1.Subject matter or topic. What, in the most general terms, is the question about?2.Aspect or focus. This is the angle or point of view on the subject matter. What aspect of the subject matter is the question about?3.Instruction or comment. This refers to the instruction word or phrase. These instructions tell the student exactly what to do.Some questions also contain the following components: 4.Restriction or expansion of the subject matter. This is the detailed limitation of the topic. What, in specific terms, is the question about?Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 12 5.Viewpoint. This refers to the requirement, in the question, that the writer writes from a point of view dictated by the setter of the question. Analysing the question To analyse the title, it is useful to follow the following steps: 1.Identify the topic.2.If the topic has a restriction or expansion, identify it.3.Search for the aspect. This is the angle or point of view on the subject matter. Often, the aspect is a phrase ending in 'of', e.g. 'the importance of', 'the contribution of'. Be sure you are clear about how the aspect relates to the subject matter. It can be an example of it, a stage in its sequence, the cause or effect, one of the solutions to it as a problem etc.4.Identify the instruction (which often comes at the beginning) and decide what it means and what it requires you to do.5.Check whether there is a viewpoint and if so, if it the same as your own. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 13 Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 14 Researching the essay When you have understood the question or what you are expected to write, you will need to do some reading to find out what has been published in your field of study. It is most unlikely that you will find the information you need about your topic in just one specific section of the library. You need to think and look as widely as you can about possible subject areas that may be relevant to your topic. Many sources are available in several formats - as hard copy, on CD-ROM, and on-line via the Internet. In the last few years there has been a great increase in the amount of information that can be found on-line. Using the Internet, it is possible to search for the details of books, journal articles and conference proceedings, as well as for data such as statistics, maps, diagrams and so on. The number of periodical titles that you are able to access on-line is growing rapidly. Internet gateways and subject databases canalso be good starting points for your research. You will probably start by looking at secondary sources, for example dictionaries, encyclopaedias, bibliographies, indexes and abstracts that you can use to help you to find the primary sources - the full text of articles, books, government and company reports, etc. that you need to read for your essay. Use the library computer catalogue to find useful material for your topic. Choose the: Search the Catalogue option on the main menu. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 15 Start with the Keyword option and identify the names and call numbers (see Dewey for more information) of the sections of the library that might hold useful material for your topic. Use the Author or Title search option on the Search the Catalogue menu of the terminal for the details and class numbers of some relevant books and journals. If you need more information from the library, look for Information Databases and Catalogues for your subject. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 16 Writing paragraphs Introduction Essays are divided into paragraphs. If your essay is one continuous piece of text, it will be very difficult for any reader to follow your argument. Therefore essays need paragraphs. Essays are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one topic or idea. The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph. The paragraphs have different functions, but all develop an idea - that is, they add information, explanation, examples and illustrations to the central theme or idea until the theme is fully developed. Topic sentences This main idea of each paragraph is usually expressed somewhere in the paragraph by one sentence (the main or topic sentence). This sentence is usually found at the beginning of the paragraph, but can come at the end or even in the middle of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph generally expands the theme contained in the main sentence, and each idea round the main theme is supported by information and evidence (in the form of illustrations and examples), and by argument. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 17 Examples The population as a whole was unevenly distributed. The north was particularly thinly settled and the east densely populated, but even in counties like Warwickshire where there were substantial populations, some woodland areas were sparsely peopled. There was already relatively dense settlement in the prime arable areas of the country like Norfolk, Suffolk and Leicestershire. Modern estimates of England's total population, extrapolated from Domesday patterns, vary between 1 and 3 million. (Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 58)Atoms of all elements consist of a central nucleus surrounded by a "cloud" containing one or more electrons. The electrons can be thought of as occupying a series of well-defined shells. The behaviour of a particular element depends largely on the number