Abstract: This dissertation examined the impact of England ... · PDF filewritten before...
Transcript of Abstract: This dissertation examined the impact of England ... · PDF filewritten before...
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Abstract:ThisdissertationexaminedtheimpactofEnglandontheearlytragediesoftheeighteenth
centuryFrenchwriterandphilosopherVoltaireashedescribeditinhisprosework“Letters
ConcerningtheEnglishNation.”ThisdissertationaddressedspecificallythemannerinwhichVoltaire
madeuseofhiscollectiveknowledgeofthestrengthsandweaknessesofFrenchandEnglishtragic
theatretraditionsinordertoreinvigorateFrenchclassicaltragedy.
ThisquestionoftheinfluencesofEnglandonVoltaire’stragedieshadcertainlybeenaddressed
before,howevernostudyhadattemptedtoexaminetheprogressioninthethreeplayschosenfor
thisdissertation.WithoneplaywrittenbeforeVoltairewenttoEngland(Œdipe1718),oneduring
(Brutus1730),andoneshortlyafter(Zaïre1732),itwassignificantthatŒdipeandZaïrewereboth
amongstVoltaire’smostsuccessfultragediesdespitethefactthatonewasheavilyinfluencedby
Voltaire’sEnglishexperiencesandtheotherwaswrittenwhenhehadvirtuallynoknowledgeofthis
othertradition.MyresearchhighlightedamarkeddeclineininterestinVoltaire’stheatreinthelast
century.Theatre,particularlytragictheatre,wasconsideredthehighestartformineighteenth
centuryFrance,thusthisdeclinepresentedaworryinglackofinterestinwhatVoltairewouldhave
consideredtohavebeenhismostimportantwork.
Thisdissertationmadeuseofclose-readingtechniques,withtheseplaysbeinganalysedin
chronologicalorderinordertodeterminetheextenttowhichtheyshowedsignsofbeinginfluenced
byEnglishideasandpracticesasdetailedin“Letters.”Focusingprimarilyonthetreatmentofthe
centralthematicconflictineachplay,thisdissertationsuccessfullydemonstratedhowVoltairewas
abletoimproveonwhatheunderstoodtobethedeficienciesofFrenchtheatrethroughhis
experienceofEnglishpracticeswithoutlosingtheessentialstrengthoftheFrenchtradition.
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“LiberatingtheTragicGenre:HowEnglandImpactsonVoltarianAmbitions.”
Introduction:
ResearchintoVoltaire’splayshasdeclinedsignificantlyinrecentdecadesinfavourofhis
proseworks,yetVoltairedeclaredthat‘DetouslesartsquenouscultivonsenFrance,l’art
delatragédie[…]c’estceluidanslequellesFrançaissontlesplusdistingués.’1Thisdecline
reflectscontemporarytastes,foramasteryofdramawasessentialforanywriter
determinedtoprovetheirworthineighteenth-centuryFrance.Willemsdiscussesthe
paradoxthatVoltaire,whogainedstatusthroughtheatreandlostitthroughhis
philosophicalprosewritings,isnowrememberedforhisproseworkswithhisplays
essentiallyforgotten.2AsDelmasmakesclear,‘depuisladécennie1630lethéâtreest
devenuundivertissementdequalité’and‘unlieuoùl’onsemontre.’3Thus,asignificant
portionofVoltaire’sworkshavebecomelargelyignoredinthecurrentacademicsphere.
Frenchdramaintheeighteenthcenturyfollowedtheseventeenthcenturyclassicaltradition,
withtragedyconsideredthemostexaltedformgivenitsstylisticdemands.Despitethese
stylisticstrictures,aFrenchclassicaltragedywasonlyconsideredsuccessfulifitemotionally
touchedthespectator.4Thus,thegreatestachievementforanywriterwastohaveaverse
tragedyperformedattheComédie-FrançaiselikeCorneilleorRacine,thetwofoundersof
thistradition.5
Thetragicgenredemandedthattheplay’sstructure,characterinteractions,andthe
developmentofthecentralconflictshouldallbedevelopedwithintheboundariesof
1MarieWellington,inTheArtofVoltaire’sTheatre:AnExplorationofPossibility,ed.byMarieWellington,2ndedn(NewYork:AmericanUniversityStudies,1987),pp.7-24(p.10).2MichèleWillems,‘Voltaire,’inGreatShakespearians:Voltaire,Goethe,Schlegel,Coleridge,ed.byRogerPaulin,(London:Bloomsbury,2010),pp.5-43(p.8).3ChristianDelmas,‘Lespectacledelatragédie,’LaTragédiedel’ÂgeClassique,1533-1770(Paris:ÉditionsduSeuil,1994)pp.26-105(p.100).4Wellington,9.5RogerPearson,‘BacktotheBastille,’inVoltaireAlmighty,ed.byRogerPearson(London:Bloomsbury,2005)pp.48-68,(p.49).
