Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Europe

Main Ideas

• 16th-18th centuries (1550-1715)

- Protestants and Catholics fight for religious and political control

- European rulers attempt to extend their power both at home and overseas (colonization)

- Ideas about Constitutionalism and Democracy are developing in an era of absolute monarchs

Spanish Empire• At this point, Spain is the most powerful country in the

world• Why? Land, wealth (339000 pounds of gold by 1600,

1600 tons of silver between1550 and 1650), and military power

• They are also ultra-Catholic: Ex: Inquisition, Reconquista, Lepanto

Spanish Wars of Religion• Greatest supporter of militant Catholicism is King Philip

II, son of Charles V• He saw himself and Spain as chosen by God to save

Catholic Christianity from Protestant heretics• Philip tried to crush Calvinism in the Spanish

Netherlands. But nobles, led by William the Silent, resisted and gained a truce, thus becoming the United Provinces of the Netherlands- core of the modern Dutch state.

• By the end of Philip’s reign in 1598, Spain is the world’s most populous empire & appears to be a superpower. BUT……. $ spent on wars and expansion is bankrupting the empire.

Philip II of Spain

Decline of Spain• Factors in Spanish decline:

inflation

lack of middle class

expulsion of Jews and Muslims- what does this cause?

Dutch revolt

defeat of Spanish Armada- symptom more than cause?

ELIZABETH I• daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn• Elizabeth’s half sister Mary rules from 1553-1558. She

is not popular. Why?• Elizabeth inherits the throne in 1558• She restores Protestantism in the form of the Church of

England• Elizabeth faced many threats Ex: Mary Queen of

Scots• Perhaps the greatest threat was the Spanish Armada

Elizabeth I

Of

England

My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that we are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but, I do assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear, I have always so behaved myself, that under God I have placed my chiefs' strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and goodwill of my subjects; and, therefore, I am come amongst you as you see at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of battle, to live or die amongst you all – to lay down for my God, and for my kingdoms, and for my people, my honour and my blood even in the dust. I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king – and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which, rather than any dishonour should grow by me, I myself will take up arms – I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarded of every one of your virtues in the field. I know already, for your forwardness, you have deserved rewards and crowns, and, we do assure you, on the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. For the meantime, my Lieutenant-General Leicester shall be in my stead, than whom never prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject; not doubting but by your obedience to my General, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over these enemies of my God, of my kingdom and of my people.

Tilbury Speech

Spanish Armada

Spanish Armada• 130 Ships, 8000 sailors, 19,000 infantrymen• Fire-ships broke up the Spanish formation• English ships were smaller but better armed and more

maneuverable. • Storms and navigational errors plagued the Spanish

after the battle• Barely half of the original Armada returned to port• Result: England begins its rise to power, Spanish navy

never recovers

Absolutism• A ruler holds ultimate power• Seventeenth century crises cause citizens to seek

stability= increased power for monarchs• people appeared to be willing to give up natural rights

for stability• “Divine Right” theory and Thomas Hobbes are

intellectual foundation

Thomas Hobbes

• author of Leviathan (1651)• Man is by nature selfish, sinful, and evil• Life is “nasty, brutish, and short” and a war

of “all against all”• To keep from destroying itself, man must

submit to social order in a social contract; i.e. man must agree to be governed by an absolute ruler with complete power

• Only the state can preserve order

French Wars of religion• 1562-1598• Calvinism vs Catholicism

- both become militant

- Huguenots= French Protestants (7% of population but 40% of the nobility)• Henry of Navarre (Henry IV), a Huguenot, attains

throne in 1589• Henry converts to Catholicism and issues “Edict of

Nantes”, which establishes Catholicism as France’s official religion. BUT Huguenots have the right to worship freely

LOUIS XIII AND RICHELIEU• Henry is stabbed to death• his son Louis XIII is not a very good ruler, and the govt.

is controlled by Cardinal Richelieu• Richelieu involves France in the 30 Years War and took

steps to weaken the Huguenots

Cardinal Richelieu

France Under Louis XIV• Best example of 17th century absolutism• Came to throne at age 4, so Cardinal Mazarin ran the

government. Louis becomes King at age 23 in 1661.• Louis controlled every facet of government. He wanted

to be seen as the “Sun King”- a source of light for all his people

• Established his royal court at Versailles• Expanded French culture and influence throughout

Europe and gained land through 4 wars• Died in 1715, leaving France in debt and surrounded by

enemies

Louis XIV

WARS OF LOUIS XIV• Louis’ foreign policy was always aggressive• 1667- Louis invades Netherlands but is stopped

because they literally open the floodgates and flood the countryside

• other European nations form alliances to stop Louis• War of the Spanish Succession- Louis’ grandson is

about to become king of Spain, so England, Austria, the Dutch, and several German and Italian states declared war. What was the result?

