A/572041 UNDERSTANDING TERRORISM - GBV · Globalized Solidarity: International Terrorist Networks...

A/572041

UNDERSTANDINGTERRORISMChallenges,Perspectives,and Issues

4TH EDITION

GUS MARTINCalifornia State University, Dominguez Hills

fSAGELos Angeles | London | New Delhi

Singapore | Washington DC

Brief Contents

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Part t. Terrorism: A Conceptual Review

1. Terrorism; First Impressions

2. The Nature of the Beast: Defining Terrorism

3. Beginnings: The Causes of Terrorism

Part H, TheTerrorists

4. Terror From Above: Terrorism by the State

5. Terror From Below: Terrorism by Dissidents

6. Violence in the Name of the Faith: Religious Terrorism

7. Violent Ideologies: Terrorism From the Left and Right

8. Terrorist Spillovers: International Terrorism

9. Emerging Terrorist Environments: Gender-Selective PoliticalViolence and Criminal Dissident Terrorism

Part III. The Terrorist Trade and Counterterrorism

10. Tools of the Trade: Tactics and Targets of Terrorists

11. The Information Battleground: Terrorist Violence and theRole of the Media

12. The American Case: Terrorism in the United States

XVHI

XIX

1

7

8

29

56

91

92

130

158

192

244

277

309

310

353

381

Part IV. Securing the Homeland 429

13. Counterterrorism: The Options 430

14. A New Era: Homeland Security 472

15. What Next? The Future of Terrorism 503

APPENDIX: MAP REFERENCES A-l

GLOSSARY G-l

INDEX 1-1

PHOTO CREDITS C-l

Note: Appendix: Historical Examples, which presents a more extensive version of the timeline printedin the front and back of this book, is available on the companion study site at www.sagepub.com/martin4e.

Detailed Contents

AlOOf THf AlSffOlJ - 3TOII

A Conceptual Review 71. Terrorism: First Impressions 8

i • • . i

0>EMIWG VIEWPORT: THE IDEOLOGY

| 8First Coosideiations 10• An Overview of Extremism; and Terrorism 10• Terrorism at First Glance 11: Sources of Extremism and

Terrorism 12Conceptual Considerations: Understanding

Political Violence 13The Significance of Symbolism 13Political Violence: Mala Prohibita

or Mala in Se? 14The Just War Doctrine 15

The Past as Prologue:Historical Perspectiveson Terrorism 16

Antiquity 17The Roman Age 17The Ancient and Medieval Middle

East 17The Dark Ages: Prelude to Modern

Terrorism 18The French Revolution 18

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 1.1. THE GUNPOWDER

PLOT OF GUY FAWKES 19

Nineteenth-Century Europe:Two Examples From the Left 20

The Modern Era and the War onTerrorism 21

Terrorism and Criminal Skill: Three Casesfrom the Modern Era 22

Case 1: Anders BreMk 22Case 2: Theodore 'Ted" Kaczyaski 23Case 3: Ramzi Yousef 24

Chapter Summary 25

Key Terms and Concepts 26

Discussion Box: Total War 26

On Your Own 27

Recommended Websites andWeb Exercise 27

Recommended Readings 28

2. The Nature of the Beast: DefiningTerrorism 29OPENING VIEWPOINT: ARE "HATE CRIMES"

ACTS OF TERRORISM? 29

Understanding Extremism: The Foundationof Terrorism 31

Defining Extremism 32Common Characteristics of Violent

Extremists 33The World of the Extremist 34

Defining Terrorism: An OngoingDebate 35

Guerrilla Warfare 35A Sampling of Formal Definitions 36The American Context: Defining

Terrorism in the United States 37

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 2 .1 .