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bienséance(definedbyJacquesSchereras‘uneexigencemorale’whichintheatredoesnot
shock‘lesgoûts,lesidéesmorales,ou[…],lespréjugésdupublic’6).Additionally,theplay
mustbestructuredinaccordancewiththethreeunitiesofaction,time,andspace.7The
abilitythen,toprovokeanemotionalreaction,whilstallthewhilerespectingtheserulesof
bienséanceandemployingalexandrinemetrethroughout,demonstratedatriumphofthe
genre.Crucially,itwasthroughlanguageandnotphysicalactiononstageinwhich‘tousles
élémentsdejeu,ouaction,mouvements,intonations,physionomie,doiventêtreinscrits’in
Frenchtheatre.8
WhentheFrenchnarratorofVoltaire’sLettresphilosophiquesdescribesEnglishtragedies
whichobeynoneoftheserules,hisreactionisunsurprising:‘sesfarcesmonstrueuses,qu’on
appelletragédies.’9PublishedinFrancein1734,LettresphilosophiquesisbasedonVoltaire’s
experiencesinEnglandfrom1726-1728.DespitehiscriticismsofEnglishtheatre,hewould
laterwriteinpraiseofitsvirtues;theprefacetohisplayBrutus,‘Discourssurlatragédie,’
discussesthestrengthsofEnglishtragedies.VoltairewasamongstoneofthefirstFrench
peopletoseeaShakespeareplayperformedinEnglishandtoattemptatranslationof
ShakespeareintoFrench.10In‘Surlatragédie’inLettresphilosophiqueshetranslates
Hamlet’s‘Tobeornottobe’soliloquyintoalexandrinemetre.11Itissurprisingthenthat,as
ofyet,nostudyhasattemptedtoexaminespecificallytheprogressioninthetragedies
writtenbyVoltaireinthisperiodofEnglishinfluence.CriticssuchasAllainhaveremarked
6Wellington,9.7Theactionoftheplayshouldtakeplaceinonesetting,concerningonetheme,andinthespaceofoneday.CorneillenotedinhisDiscours,‘nous[lesfrançais]sommesgênésauthéâtreparlelieu,parletemps,etparlesincommoditésdelareprésentation.’(Delmas,205.).8Delmas,108.9Voltaire,LettresPhilosophiquesinMélangesdeVoltaire,ed.byJacquesVanDenHeuvel(Paris:BibliothéquedelaPléide,1961),pp.2-133(p.81).Henceforthlp.10AndréBillaz,‘VoltairetraducteurdeShakespeareetdelaBible:philosophieimplicited’unepratiquetraductrice,’RHLF,97.3,(1997),372-380.<http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5623690d/f3.image>[accessed20March2015](p.374).11Lp,82-3.
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that‘Voltaireavaitétéfrappéparlestragédiespolitiquesduthéâtreanglais,’12andWillems
hasacknowledgedthedefinitivelinkbetweenVoltaire’stragediesandhisexperiencesin
England;forshecitesBrutusandZaïreasbeingdirectlyinspiredbyShakespeare’swork.13
Billaz’srecentstudyonVoltaireasatranslatorofShakespearealsoreferstotheimpactof
theideasofEnglishideasonhistragedies,makingreferencetohisattempttotranslatethe
senseofShakespeareintoaFrenchcontext.14
GiventheimportanceoftragictheatreforeighteenthcenturypolitesocietyinFrance,this
studywillinvestigate,throughaclosereadinganalysis,threeofVoltaire’searlytragediesin
chronologicalorderinconjunctionwithLettresphilosophiqueswiththeaimof
demonstratinghowtheideasofEnglandimpactedonVoltaire’stragicstyle.Oneplay
writtenbeforeVoltaire’ssojourninEnglandwillbeexamined(Œdipe1718),oneduring
(Brutus1731),andoneafter(Zaïre1732).ThisstudywillanalysefirstlythesuccessofŒdipe
andhowVoltaire’sinnovationswiththisplaywereacceleratedbyhisexperiencesin
England;secondly,hisattempttoreconcilethestrengthsofŒdipewithwhatheunderstood
tobethestrengthsofEnglishtragedythroughBrutus,andfinally,thesignificanceofthis
progressionfromBrutustoZaïreinrelationtotheinfluencesofEngland.
12MathéAllain,‘Latragédieclassique:Voltaireetlafindelatragédieclassiquefrançaise,’TheFrenchReview,3.39(1965),384-393(p.387).13Willems,8.14Billaz,374-5.