Economic and Social Crisis• Inflation-rising prices-due to influx of gold from

Americas & demand for land• Population actually declined. Reasons= war, famine,

disease• Paranoia concerning witchcraft led to inquisitions that

led to thousands of trials and sometimes executions

Thirty Years War (1618-1648)• Peace of Augsburg did not recognize Calvinism• War began in Holy Roman Empire (1618) as a fight

between Hapsburg emperors and Protestant nobles in Bohemia

• Germany was ravaged. 15 to 20% of the civilian population dies

• Richelieu and Mazarin fear the Hapsburgs so France (which was Catholic) joins the Protestant side!

• War ended in 1648 with Peace of Westphalia- as a result, German states could choose their own religion. The Holy Roman Empire disbanded & Germany would not reunite for 200 years.

Gustavus Adolphus

English Civil War• Puritans want Church of England to be more Protestant• Charles I believes in the divine right of kings.

Parliament does not. Also, Charles tries to add more ritual to the Church. Puritans consider this a return to Catholicism.

• 1628- Petition of Rights- King can not pass taxes without consent of Parliament. Charles accepts and then changes his mind.

• 1642- Civil war breaks out. King’s supporters= Cavaliers; Parliament’s supporters= Roundheads

• Oliver Cromwell and his “new model army” lead Parliament to victory

Oliver Cromwell

English Civil War contd’• Cromwell, purges Parliament of anyone who does not

support him and has Charles I executed. This is a BIG deal. Why?

• Cromwell abolished the monarchy and House of Lords and declares England a republic or commonwealth. However, he rules as a military dictator and dissolves Parliament.

• Monarchy is restored. Charles II becomes king• Charles has no children. His brother James becomes

King and he’s Catholic.

Glorious Revolution• William and Mary are invited to invade England• 1689- William and Mary accept throne, but Parliament

is given the right to make laws and levy taxes via the English Bill of Rights

• English Bill of Rights

- King cannot raise an army without Parliament’s consent

- Right of citizens to bear arms

- Trial by jury if accused of a crime• The EBoR laid the foundation for a limited or

constitutional monarchy

JAMES II WILLIAM OF ORANGE

Central and Eastern European Absolutism• Prussia and Austria emerge as powers• Frederick William laid basis for the Prussian state• Hapsburgs create Austrian empire

Frederick William

Central and Eastern European Absolutism• What was the problem the Hapsburgs faced?• Maria Theresa becomes Empress and has to face years of

war beginning with the War of the Austrian Succession• Seven Years War= the real 1st World War?; territory doesn’t

change

MARIA THERESA

Central and Eastern European Absolutism• Hohenzollern family build up the German state of Prussia• Prussia was a rigidly controlled military society; standing

army that was the best in Europe• Frederick the Great made reforms but was extremely

aggressive in foreign affairs

Frederick the Great

Peter the Great and Russia• Ivan the Terrible expands Russian power but his son

was too weak to rule. Romanov family takes over.• Peter the Great “Westernized” Russia (made it more

like Europe w/ Western culture and etiquette)• Created Navy and drafted peasants for 25 year stints

in the army• Needed a sea port so he fought with Sweden and

gained land where he built St. Petersburg.

Peter the Great

Golden Age of Literature• Writing reaches new heights between 1580 -1640• William Shakespeare- genius who combined

extraordinary language skills with deep insight into human psychology. Often considered the greatest writer in the English language.

• Miguel de Cervantes- wrote Don Quixote, which is viewed by many as the first true novel

ShakespeareCervantes

Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Main Ideas

• 1550-1800

- Ideas laid the foundation for a modern worldview based on rationalism and secularism

- Enlightenment intellectuals advocate individual rights, paving the way for the rise of democracy

- Man’s concept of his place in the universe changes

- New philosophies bring about social change

Background• “Natural Philosophers” did not make observations but

relied on ancient authorities (especially Aristotle). This slowly began to change as

• Technical problems stimulated scientific activity• Printing Press spread new ideas

What’s Changing?• Systematic doubt• Sensory Verification/Empiricism• Separation of Sciences/specialization• view of the “clockwork” universe

3

Universes (Two of

which could get you

burned at the stake)

Ptolemaic Universe• geocentric- Earth centered• universe is a series of concentric spheres• the spheres move around the Earth

Copernican Universe• Heliocentric- sun centered• believed the sun contained God• Humans are no longer the “center” of the universe

Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, classical scholar, translator, Catholic

cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, and economist. Astronomy was just a hobby for

him…….and he changed the world through it!

Keplerian Universe• Heliocentric- sun centered• paths of orbit are elliptical instead of circular• perfectly predicted planetary motions

Galileo Galilei• Provided the Empirical discoveries

that clinched the Copernican-Keplerian view of the universe

• used the telescope to systematically study the heavens, realizing the moon was not gaseous (saw mountains), and discovering planets (moons) orbiting Jupiter

• was charged with heresy by the Catholic church

Number SystemsCalculate this:MDMCXLVII x CCCLXXIII Exactly.

- Roman numerals were difficult to deal with

- The adoption of Arabic numerals (which were actually Hindu) in the Middle Ages enabled the calculations which led to Ptolemy’s model being overthrown

Rene Descartes

Philosopher, Mathematician,

Tutor, Mercenary, And……….

Inventor of the Matrix!