of electrons in its outermost shells. Other factors, such as the total number of electron shells, also play a part in determining behaviour but it is the dominance of the outer electron configuration that underlies the periodic law and justifies the grouping of the elements into groups or families. (The sciences: Michael Beazley Encyclopaedias (1980), p. 118) Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 18 Identifying topic sentencesLook at the structure of the following paragraph. Flow of information in paragraphs In order for a paragraph to be easy to read, the information in it must flow easily from one sentence to the next. To do this it is important to structure your information clearly and signal exactly what you want to say by the use of signalling words. Information structure. Most sentences in English have two parts a theme(or topic) and a rheme (or comment) (McCarthy, 1991, p. 55). The theme is what you are writing about - it is shared information and it has been introduced to your reader. The rheme is what you are saying about the theme - it is new information, what you want to tell your reader. Look at the following sentences: 1. The M1 goes from London to Leeds. 2. The motorway from London to Leeds is called the M1. The theme in sentence 1 is "the M1". The reader has been introduced to the M1 but does not know where it goes and therefore needs to be told. In sentence 2, the themeis "the motorway from London to Leeds". The reader knows there is a motorway from London to Leeds but does not know what it is called. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 19 Avoiding plagiarism Definitions The concise Oxford dictionary (6th edition) (1976) Plagiarise - Take and use another person's (thoughts, writings, inventions) as one's own.The Cambridge international dictionary of English (1995) Plagiarise - To use (another person's idea or part of their work) and pretend that it is your own.The Oxford advanced learner's dictionary (5th edition) (1995)Plagiarise - To take somebody else's ideas or words, and use them as if they were one's own.Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (1987)If you plagiarise someone else's ideas, or part of a piece of writing or music by someone else, you use it in your own work and pretend that you thought of it or created it.Funk and Wagnalls' new standard dictionary (1921)Plagiarism is the act of appropriating the ideas, writings, or inventions of another without due acknowledgement; specifically, the stealing of passages either for word or in substance, from the writings of another and publishing them as one's own.Collin's pocket English dictionary (1987) Plagiarism is the taking of ideas, writings, etc. from another and passing them off as one's ownStafford College.Learning development Unit. 20 Plagiarism is taking another person's words or ideas and using them as if they were your own. It can be either deliberate or accidental. Plagiarism is taken very seriously in UK Higher Education. If even a small section of your work is found to have been plagiarised, it is likely that you will be assigned a mark of '0' for that assignment. In more serious cases, it may be necessary for you to repeat the course completely. In some cases, plagiarism may even lead to your being expelled from the university. Advice Plagiarism is the representation of another person's work as your own. There are three main reasons why you should not do this. 1.It is not helpful. If you plagiarise, you are saying that something is your work when it is not. This is not good and will not get you good marks. In order to do well in higher education, you need to be responsible for the ideas and facts that you use.2.You need to come to your own conclusions. You need to show that you have understood the material and come to your own conclusions on the basis of what you have read and heard. Therefore copying from textbooks, or pasting text from the Internet into your own writing, is not good enough.3.It is against the regulations. You must not use another person's words or ideas as if they were your own. This is against university regulations and is regarded as a very serious offence.Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 21 Reporting: Paraphrase, summary & synthesis One of the most important aspects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the materials and that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In fact, this is an essential skill for every student.Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic experience." It is very important when you do this to make sure you use your own words, unless you are quoting. You must make it clear when the words or ideas that you are using are your own and when they are taken from another writer. You must not use another person's words or ideas as if they were your own: this is Plagiarism and plagiarism is regarded as a very serious offence.The object of academic writing is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. You can do this by reporting the works of others in your own words. You can either paraphrase if you want to keep the length the same, summarise if you want to make the text shorter or synthesise if you need to use information from several sources. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 22 Writing a list of references. At the end of all pieces of academic writing, you need a list of materials that you have used or referred to. This usually has a heading: references but may be bibliography or works cited depending on the conventions of the system you use. The object of your writing is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas, rather than reproducing their words. The ideas and people that you refer to need to be made explicit by a system of referencing. This consists of a list of materials that you have used at the end of the piece of writing and references to this list at various points throughout the essay. The purpose of this is to supply the information needed to allow a user to find a source. Therefore, at the end of your assignment you need a list of the materials you have used - a bibliography or a reference list. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 23 Examples of references. Barr, P., Clegg, J. & Wallace, C. (1981). Advanced reading skills. London: Longman. Chomsky, N. (1973). Linguistic theory. In J. W. Oller & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Focus on the learner (pp. 29-35). Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House.Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983). An introduction to language. London: Holt-Saunders. Guiora, A. Z., Paluszny, M., Beit-Hallahmi, B., Catford, J. C., Cooley, R. E. & Dull, C. Y. (1975). Language and person: Studies in language behaviour. Language Learning, 25, 43-61.GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/ Kinsella, V. (Ed.). (1978). Language teaching and linguistics: Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Lipinsky, E. & Bender, R. (1980). Critical voices on the economy. Survey, 25, 38-42. Oller, J. W. & Richards, J. C. (Eds.). (1973). Focus on the learner. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. Longman dictionary of contemporary English. (1978). London: Longman. Smith, F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Stern, H. H. & Weinrib, A. (1978). Foreign languages for younger children: Trends and assessment. In V. Kinsella (Ed.), Language teaching and linguistics: Surveys (pp. 152-172). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 24 NOTES ON REFERENCING. 1.Use heading: References. 2.Page numbers should be included for all articles in journals and in collections. 3.Use italics (or underlining in handwriting) for titles of books, periodicals, newspapers etc. 4.Use alphabetical order. Alphabetise works with no author by the first significant word in the title. 5.All co-authors should be listed. 6.Indent second etc. lines 7.Use (n.d.) if no date is given. 8.If the author of a document is not given, begin the reference with the title of the document. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 25 ReferencingBooks. a. One author: Smith, F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.b. Two authors: Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983). An introduction to language. London: Holt-Saunders.c. More than two authors: Barr, P., Clegg, J. & Wallace, C. (1981). Advanced reading skills. London: Longman.d. Edited collections: Kinsella, V. (Ed.). (1978). Language teaching and linguistics: Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oller, J. W. & Richards, J. C. (Eds.). (1973). Focus on the learner. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House.e. Book, corporate author: British Council Teaching Information Centre. (1978). Pre-sessional courses for overseas students. London: British Council.f. Book, no author, or editor: Longman dictionary of contemporary English. (1978). London: Longman. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 26 Referencing Periodical articles a. One author: Abercrombie, D. (1968). Paralanguage. British Journal of Disorders of Communication, 3, 55-59.b. Two authors: Lipinsky, E. & Bender, R. (1980). Critical voices on the economy. Survey, 25, 38-42.c. More than two authors: Guiora, A. Z., Paluszny, M., Beit-Hallahmi, B., Catford, J. C., Cooley, R. E. & Dull, C. Y. (1975). Language and person: Studies in language behaviour. Language Learning, 25, 43-61.d. Review of a book: Carmody, T. P. (1982). A new look at medicine from a social perspective [Review of the book Social contexts of health, illness and patient care]. Contemporary Psychology, 27, 208-209.e. Review of a book, no title: Maley, A. (1994). [Review of the book Critical language awareness]. Applied Linguistics, 15, 348-350.f. Magazine article: Gardner, H. (1981, December). Do babies sing a universal song? Psychology Today, 70-76.g. Newspaper article: James, R. (1991, December 15). Obesity affects economic social status. The Guardian, p. 18Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 27 h. Newspaper/Magazine article, no author: Acid attack scarred girl for life. (1986, October 21). The Guardian, p. 4.(In the essay use a short form of the title for citation: ("Acid Attack." 1986))i. Newspaper article, letter to the editor: Hain, P. (1986, October 21). The police protection that women want [Letter to the editor]. The Guardian, p. 4.j. Journal article, in press: Johns, A. M. (in press) Written argumenation for real audiences. TESOL Quarterly.4. Referencing selections from edited collections a. One author: Chomsky, N. (1973). Linguistic theory. In J. W. Oller & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Focus on the learner (pp. 29-35). Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House.b. Two authors: Stern, H. H. & Weinrib, A. (1978). Foreign languages for younger children: Trends and assessment. In V. Kinsella (Ed.), Language teaching and linguistics: Surveys (pp. 152-172). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 28 5. Referencing CD ROMs etc a. Newspaper or magazine on CD-ROM: Gardner, H. (1981, December). Do babies sing a universal song? Psychology Today [CD-ROM], pp. 70-76.b. Abstract on CD-ROM: Meyer, A. S. & Bock, K. (1992). The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Blocking or partial activation? [CD-ROM]. Memory Cognition, 20, 715-726. Abstract from: SilverPlatter File: PsycLIT Item: 80-16351c. Article from CD-ROM Encyclopedia: Crime. (1996). In Microsoft Encarta 1996 Encyclopedia [CD-ROM]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.d. Dictionary on CD-ROM: Oxford English dictionary computer file: On compact disc (2nd ed.) [CD-ROM]. (1992). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 29 6. Referencing documents obtained from the Internet All references begin with the same information that would be provided for a printed source (or as much of that information as possible). The WWW information is then placed at the end of the reference in the same way as publishing information is given for books. It is important to give the date of retrieval because documents on the Web may change in content, move, or be removed from a site altogether. The object of this is the same as all referencing - to supply the information needed to allow a user to find a source. If you do not know the author or the date and it does not have a clear title, think carefully before using it. See Evaluating Sources. a. An article: Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J. A. Schwartz, A. A. (1995). A history of facilitated communication: Science, pseudoscience, and antiscience: Science working group on facilitated communication. American Psychologist, 50, 750-765. Retrieved January 25, 1996, from http://www.apa.org/journals/jacobson.htmlb. A newspaper article: Sleek, S. (1996, January). Psychologists build a culture of peace. APA Monitor, pp. 1, 33 [Newspaper, selected stories on-line]. Retrieved January 25, 1996, from http://www.apa.org/monitor/peacea.htmlc. WWW Document: Li, X. & Crane, N. (1996, May 20). Bibliographic formats for citing electronic information. Retrieved March 10, 1997, from http://www.uvm.edu/~xli/reference/estyles.htmlStafford College.Learning development Unit. 30 d. WWW Document - corporate author: World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). (1995, May 15). About the World Wide Web. Retrieved December 30, 1996, from http://www.w3.org/hypertext/WWW/e. WWW Document - corporate author: American Psychological Association (1996). How to cite information from the world wide web. Retrieved March 17, 1997, from http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.htmlf. WWW Document - no author: A field guide to sources on, about and on the Internet: Citation formats. (1995, Dec 18). Retrieved February 7th, 1996, from http://www.cc.emory.edu/WHSCL/citation.formats.htmlg. WWW Document - no author, no date: GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/ Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 31 Referencing weirder sources. a. Government report: National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behaviour: Ten years of scientific progress and implications for the eighties (DHHS Publication No. ADM82-1195). Washington DC: US Government Printing Office.b. Publication with no date given: Malachi, Z. (Ed.). (n.d.) Proceedings of the International Conference on Literary and Linguistic Copmputing. Tel Aviv: Faculty of Humanities, Tel Aviv University.c. Unpublished dissertation or thesis: Devins, G. M. (1981). Helplessness, depression, and mood in end-stage renal disease. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, McGill University, Montreal.d. Unpublished conference paper: Howarth, P. (1995, March). Phraseological standards in EAP. Paper presented at the meeting of the British Association of Lecturers in English for Academic Purposes, Nottingham.e. Film or videotape: Maas, J. B. (Producer), and Gluck, D. H. (Director). (1979). Deeper into hypnosis [Film]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 32 Citing sources One of the most important aspects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the materials that you have studied and that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In fact, this is an essential skill for every student.Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic experience." For this reason, any academic text you read or write will contain the voices of other writers as well as your own. In your writing, however, the main voice should be your own and it should be clear what your point of view is in relation to the topic or essay question. The object of academic writing is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas, rather than reproducing their words. If your view is not clear, you will be told you have not answered the question or something similar. It is essential therefore that it must always be clear whose voice is speaking. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 33 Two ways of citing work There are two ways in which you can refer to, or cite, another person's work: a) by reporting or b) by direct quotation.a) Reporting This simply means reporting the other writer's ideas into your own words. You can either paraphrase if you want to keep the length the same or summarise if you want to make the text shorter. See Reporting: Paraphrase & Summary for more information. There are two main ways (Swales, 1990, p. 148) of showing that you have used another writer's ideas:integral According to Peters (1983) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks. Evidence from first language acquisition indicating that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks was given by Peters (1983). OR non-integral Evidence from first language acquisition (Peters, 1983) indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks. Lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks (Peters, 1983). depending on whether or not the name of the cited author occurs in the citing sentence or in parenthesis. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 34 If you want to refer to a particular part of the source:According to Peters (1983, p. 56) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks. (At end of essay)References Peters, A (1983). The units of language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. b) Direct Quotation Occasionally you may want to quote another author's words exactly. For example:Hillocks (1982) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes, "The available research suggests that teaching by written comment on compositions is generally ineffective" (p. 267). (At end of essay)References Hillocks, G. (1982). The interaction of instruction, teacher comment, and revision in teaching the composing process. Research in the Teaching of English, 16, 261-278. If you do so, keep the quotation as brief as possible and quote only when it is necessary. You must always have a good reason for using a quote - and feeling unable to paraphrase or summarise is never a good reason. The idea of an essay is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject; you present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas, not reproducing their words.Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 35 Your paper should be a synthesis of information from sources, expressed in your own words, not a collection of quotations. Any quote you use should not do your job for you, but should add something to the point you are making. The quote should support your point, by quoting evidence or giving examples or illustrating, or add the weight of an authority. It should not repeat information or disagree with your point.Reasons for using quotations:1.quote if you use another person's words: you must not use another person's words as your own;2.you need to support your points, quoting is one way to do this;3.quote if the language used in the quotation says what you want to say particularly well.Reasons for not using quotations:1.do not quote if the information is well-known in your subject area;2.do not use a quotation that disagrees with your argument unless you can prove it is wrong;3.do not quote if you cannot understand the meaning of the original source;4.do not quote if you are not able to paraphrase the original;5.do not use quotations to make your points for you; use them to support your points.If you decide to use a quotation, you must be very careful to make it clear that the words or ideas that you are using are taken from another writer. Language Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 36 Reporting - Paraphrasing and Summarising Reporting uses paraphrase and summary to acknowledge another author's ideas. You can extract and summarise important points, while at the same time making it clear from whom and where you have got the ideas you are discussing and what your point of view is. Compare, for example:Brown (1983, p. 231) claims that a far more effective approach is ... Brown (1983, p. 231) points out that a far more effective approach is ... A far more effective approach is ... (Brown, 1983, p. 231) The first one is Brown's opinion with no indication about your opinion. The second one is Brown's opinion, which you agree with, and the third is your opinion, which is supported by Brown Here are some more expressions you can use to refer to someone's work that you are going to paraphrase:If you agree with what the writer says. The work of X indicates that ...The work of X reveals that ...The work of X shows that ...Turning to X, one finds that ...Reference to X reveals that ...In a study of Y, X found that ... Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 37 As X points out, ...As X has indicated ...A study by X shows that ...X has drawn attention to the fact that ...X argues that ...X points out that ...X makes clear that ...If you disagree with what the writer says. X claims that ...The work of X asserts that ...X feels that ...If you do not want to give your opinion about what the writer says. According to X...It is the view of X that ... The opinion of X is that ...In an article by X, ...Research by X suggests that ...X has expressed a similar view.X reports that ...X notes that ...Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 38 Quoting Sometimes you may want to quote an author's words exactly, not paraphrase them. If you decide to quote directly from a text, you will need an expression to introduce it and quotation marks will need to be used:As X said/says, "... ..."As X stated/states, "... ..."As X wrote/writes, "... ..."As X commented/comments, "... ..."As X observed/observes, "... ..."As X pointed/points out, "... ..."To quote from X, "... ..."It was X who said that "... ..."This example is given by X: "... ..."According to X, "... ..."X claims that, "... ..."X found that, "... ..."The opinion of X is that, "... ..." Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 39 Concluding. After quoting evidence you reach a conclusion:The evidence seems to indicate that...It must therefore be recognised that...The indications are therefore that...It is clear therefore that ...Thus it could be concluded that...The evidence seems to be strong that...On this basis it may be inferred that...Given this evidence, it can be seen that... Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 40 Notes on Punctuation. The sentence and the full stop The full stop is the most important punctuation mark. It shows the end of the sentence. The English language also uses capital letters at the beginning of sentences. For example: The first schools in what is now British Columbia were established by the Hudsons Bay Company in about 1853 on Vancouver Island. The present public school system originated with the Public School Act of 1872. Education is free and compulsory for children ages 7 to 15. Schools are funded by the provincial government and local property taxes. The provinces 75 school districts are administered by locally elected boards. The comma The comma is the most important punctuation mark after the full stop. Its main use is for separating parts of sentences. Commas function in four main ways: 1. Before or after adverbial clauses and phrases. 2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses. 3. To separate some non-defining phrases from the rest of the sentence. 4. To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series. 5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun. 1. Before or after adverbial clauses and phrases For example: Recently, the number of service enterprises in wealthier free-market economies has grown rapidly.Subsequently, the aircraft underwent numerous design changes before it was incorporated into the Type 4 jet aircraft.To visit his brother, he drove through the night.After dinner, he walked around the town.Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 41 2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses (and, but, or, so nor, for yet)For example: What we require is a National Emergency Government, but no two men I meet can agree how this can be formed. The house badly needed painting, and the roof needed repairing.Lord Knollys was not particularly pleased with these proposals, nor were other members of the Cabinet. A loose stretch would wrinkle too easily with successive washes, or might even wrinkle on a damp day. There was no Canadian Consulate in Paris at that time, so we had to go to the American Consulate for ours. It was clearly not an all-party government, yet it was something more than a mere Conservative front.These experiments led to theories about how development was controlled in terms of cell and tissue properties, but it was very difficult to link these theories with gene action.3. To separate certain phrases from the rest of the sentence For example: Malaria, once a widespread disease, is under control.Day-to-day television, in its regularity and its availability, seems regulated by repetition and modulated by acceptable difference.Mr Clinton, the President, said that he would give his full support to the proposal.The Conservatives, who had gained more votes than Labour in the 1929 general election, were only the second largest party.The chairman, getting to his feet, began to describe his plans.The opposition parties, however, were unwilling to accept any programme of economies which did not involve a cut in the standard rate of benefit.to leave the country to play in Italy and elsewhere.4. To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series For example: Many U.S. firms attempt to tap emerging markets by pursuing business in China, India, Latin America, and Russia and other Eastern European countries.Life-support machines are no different in principle from medicines, surgery, or other treatment.A policeman has to be able to work at night, at weekends and on holidays.The industrial power generator, electronics, and appliance manufacturer Westinghouse Electric Corporation purchased media production company CBS Inc.Mitsubishi Heavy Industries manufactures a large variety of industrial products and machinery, including ships, steel products, power plants, transportation systems,Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 42 5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun. For example: Critics praise the novel's unaffected, unadorned style.It was conceived of by all those who participated in it as a temporary, emergency government.He walked with long, slow, steady, deliberate strides. Common mistakes. A comma can not separate subject from predicate. The following sentences are not possible: *A man of his great abilities, would always be successful.*The number of service enterprises in wealthier free-market economies, has grown rapidly.*Only occupants of the deep oceans or the darkest recesses of caves, will escape such rhythmic influences.*Experience indicates that, these rhythms do not result wholly from our life-style.A comma can not be used to join grammatically separate sentences. The following sentences are not possible: *London is a very cosmopolitan city, there are people from many culture living there.*Learning a new language is like learning to swim, it takes a lot of practice.