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FigI.Source:Voltaire,ZaïreinZaïre,LeFanatismeouMahometleprophète,Nanineoul’Hommesanspréjugé,LeCaféoul’Écossaise,ed.byJeanGoldzink(Paris:ÉditionsFlammarion,2004),pp.56-132(p.17)
ChapterI:Œdipeandthevirtueofignorance
Play Recordedperformances
(firstseason)
Totalperformancesuntil1966
Œdipe 45 340(noneafter1860)
Brutus 15 110(noneafter1800)
Zaïre 31 480(noneafter1940)
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On18November1718,Voltaire’sfirstplay,hisrenditionoftheclassicaltragedyŒdipe,was
firstperformedattheComédie-Française,achievingovernightsuccess.15Concerning
Voltaire’schoiceofŒdipeforhisdebutwork,oneshouldnotethatCorneille’smost
frequentlyperformedplayatcourtfrom1660-1700wasŒdipe.16Asopposedtowhatone
wouldinitiallyexpectinaplayaboutakingwhounwittinglykillshisFatherandmarrieshis
Mother,inVoltaire’sŒdipe,thethemesofincestandroyalauthorityareovershadowedby
themorepertinentquestionoffate,createdthroughtheestablishmentofacentral
thematicconflictbetweenloveandduty.
TheancientdramaticdeviceofthegodsisusedtogoodeffectinŒdipe.Theirearthly
representative,thehighpriest,encapsulatesboththeparallelthemeofdutyandafatalistic
approach.ItisthisstancewhichJocaste,thewifeofŒdipus,thecurrentking,andthe
widowofLaïus,theformer,arguesagainst:
JOCASTE: Nosprêtresnesontpointcequ’unvainpeuplepense,
Notecrédulitéfaittouteleurscience (IV.1.57-8)
LaterinLettresphilosphiquesinthesecondletterconcerningtheQuakers,thenarrator
attendsoneoftheirservicesandremarksontheabsenceofpriests.Accordingtothe
Quakers,priestsarenotarequirementinordertoworship,‘Quiconque[…]prieraDieude
l’éclairer.’17
Intheeighteenth-century,theproblemoftrying‘toreconcileinnocenceanddivine
punishment’wasextensivelydebatedinrelationtothestoryofŒdipus.18TheModerns
15GeoffreyTurnovsky,‘Themakingofaname:alifeofVoltaire,’inTheCambridgeCompaniontoVoltaire,ed.byNicholasCronk(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009),pp.17-30(p.19).16DavidJory,‘Introduction,Œdipe’inŒuvresde1711-22(1)ed.byW.HBarber,inŒuvresComplètesdeVoltaire(1a)(Geneva,Banbury,Oxford,1968-)(Oxford:VoltaireFoundation,2001),pp.15-284(p.19).17Lp,6.18Jory,39.
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foundŒdipustyrannusandGreektragedyingeneral‘immoralandharmfulbecauseŒdipus
wasinnocent.’19ItissignificantthatVoltaire’sversionbypassesthisdebate,presenting
Œdipusasinnocentfromtheonsetandelaboratingonhisinnocencethroughemphasisof
hisignoranceofhiscrime.Accordingly,Œdiperetainsthesenseofimpendingtragedyright
uptothefinalscenebycreatingtwosignificantshiftsinactionbothinrelationtoŒdipus’
innocenceandignorance:thefirsthalfoftheplayconcernsitselfwithuncoveringthe
identityofLaïus’killer,believedtobeattheheartoftheravagesbeingwroughtonThebes:
DIMAS lesdieuxnousontconduitsdesuppliceensupplice
Lafamineacessémaisnonleurinjustice (I.1.75-6)
Œdipus,asanxiousashissubjectstodiscovertheidentityofthekillerandpreventfurther
destructiontohiskingdombythegods,ispresentedasagrandhommewhoputshisduty
abovepersonalinterests:
ŒDIPE Maisunroin’estqu’unhommeencecommundanger,
Ettoutcequ’ilpeutfaireestdelepartager (I.3.165-6)
Thefirstmajorshiftinactionoccursinactthreescenefourwhentheoracleofthegods
pronouncesŒdipusthekillerofLaïus.Theactionnowbecomesfocusedondiscoveringhow
Œdipus,theworthyking,couldpossiblyberesponsibleforsuchacrime.Thesecondshiftin
actionexposesthenatureofŒdipus’crimes.Interestingly,evenbeforetheidentityand
motivesofLaïus’killerarerevealed,theunknownculpritisalreadyreferredtoasavictimof
thegods’wrath:
ŒDIPE Sisuruninconnuvouspoursuivezuncrime.
Achevezvotreouvrage,etnommezlavictime (I.3.271-2)
19Jory,38.