THE PROBLEM OF LABELING THE ENEMY IN

THE NEW ERA OF TERRORISM 39

Types of Terrorism 40A Definitional Problem: Perspectives on

Terrorism 41Perspective 1: Four Quotations 41Perspective 2: Participants in a Terrorist

Environment 43Perspective 3: Terrorism or Freedom

Fighting? 47Perspective 4: Extremism or

"Mainstreamism"? 48The Political Violence Matrix 49

Combatants, Noncombatants, and the

Use of Force 49

Chapter Summary 51

Key Terms and Concepts 51Discussion Box: Cold War

Revolutionaries 52

On Your Own 54

Recommended Websites and WebExercise 54


3. Beginnings: The Causes ofTerrorism 56

OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE CASE OF

CARLOS 56

Political Violence as the Fruitof Injustice 59

Sociological Explanations of Terrorism:Intergroup Conflict and CollectiveViolence 59

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 3 . 1 . PROFILES

OF VIOLENT EXTREMISTS: LEILA KHALED

AND ABU NIDAL 63

Psychological Explanations of Terrorism:Rationality and Terrorist Violence 65

Criminological Explanations ofTerrorism: The Path to PoliticalCriminality 68

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 3.2. WOMEN

AS TERRORISTS 71

Political Violence as Strategic Choice 73Making Revolution: Acts

of Political Will 73

Perception and Cultural Disconnect:Adversaries in the War onTerrorism 75

Moral Justifications for PoliticalViolence 77

Moral Convictions of Terrorists 77

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 3.3. A VIET

CONG DIRECTIVE ORDERING SELECTIVE

TERRORISM 79

Delineating Morality: SimplifiedDefinitions of Good and Evil 80

Seeking Utopia: Moral Ends ThroughViolent Means 81

Moral Purity: Codes ofSelf-Sacrifice 81

Understanding Codes ofSelf-Sacrifice 85

Chapter Summary 85


Discussion Box: Bloody Sunday andBlack September 87

On Your Own 88



Part II. The Terrorists 914. Terror From Above: Terrorism

by the State 92

OPENING VIEWPOINT: STATE TERRORISM AS

DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN POLICY 92

The State as Terrorist: A State TerrorismParadigm 95

Understanding State Terrorism: StatePatronage and Assistance 96

State Sponsorship: The PatronageModel 97

State Sponsorship: The AssistanceModel 99

Violence Abroad: Terrorism as ForeignPolicy 102

Moral Support: Politically SympatheticSponsorship 106

Technical Support: LogisticallySupportive Sponsorship 106

Selective Participation: Episode-Specific Sponsorship 107

Active Participation: JointOperations 108

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 4 . 1 . CALCULATION

OR MISCALCULATION? THE THREAT FROM

WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION AND THE

IRAQ CASE 109

Violence at Home: Terrorism as DomesticPolicy 110

Legitimizing State Authority 111State Domestic Authority 112Unofficial Repression: Vigilante

Domestic State Terrorism 113Repression as Policy: Official Domestic

State Terrorism 114CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 4.2. CLEANSING

SOCIETY 116

Mass Repression: Genocidal DomesticState Terrorism 117

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 4.3. THE KHMER

ROUGE: GENOCIDAL STATE TERRORISM IN

CAMBODIA 118

Death Squads in Latin America 120The Problem of Accountability: Monitoring

State Terrorism 123

Chapter Summary 125

Key Terms and Concepts 126Discussion Box: Authoritarianism and

Democracy 127

On Your Own 128



5. Terror From Below: Terrorism byDissidents 130OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE TUPAMAROS 130

The Rebel as Terrorist: A Dissident TerrorismParadigm 133

Revolutionary Dissident Terrorism:A Clear World Vision 134

Nihilist Dissident Terrorism: Revolutionfor the Sake of Revolution 135

Nationalist Dissident Terrorism:The Aspirations of a People 136

Revolutionaries, Nihilists, andNationalists: Freedom Fighters? 137

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 5 . 1 . CHECHEN

TERRORISM IN RUSSIA 138

Warring Against the State: AntistateDissident Terrorism 139

Intensities of Conflict: Antistate TerroristEnvironments 139

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 5.2. THE PALESTINIAN

MOVEMENT 141

Defeat Is Unthinkable: The Terrorists'Faith in Victory 143

Warring Against a People: CommunalTerrorism 144

Ethnonationalist CommunalTerrorism 144

Religious CommunalTerrorism 146

Ideological CommunalTerrorism 149

Operational Shifts: Dissidents and theNew Terrorism 150

The New Dissident TerroristMorality 150

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 5.3. CHILD

SOLDIERS 151

Terrorist Cells and Lone Wolves:New Models for a New War 152

Chapter Summary 153


Discussion Box: The Tamil Tigers 154

On Your Own 156



6. Violence in the Name of the Faith:Religious Terrorism 158OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE JOURNEY OF ABU