*International students face many problems, for example, they have to cope with a new culture. The apostrophe The apostrophe has two main functions in English, but only one in academic writing. It is used mainly to show possession or relationship. It is also used in informal writing to show contraction or letters left out. Possession or relationship. The apostrophe precedes the 's' in singular words and plurals that do not end in 's'. It follows the 's' in plurals that end in 's'. The apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns 'hers', 'yours', 'theirs' and 'its'. For example: The provinces 75 school districts are administered by locally elected boards.Modern estimates of Englands total population vary between 1 and 3 million.Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 43 Two years earlier, The Economist had described gambling, as Britain's second biggest industry.The annual per capita consumption of sugar, between the Queen's accession and 1860, rose to 54 lb. in 1870-99 and 85 lb. in 1900-10.Newly married, neatly permed and wearing the very latest in expensive Western wedding garb, they head for the groom's sleek sports car under a hail of rice.By then Leonardo's expertise with paint brush and palette, pen and pencil was already well advanced.In contrast to the all-inclusiveness of other countries' socialised medical services, 40m Americans have no coverage at all.The intention of this new alliance is to make the fight against the administration's policy on cryptography a populist issue and to derail potentially threatening legislation.Hemp's environmental credentials are indisputable.The third and main reason is the process of extracting fibre from the plant's stem.The weather's unpredictability makes this risky - farmers can easily lose their whole crop. Quotation marks. In academic writing, quotation marks are used to show that you are quoting directly from another author's work. The quotation marks should enclose the actual words of the author and all bibliographical information must be given.For example: Hillocks (1986) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes, "The available research suggests that teaching by written comment on compositions is generally ineffective"(p. 167).For example, McCawley stated in 1968, "... a full account of English syntax requires a fairly full account of semantics to just as great an extent as the converse is true" (p. 161).Hatch (1978, p. 104) wonders whether a more accurate portrayal might be that the learner "learns how to do conversation, how to interact verbally and out of this interaction syntactic structures are developed".Note the punctuation before the quotation marks: When a reporting verb is used to introduce the quotation, a comma is used.He stated, "The placebo effect, ... disappeared when behaviours were studied in this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours were studied.When the quotation is integrated into the structure of your sentence, no punctuation is used. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 44 Colon. Colons are used to add extra information after a clause. This can be divided into three main categories. Lists A colon can introduce a list. We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.The Labour government found itself under pressure from three directions: from the left wing, from the TUC, and from Sir Oswald Mosley and his supporters.Explanations A colon can be used before an explanation. We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.It was conceived of by all those who participated in it as a temporary, emergency government, formed for a single limited purpose: to balance the budget through drastic economies and increases in taxation.It was something very rarely seen in Britain, or in other democracies: an emergency government.Quotations A colon is used before a quotation when the quotation is independent of the structure of the main sentence. Miele (1993, p. 276) found the following: "The placebo effect ... disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner."Note Do not use a colon directly after a verb or a preposition that introduces the list, explanation or quotation. Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 45 Capital letters. Capital letters have two main uses in English: they are used at the beginning of sentences and for proper names.At the beginning of a sentence If football was a business, it was a very peculiar one. Clubs did not compete with one another to attract larger crowds by reducing their prices. Nor did they make any serious efforts to derive income from a huge fixed asset, which was used for only a few hours a week.Proper names Personal names: John, Ms Smith, Dr Brown, Mr Gates, Elizabeth,Titles: Mr, Ms, Dr, Colonel, Professor, President, Prime Minister, JudgeGeographical names: Argentinian, Europe, China, Mount Everest, Lake Michigan Skye, Borneo, London, Bangkok, the River Thames, the Pacific Ocean, the Panama Canal, Baker Street, Cambridge Road, Raffles Hotel, St George's HallCompany/Organisation names: Shell, Woolworths, Microsoft, Boots, World Trade Organisation, World Health Organisation, Federal Trade Commission, British Broadcasting CorporationUniversity/School names: Oxford University, University of Hertfordshire, Royal College of MusicReligions: Buddhism, Christianity, IslamDays, months, festivals - but not seasons: Monday, July, Christmas, summer,Magazines: Newsweek, Vogue, The Times, New ScientistLanguages: English, HindiNationalities: English, French, Spanish, Japanese, AmericanTry these exercises: Exercises 4 & 5 Now do this exercise as a summary: Exercise 6 Stafford College.Learning development Unit. 46 References Abdulaziz, H. 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