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FrequentreferenceismadetovictimsandtoimprisonmentinŒdipe,amplifyingthesense
ofimpendingtragedyandemphasisinghowthecharacters’fateisatthemercyofirrational
divinewhim:
ŒDIPE Etj’étaismalgrémoidansmonaveuglement,
D’unpouvoirinconnul’esclaveetl’instrument (V.4.164)
Oncethefirstrevelationismade,thereisagrowingsenseofthecharactersbeingbound
moretightlytocalamity,referencesto‘l’esclavage,’‘ledestin’and‘lesort’frequentlyappear
throughouttheplay.Imagesofdarknessanddownfallservetoincreasethistension,being
evokedforcefullythroughtherhymedverse:
OEDIPE Approche,entraîne-moidanslesdemeuressombres,
J’iraidemonsuppliceépouvanterlesombres (V.4.177-8)
ThislanguageisfurtherintensifiedbytheessentialdramaticironyofŒdipe;theaudience
arefamiliarwiththestoryofŒdipus,butthecharacters’generalignoranceprovokesfear
anddread,therebymaintainingthetragicdynamicuptothefinalscene:
JOCASTE Prèsd’Œdipeetdemoijevoyaisdesenfers
Lesgouffreséternelsàmespiedsentrouverts;[…]
Danscetabîmeaffreuxparaissaitmenaçante (II.2.107-110)
Jocastecontinuouslyarguesagainstthisunquestioningobediencetotheirrationalwillofthe
gods.Embodyingthethemeoflove,Jocaste’spositioninrelationtotheguiltyparty
(Œdipus)andthevictim(Laïus)isimportantforitre-emphasisesŒdipus’innocence;Jocaste
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shouldbetheveritablevictimofthiscrime,butsherecognisestheirrationalityof
condemningŒdipus:
JOCASTE Nevousaccusezpointd’undestinsicruel,
Vousêtesmalheureux,etnonpascriminel (IV.3.255-6)
InthecontextofthesubsequentdevelopmentinVoltaire’stragediesfollowinghistimein
England,Œdipe’ssuccesspresentedasolidexampleofwhathiscontemporaryFrench
audienceexpectedandapprovedofintermsofnoveltyinaclassicaltragedy.Voltaire’s
particularcreativityhereliesinhismannerof‘correcting’hispredecessorsratherthanin
creatingcompletenovelties.20InŒdipe,VoltairemakesŒdipus’innocenceindisputable,
elaboratingonthisthroughemphasisonhisignorance,therebyintensifyingthetragic
dynamicwithinconventionalboundaries;forthismovepresentstheirrationalfatalist
adherencetothewillofthegodsasthesourceofthetragicconflict.
ChapterII:Brutusandaclashofinterests
20Jory,41.
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In1726Voltairefoundhimself,notforthefirsttime,incarceratedintheBastillewithouttrial
forpublicallyquarrellingwithanobleman,theChevalierdeRohan-Chabot.21Itwasamajor
momentofdisillusionmentforVoltaire,forinFrancesocialhierarchywasasrigorously
enforcedastheregulationsofclassicaltheatre.Despitehavingbeenhailedasthenew
SophoclesandthenewVirgil,Voltairewasintheend‘justapoet,anentertainer.’22He
managedtoconvincetheauthoritiestoallowhimtovisitEngland,remainingthereuntil
1728.23Theproductofthisexile,Lettresphilosophiques,presentsaworldintendedto
parallelthatofFrance.Oneofthemoststrikingelementstoemergefromthistextisthefact
thatinEngland,accordingtooneletterentitled‘Surlaconsidérationqu’ondoitauxgensde
lettres,’artists,scientists,andwritersmeritthesamelevelofrespectasanynoblewould‘tel
estlerespectquecepeupleapourlestalents,qu’unhommedemériteyfaittoujours
fortune.’24
IntheprefacetoBrutus,‘Discourssurlatragédie,’VoltairededicatestheplaytohisEnglish
friendLordBolingbrokestatingthat‘latragédiedeBrutusestnéeenAngleterre.’25Here,
VoltaireidentitiesthelackofbienséanceasbeingthechiefproblemthatFrenchaudiences
wouldhavewithEnglishtragediesbuthefocusesmainlyonthevirtuesofEnglishtheatre,
especiallytheconstantpresenceofaction,‘lethéâtreanglais[…]amanquéjusqu’àprésent
àpresquetouslesauteurstragiquesdevotrenation,cettepureté,cetteconduiterégulière,
cesbienséancesdel’actionetdustyle[…]Maisvospièceslesplusirrégulièresontungrand
mérite,c’estceluidel’action.’26AswithŒdipe,Voltaire’sBrutusisborrowed,thistimefrom
21IanDavidson,‘VoltaireinEngland,’Telegraph,9April2010<http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/7567947/Voltaire-in-England.html>[accessed28January2015].22Pearson,BacktotheBastille,67.23Pearson,Bastille,67.24Lp,97.25Voltaire,‘DiscourssurlatragédieàMilordBolingbroke,’inŒuvresde1728-30,ed.byJohnRenwick,inŒuvresComplètesdeVoltaire(5)(Oxford:VoltaireFoundation,1998),pp.156-183(p.156).26Renwick,Discours,163-4.