MUSAB AL-ZARQAWI 158

Primary and Secondary Motives: TheIdiosyncratic Quality of ReligiousTerrorism l6l

Understanding Jihad as a PrimaryReligious Motive: An Observationand Caveat 162

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 6.1 . JIHAD:

STRUGGLING IN THE WAY OF GOD 163

A Case of Secondary Religious Motive:The Protocols of the Learned EldersofZion 164

Historical Cases in Point: Fighting, Dying,and Killing in the Name of the Faith 165

Judeo-Christian Antiquity 165CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 6.2. THE CONQUEST

OF CANAAN 166

Christian Crusades 166The Assassins 167A Secret Cult of Murder 168Modem Arab Islamist Extremism 168Cult Case: Mysticism and Rebellion in

Uganda 169State-Sponsored Religious Terrorism in the

Modern Era 170National Case: Iran 171Regional Case: Pakistan and India 173

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 6.3. ASSAULT ON

MUMBAI 174

Dissident Religious Terrorism in theModern Era 175

Regional Case: Religious Zealotry in theMiddle East 176

Movement Case: The InternationalMujahideen (Holy Warriors forthe Faith) 179

Organization Case: Al-Qa'ida's ReligiousFoundation 180

National Case: The AlgerianJihadis 183

Cult Case: Aum Shinrikyo(Supreme Truth) 184

The Future of Religious Terrorism 186

Chapter Summary 188Key Terms and Concepts 188Discussion Box: The One True

Faith 189

On Your Own 190Recommended Websites and Web

Exercise 190Recommended Readings 190

7. Violent Ideologies: Terrorism fromthe Left and Right 192OPENING VIEWPOINT: RACIST SKINHEADS AS A

SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT 192

Reactionaries and Radicals: The ClassicalIdeological Continuum 194

An Ideological Analysis: From the LeftFringe to the Right Fringe 196

Ideologies and Ideals 199Left-Wing Ideologies and Activism 204

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 7 . 1 . REQUIRED

READING ON THE "NEW LEFT" 205

For the Exploited: Class Struggle 207For the People: Leftist Nationalism 208Special-Interest Extremism 209Problems on the Radical Left 210

Class Struggle and National Liberation: TheTerrorist Left 211

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 7.2. VANGUARD

THEORY 212

Regional Case: Latin America 213Regional Case: Europe 216

Right-Wing Activism and Extremism 221Political Parties and Dissident

Movements 222Tradition and Order 223Right-Wing Nationalism 224Religion and Mysticism 225

Race and Order: The Terrorist Right 226

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 7.3. VIOLENT

REACTIONARIES: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

EXTREME RIGHT 227

Regional Case: Europe 228Violent Ideologies in the New Era of

Terrorism 232The "New Terrorism" 232The Terrorist Left in the New Era 232The Terrorist Right in the New Era 234

Chapter Summary 236


Discussion Box 7.1: Young NationalistIdealists 239

Discussion Box 7.2: Order FromChaos 240

On Your Own 242



8. Terrorist Spillovers: InternationalTerrorism 244OPENING VIEWPOINT: TERRORISM IN THE AGE

OF GLOBALIZATION 244

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 8 . 1 . THE CHANGING

ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL

TERRORISM 246

Defining International Terrorism 248Expanding the Struggle: The Spillover

Effect 249Unambiguous International

Implications 252Terrorist Environments and

International Terrorism 253Globalized Revolution: Reasons for

International Terrorism 255Ideological Reasons: Modern "isms"

and International RevolutionarySolidarity 256

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 8.2: COOPERATION

BETWEEN TERRORISTS: THE EUROPEAN

CONNECTION 257

Practical Reasons: Perceived

Efficiency 258Tactical Reasons: Adaptations

of Revolutionary Theory toInternational Operations 259

Historical Reasons: Perceptions ofInternational Terrorism 260

Globalized Solidarity: International TerroristNetworks 26l

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 8.3. A REMARKABLE

EXAMPLE OF INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM: THE

9.