Descartes’ Ideas• Descartes’ “demon”- How do you know a demon is not

tricking you into believing this is all real?• Cogito Ergo Sum- “I think therefore I am”

- the only thing man can really be sure of is his existence• Dualism- mind vs. matter• Reason=chief form of knowledge= Rationalism

Sir Isaac Newton

Newton• Published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

(Principia Mathematica)• Defined three laws of motion that governed the universe• Universal law of gravitation= every object in the universe is

attracted to another object by gravity (this explains the elliptical orbits of the planets)

• Invented calculus (along with Leibniz)

***BY THE WAY, IS MATH INVENTED OR DISCOVERED?***

Francis Bacon

• Philosopher Francis Bacon most responsible for Scientific Method

• He emphasized inductive reasoning – making generalizations about nature from observation & experiments organized to test a hypotheses (educated guess)

The Enlightenment• 18th century philosophical movement built on Scientific

revolution• Philosophical Characteristics:

- The universe is fundamentally rational, that is, it can be understood through the use of reason alone

- Truth can be arrived at through empirical observation, the use of reason, and systematic doubt

- Human society is governed by natural laws just like the Newtonian physical universe

- Human beings can be improved through education and the development of their rational facilities

- Religious doctrines have no place in the understanding of the physical and human worlds

Philosophes• Means= “Philosopher”• Not all were French and few were actually philosophers• Central ideas:

- Progress- human history is a history of progress

- Deism- God created the world, but is not involved in its everyday affairs (Watchmaker)

- Tolerance- religious tolerance does not just include tolerance among Christian religious sects/denominations but other religions as well

French Philosophers• Denis Diderot

– Edited a 28-volume collection of knowledge (Encyclopedia) published in 1751

– Instrumental in spreading ideas of the Enlightenment

French Philosophers• Baron de Montesquieu

– Studied governments, identified 3 types (republics, despotism, & monarchies)

– Argued government works best through separation of powers controlled by checks and balances

French Philosophers• Voltaire

– Best known for criticism of Christianity & what he saw as its lack of “religious toleration”

– He championed deism – believed the world is like a clock that God created and set according to natural laws, and then let to run without God’s intervention (free will)

John Locke

• Author of Two Treatises of Government (1690)

• Said man is born with natural rights of life, liberty, and property

• To establish these rights, man and government must establish a “social

contract” where man respects govt. and govt. protects rights

• If contract broken= man can overthrow govt.

• Ideas were key to American Revolution

John Locke• Greatly influenced

Enlightenment with his “theory of knowledge.”– Argued man is born with a mind

that is tabula rasa (blank slate)– Knowledge comes to mind via 5

senses (sight, touch, smell, taste, sound)

Adam Smith• Founder of modern

economics• Authored Wealth of Nations

(1776)• Smith, along with French

Physiocrats, argued for “laissez-faire” (let it be) economic policy – government should not interfere with free market

Jean-Jacques Rousseau• Wrote The Social Contract

(1762)– Members of a society agree

to be governed by general will of the people or society as whole

• Wrote novel Emile (1761)– Education should nurture, not

restrict children’s natural instincts

Mary Wollstonecraft• Considered founder of

European and American movement for women’s rights

• Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)– Argued women were as

rational as men & criticized those who believed women ought to be ruled by men, equal rights

Social World of Enlightenment• Largely reserved for urban upper class & literate

elite• Printed works (books, magazines, daily papers)

spread ideas and serve as topics of discussion, especially in salons of wealthy homeowners

Religion in the Enlightenment• Most philosophes attacked Christian

churches, however, most were believers

• One new religious movement was Methodism– John Wesley – stressed importance of

God’s grace in attaining salvation, stressed importance of hard work

• Methodists played important role in abolishing slave trade in early 1800’s

Enlightenment Impact on Culture

• Architecture:– European monarchs

created new kind of architecture by early 18th Century – rococo

– Previous style of baroque emphasized grandeur and power but rococo emphasized grace, charm, and gentleness

Baroque

Rococo

Enlightenment Impact on Culture

• Music:– Johann Sebastian Bach

• Mass in B Minor – George Frederick Handel

• Messiah– Franz Joseph Haydn

• The Creation– Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

• Symphonies, operas

Enlightened Absolutism

• Philosophers believed in natural rights for all people, therefore, they tried to influence & encourage monarchs to rule in an Enlightened manner (enlightened despots)– Enlightened Absolutism = refers to rulers

who supposedly made reforms based on the Enlightenment – (debated among historians)

• Examples: Prussia, Austria, and Russia

Voltaire meeting with Frederick the Great

Prussia

• Frederick William I– Made Prussia an 18th Century power– Maintained efficient bureaucracy that

honored obedience to the king• Frederick II “The Great”

– One of Europe’s most cultured kings– Abolished torture, except for treason &

murder– Granted limited free speech, free press,

religious toleration

“The Soldier King”

Austria

• Maria Theresa– Centralized the Austrian Empire

• Joseph II– Abolished serfdom & death penalty– Recognized equality before the law– Religious toleration– Not all reforms well received – why?