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Shakespeare’sJuliusCaesar.27Voltairecertainlywrotethefirstactoftheplayasearlyas
1728,28butevenwhenitwascompletedandsetforperformanceinDecemberof1729,he
cancelleditandsettoreworkingBrutusforanotheryear.29Theresultwasstilloneofhis
leastsuccessfulplayswithonlyfifteenperformancesinthe1730-1seasonandequallypoor
performanceratesoverthenextsixtyyears.30
Brutusisanattemptto‘correct’Shakespeare’stragedybyintroducingthebienséanceof
Frenchclassicaltragedy,butmoreimportantly,itpresentsaconsciousattempttobringthe
actionofEnglishtheatreintoaFrenchclassicaltragedy.Brutusthusbeginsandendsina
sceneinthehouseofconsuls,aframingdeviceintendedtoemphasisethevirtuesof
republicanruleasopposedtoarbitrarymonarchicalpower.Theearlyeighteenth-century
wordRepublicdesignatesinessenceaconstitutionalregimehatingtheillegitimateexercise
ofauthorityand‘yearningforlibertyandtheruleofthelaw:’31
BRUTUS Nelaisseiciqu’unnom,plusodieuxencore
Quelenomdestyrans,queRomeentièreabhorre (I.2.171-2)
However,thefocusbecomescentredonBrutus’sonTitus,andhisindecisionaboutwhether
ornottobetrayRome.Thisindecisionorlackofvolonté,reducesthepotentialforactionin
Frenchclassicaltragedy‘Rienn’estplusméprisableetmisérablequelafaiblessedela
volonté,l’irrésolution.’32Titus’betrayalshouldbethetragicoutcomeoftheconflict
betweenrepublicanandmonarchicalprinciples,butitisnotevenclearifTitusactually
betraysRome;forwhenthefatalmomentinscenefivearrives,hesimplysays‘Sersma
27WilliamEisler,‘AFather'sTears:TheImageofBrutusintheDassiers'MedallicHistoryoftheRomanRepublic,’TheBurlingtonMagazine,150.1260(2008),166-172(p.168).28Pearson,England,“LandofLiberty”,83.29Person,FromBonanzatoBombshell,89.30KennethN.McKee,‘Voltaire’sBrutusDuringtheFrenchRevolution,’MLA,2.56(1941),100-106(p.101).31Renwick,Brutus,43-4.32Lanson,Gustave,Esquissed’unehistoiredelaTragédiesFrançaise,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1920)(p.66).
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fureurenfin,sersmonfatalamour;/Viens,suis-moi,’(IV.5.148-9)whichtheroyalistplotter
MessalatakestomeanthatTitushasfinallycapitulated.TitusisshockedwhenBrutusthen
entersandinformshimthat‘Romeestendanger;c’estentoi(Titus)quej’espère.’Atthis
momentoftriumph,Titushas‘tragically’succumbedtobetrayal.
MESSALA ConnaissezdoncTitus,voyeztoutesonâme,
Lecourrouxquil’aigrit,lepoisonquil’enflamme;
IlbrûlepourTullie (I.4.327-9)
DespitebeingidentifiedbytheroyalistconspiratorsaskeytoconvincingTitustobetray
Rome,VoltaireminimisedTullie’spositionastheloveinterestinorder‘toconcentratehis
dramamoreandmorearoundtheessentialdilemmaofTitus.’33However,thisresultsinthe
centralthemesofloveanddutyfailingtoachievetheirfullpotential.Love,insteadofbeing
aprimarymotivator,becomesanexplorationintothewrongtypesoflove:theexcessive
loveofoneselfandtheloveofdutyratherthanthedutytolovewhichcausesBrutusto
makethedecisionasconsultohaveTituskilled.ThereductionofTullie’sroleeffectively
minimisestheplay’srationale;forTitus’betrayalofhisfamilyandcountryinthespaceofa
dayforher,despitehavingearlieraffirmed‘NéparmilesRomains,jepériraipoureux’
(II.2.129),nowappearsmoreirrationalthantragic.IntheCorneliantradition,reasonis‘dans
l’espritquifaittriompherlesrègles.’34Inthisfashion,therecanbenochanceofthe
audiencebeingabletoemotionallyconnectwiththetragicpredicamentofthefemale
protagonistastheydowithJocasteandthelaterZaïrewhoserolesareessentialtothe
thematicconflict.Themetaphoroffirewhichisfrequentlyusedtodescribethedepthof
Titus’loveofTulliethusevokesinstabilityratherthanfierypassion:
33Renwick,Brutus,32.34Lanson,54.
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MESSALA Lefeudesonjeuneâgeetdesespassions,
Semblaientouvrirsonâmeàmesséductions (III.2.31-2)
ThiselementofreasonbecomesanimportantpursuitforVoltaire.In‘Surleparlement’the
narratorjuxtaposeshisunderstandingoftheRomanrepublicandtheEnglishparliamentin
ordertoemphasisetheparticularbenefitsofaparliamentarybodyinEngland,‘Lanation
anglaiseestlaseuledelaterrequisoitparvenueàréglerlepouvoirdesroisenleur
résistant.’35Thisletterhighlightsthefactthatparliamentpreventstheexerciseofarbitrary
power,thekindwhichledtoVoltaire’simprisonments.WhatimpressedVoltaireandledhim
toattempttoconveyitinthistragedy,werethevirtuesoftheEnglishstatewhich,according
toLettresphilosophiques,demonstratedaformofbienséanceinasocio-politicalcontext.
However,itisequallyevidentthatVoltaire’sconceptofarepublicwasstillovershadowedby
theinfluencesofFrenchmonarchicalpowerasshownwhentherepublicanBrutusis
unquestionablyaccordedfullpowertopunishTitusasheseesfit:
VALERIUS C’estàvousàjugerdesoncrime;
Condamnez,épargnez,oufrappezlavictime.
Romedoitapprouvercequ’aurafaitBrutus (V.5.145-7)
Significantly,thedivineauthorityattheheartofŒdipus’tragedyisheresubstitutedwiththe
actionsofthecharactersthemselves.Theeffectofthisconflictandtheequalconflict
betweenloveanddutyisweakenedbytheoverallstructuralfragilityofBrutus,whichis
caughtbetweentryingtoreconcileFrenchandEnglishtragicconventions.However,read
alongside‘Discourssurlatragédie’andLettresphiliosophiques,itisclearthatBrutus
35Lp,21.
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representsVoltaire’sfirstmajorattempttoreconcilethestrengthsofFrenchtragedywith
thoseoftheEnglishtradition.
ChapterIII:Zaïreandthepoliticsoflove
AfterreturningtoFrancein1728,Voltairedidnotwriteanothersuccessfultragedyuntil
Zaïrein1732.UnlikeBrutus,Zaïrewaswritteninjusttwenty-twodaysandwasaninstant
andconsistentsuccess,‘Noplayhadcausedsuchtears–maleaswellasfemale,
ecclesiasticalaswellaslay–toflow.’36Invariably,whilstapplaudingZaïrein1732,the
Frenchaudiencehadunknowingly‘renderedasortofhomagetoOthello.’37Zaïre’s
successfulreceptionontheFrenchstagewasverymuchduetoVoltaire’screative
developmentofthecentralconflictbetweenloveandreligiousimperatives.Although
VoltaireconsideredromanticlovetobeoneoftheessentialproblemswithFrenchtragedy
‘lethéâtrefrançaissemblaitincapabledesepasserd’amour,’38Zaïre’striumphmakesit
apparentthatthelimitedphysicalactionpermittedon-stageandthestricturesofrhymed
verseinFrenchclassicaltragedynecessitatedthepresenceofathemealignedwitha
powerfulemotionsuchaslove.Theconflictbetweenloveandtheculturalandpolitical
imperativesofreligionisimmediatelyapparentfromtheopeningsceneinthesultan’s
seraglio;Zaïre,andFatime,anotherwomanofChristianoccidentalorigin,arediscussingthe
factthatZaïrehasfalleninlovewiththesultanOrosmane.HeandZaïreplantomarryand
sincethenZaïrehasnotfelttheneedtopreserveherinnerconflictbetweenherChristian
pastandherMuslimpresentasencouragedtobyFatime:
FATIME Nepointlaisserdetroubleraufonddevotrecœur! (I.1.84)
36Pearson,Bonanza,93.Seefig.I.37AmidaStanton,‘AdaptionsandTranslationsofShakespeare’s“Othello”inFrance,duringtheeighteenthcentury:AComparativeStudy.’N.p.,1910.(p.7).<file:///C:/Users/Setup/Downloads/ETD_1910_Stanton_A_mediumc.pdf>[accessed11/03/15]38Allain,385.
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Zaïre’sabilitytoreconcileherdualidentitythroughloveemphasisesthatthisreligious
conflicthas,atitssource,culturalandpoliticaldifferencesratherthanpurelyideological
ones:
ZAÏRE Peut-êtresansl’amourj’auraisétéchrétienne;
Peut-êtrequ’àtaloij’auraissacrifié:
MaisOrosmanem’aime,etj’aitoutoublié (I.1.134-6)
Lettresphilosophiquesaddressesthisculturalaspectofreligionfromthefirstletter‘Surles
Quakers,’‘Monfils[…]nejurepoint,noussommeschrétiens,ettâchonsd’êtrebons
chrétiens;maisnousnepensonspasquelechristianismeconsisteàjeterdel’eaufroidesur
latête.’39
FatimeremindsZaïrethatNérestan,aFrenchgeneral,iscomingtobargainfortheirrelease,
butforZaïre,raisedintheseragliooftheSultan,hernaturalcountrymanNéréstanismerely
‘unétranger’(I.1.40).AshiftinactionoccursinacttwoscenethreewhensheandNérestan
thendiscoverthattheyarethelostchildrenofLusignan,theelderlyformerChristiankingof
JersualemwhohasbeenimprisonedintheseragliosincetheMuslimconquest.However,
thefamilyreunionisquicklysouredbytheproblemofZaïre,issheaChristianornot?Unlike
Œdipe,inwhichthegodsthemselvespresenttheomnipresentanddivinethreattothe
characters’happiness,inZaïre,culturalimperativesanddutiesofreligionoverpowerlove
andreason.Inotherwords,thesourceofconflictcomesfromvisiblecharacterssuchas
NérestanandLusignanwhoseunwaveringadherencetoChristianideologiesthreatento
regressZaïre’slovetransformation.
Lusignan’sspeechinacttwoscenefourconvincesZaïretoagreetobebaptised.Itcarries
thefullweightofhertragicpredicament,forLusignanhasbeensymbolicallyandforcefully
39Lp,2.
16
imbibedwiththestatusoftheChristianrepresentativeinthisMuslimheartland.Hiswords
carrynotjusttheweightofparentaldisapproval,butthedisapprovalofChristendomitself.
Crucially,ZaïreisrequiredtokeepthisplanasecretfromOrosmanewhoatfirstbecomes
concernedathersuddenevasiveness,aconcernwhichturnstojealousparanoiathatshe
maynotlovehimanymore;‘[…]Madame,ilfautquevousm’éclaircissiez’(IV.6.1323).
Orosmane,likeZaïre,isthematicallyalignedwithloveanddemonstratesagenuineconcern
forZaïre’swell-being,muchmorethanher‘real’familywhosemainconcernsare'L’honneur
demamaison,monpère,samémoire[…]laloide[ton]Dieu’(III.4.836-7).Nérestan,similar
toLusignan,embodiesanintoleranceengenderedbyunquestioningadherencetoafixed
ideologyandassuchistheveritableoppositeofOrosmaneandZaïre,statingthat‘Zaïre[…]
PourunmaîtrebarbareabandonnasonDieu’(II.1.441-4).Havingalsobeencapturedasa
childbytheMuslims,Nérestan’sonlymemoriesofthistimeare‘imagessanglantes’
(II.1.433).ZaïreandOrosmane,bycontrast,havebeentransformedbyloveandhavethus
putasidetheirculturalandideologicaldifferences:
OROSMANE J’attesteicilagloire,etZaïre,etmaflamme,
Denechoisirquevouspourmaîtresseetpourfemme,
Devivrevotreami,votreamant,votreépoux,
Departagermoncœurentrelaguerreetvous (I.2.189-192)
AswithŒdipeandBrutus,anexcessiveadherencetoaparticularviewpointthreatensthe
harmonyoftheplay,‘CommedetouslesexcèshumainslefanatismesemblaitàVoltairele
plusdangereux.’40In‘Surlespresbytériens’Voltaire’snarratorflagsthelackofreligious
conflictsinEnglandasstemmingfromthemultiplicityoffaithswhichallowforafluidityof
40Allain,388-9.
17
religiousinterpretations,‘S’iln’yavaitenAngleterrequ’unereligion,ledespotismeseraità
craindre;s’ilyenavaitdeux,ellessecouperaientlagorge;maisilyenatrente,etelles
viventenpaixheureuses.’41InBrutus,religionpersedoesnotcontributetotheconflict,and
thesameistrueforZaïreforitisthissenseofdutytoZaïre’snewlyre-discoveredChristian
familywhichcreatesherdilemma.Lusignan’slengthyspeechhighlightsthisconflictforZaïre,
onewhichwill,tragically,preventherfromreconcilinghertwoconflictingdesires:‘Rends-
moichrétienneetlibre’(III.5.894).Lusignan’sspeechalsohighlightsanothertragic
componentwhichappearsinBrutusbutwasnoteffectivelydeveloped;hereVoltaire’saim
ofpresentingthevirtuesofrepublicanismisweakenedsincebothregimesequallythreaten
Titus’happinessasdemonstratedwhenTulliepointsoutthatBrutusbehaveslikea
monarch:‘Maissousunautrenomn’est-ilpasroilui-même?’(IV.3.78).Bycontrast,Zaïre’s
loveallowshertoincorporatebothChristianityandIslam,thusdemonstratingtheir
similarities.Oncesheattemptstoadheretotheculturaldemandsofoneparticularideology
heridentitybecomesfracturedsincesheisneitheronenortheother.Thisabilityto
reconcileafaithtoone’sculturalcontextisatraitwhichVoltaire’snarratorattributestothe
Englishcharacter:‘C’esticilepaysdessects.UnAnglais,commehommelibre,vaaucielpar
lecheminquiluiplaît.’42
SimilartoŒdipe,thecharacters’ignoranceiseffectivelyexploitedinZaïre,suchasthe
dramaticironyofOrosmanebeingsuddenlyleftinthedarkinregardstoZaïre’sintentions
wherebeforehand,thecouplehidnothingfromeachother:
OROSMANE JevousaimeZaïre;etj’attendsdevotreâme
Unamourquirépondeàmabrûlanteflamme (I.2.205-6)
41Lp,18.42Lp,14.
18
Onceagain,theimageofanintenseburninglove,uneflamme,isevokedasitwasinBrutus,
buttogreatereffectfortheseimagesillustratethepositionoftherelationshipbetween
ZaïreandOrosmane.AsPricementions,inthebeginningoftheplay,ZaïreandOrosmane
‘plantowalkproudlythroughthevastareasurroundingthepalace[…]fortheirmarriage
ceremony.’43WhenZaïreispressurisedtoconverttoChristianityshemustnow‘sneak
throughthepalaceareatoareducedanddarkenedsecretpassageway.’44Fromthispoint
onwards,asdaygraduallyturnstonightinthetwenty-fourhourtime-span,theimagesof
lightturntodarknessasthegulfofuncertaintygrowsbetweenthecouple.Crucially,Zaïre
decidestokeepOrosmaneeffectivelyinthedarkuntiltomorrow:‘Jecacheàvotreoreille
uneplainteimportune…/Demaintousmessecretsvousserontrévélés’(IV.2.1204-5).The
audienceiswellawarethattherulesoftheatre,tragically,donotallowforatomorrow.Just
asZaïreisconfusedastowhatheridentityis‘sais-jecequejesuis?’(I.1.88),Orosmane
becomesunsureastohisposition‘Oùsuis-je?ôciel,oùsuis-je?(V.7.1511)Thus,whenthe
crucialconfrontationoccurs,OrosmaneactsoninstinctandkillsZaïrewhiletheyareboth
hiddenintheshadowsjustasthetruenatureoftheirsituationsisshadowedbytheirown
blindimpetusestocompletetheirmissions:
OROSMANE Ônuit!nuiteffroyable!
Peux-tuprêtertonvoileàdepareilsforfaits? (V.8.1518-9)
Thus,inZaïrethecentralproblemofZaïre’stragicfailedstruggleagainstintoleranceis
forcefullyevoked.Thatthisintoleranceisahumancreationismadeapparent,evokedmore
forcefullythanitwasinBrutus.ZaïreandOrosmanedemonstratewhatthenarratorof
LettresphilosophiquesfindssoappealingaboutEnglishsocio-politicalpractices,namelythat
43L.BrianPrice,‘SpatialRelationsinVoltaire’sZaïre,’TheFrenchReview,50.2(1976),pp.251-259(p.258).44Price,258.
19
theirinstitutionsthemselvesembodyreasonandtoleranceasmentionedinthefirstletter
‘SurelesQuakers,’‘tun’asdoncqu’àouvrirlesyeuxàcettelumièrequiéclairetousles
hommes,alorstuverraslavéritéetlaferasvoir.’45Suchamind-setfacilitatesreasonin
socio-politicalterms.Voltaire’sdesiretoevokethisawarenessinarecognisablyFrenchstyle
isachievedinZaïre.
Conclusion
VoltairewantedFrenchtragedytobecapableofexpressingnovelconceptswhilestill
retainingitsclassicalstructure.Inchapterone,itcanbeobservedwhataspectsofEngland
wouldcometoleaveanimpressiononVoltairesuchashisexperienceswithEnglishreligious
practices,andhowthesuccessofŒdipewouldformabasefromwhichhecould
comprehendwhatweaknessesinFrenchtheatremustbetolerated.Inchaptertwo,
Voltaire’sfirstconsciousattemptatformulatingaFrenchtragedycapableofcarryingacross
thesenseofactionwhichhadsoimpressedhimintheEnglishtradition,isseentofail.
Brutus,appearingbeforeLettresphilosophiques,invariablyattemptsasimilarcontrast
betweentwotraditions.However,VoltairefailedtoconsiderthesourcesofŒdipe’s
emotionalimpactwhenwritingBrutus.Itisinchapterthreethatthedifficultyofreconciling
thesuccessofŒdipeandthestrengthsoftheFrenchclassicalgenrewiththeintentionsof
Brutusregardingideologies,isachieved.Zaïredirectlyaddressestheproblemofover-
adherencetoasystemwhichfostersalackofreason;thisiswhatleadstothefinaltragedy.
Thistragedyisevenmoreforcefulgiventhatitisverymuchoneofthecharacters’own
making;foritistheywhoenforcetheregulationswhichtheprotagonistfeelscompelledto
adhereto.
45Lp,6.
20
WhereasproseworkssuchasLettresphilosophiqueswhichdebatethesameissuesasthese
playsweresubjecttoviolentcensorship,46Voltaireclearlyrecognisedthatthetragedyplay
bycontrastaffordedamoreacceptablewayofbringingforthnovelconceptsandof
criticisingcurrentpracticesinFrance.Inthisfashion,thistragedygenreoffersauseful
insightintothevaluesandstylesofVoltaire.Mostimportantly,inrelationtoLettres
philosophiques,theseplaysdemonstratethatweareeffectivelyresponsibleforourown
tragedies.
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