JAPANESE RED ARMY AND THE LOD (LYDDA)

AIRPORT MASSACRE 262

Cold War Terrorist-Networking

Theory 262International Terrorist

Environments 263The International Dimension of the New

Terrorism 265Movement Case: The Afghan Arabs at

War 265Organization Case: Al-Qa'ida and

International Terrorism 267

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 8.4. BEYOND

AL-QA'IDA 270

Wartime Case: Terrorist Violence inIraq 271

Postscript: The "StatelessRevolutionaries" 272

The Japanese Red Army 272Al-Qa'ida 272Palestinian Nationalism 273

Chapter Summary 274


Discussion Box: UnderstandingTerrorist "Spillovers": MiddleEastern and North AfricanSpillovers in Europe 275

On Your Own 275



Emerging Terrorist Environments:Gender-Selective PoliticalViolence and Criminal DissidentTerrorism 277

OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE JANJAWEED

CAMPAIGN AGAINST "ENEMY" WOMEN IN

DARFUR, SUDAN 277

Culture and Conflict: Gender-SelectedVictims of Terrorist Violence 279

Gender-Selective Terrorism AgainstMen 280

Background to Terrorism AgainstWomen: Cultural Repression andViolence 281

An Emerging Recognition: TerrorismAgainst Women 284

Responding to Gender-SelectivePolitical Violence 287

Protecting the Enterprise: Criminal DissidentTerrorism 288

The Criminal and Political TerrorismNexus 289

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 9 . 1 : LEBANON'S

BEKA'A VALLEY 289

Traditional Criminal Enterprises 290Criminal-Political Enterprises 290Case in Point: The Logic of

Narco-terrorism 291

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 9.2: THE TRI-BORDER

AREA OF SOUTH AMERICA 292

A Global Problem: Regional Cases ofCriminal Dissident Terrorism 294

Regional Case: Latin America 294Regional Case: Asia 299Regional Case: Europe 301

Chapter Summary 304


Discussion Box: Political ViolenceAgainst Women: Gender CommunalTerrorism? 305

On Your Own 307



Part III. The Terrorist Trade andCounterterrorism 30910. Tools of the Trade: Tactics and

Targets of Terrorists 310

OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE ENGINEER 310

The Purpose: Terrorist Objectives 314Typical Objectives 314Playing to the Audience: Objectives,

Victims, and Constituencies 316

The New Terrorism and NewObjectives 319

The Means: Terrorist Methods 320Concept: Asymmetrical Warfare 321An Introduction to Common Methods

of Terrorists 323Weapons Old and New 324

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 10 .1 . THE AL-QA'IDA

"TERRORIST MANUAL" 335

The Focus-. Terrorist Targets 337The Symbolism of Targets 339

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 10.2. THE SYMBOLISM

OF TARGETS: TERRORIST ATTACKS AGAINST

THE UNITED STATES 341

The Outcome: Is Terrorism Effective? 342Media and Political Attention 343Having an Impact on an Audience 343

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 10.3. TACTICAL

HORROR: DIGITAL, VIDEO, AND AUDIO

TERRORISM 344

Forcing Concessions From an EnemyInterest 345

Disruption of Normal Routines 345Provoking the State to Overreact 346Effective Terrorism: The King David

Hotel Bombing 347

Chapter Summary 348


Discussion Box: Attacks Against theU.S. Marine and French ParatrooperHeadquarters in Beirut 350

On Your Own 351



11. The Information Battleground:Terrorist Violence and the Role of theMedia 353

OPENING VIEWPOINT: MEDIA-ORIENTED TERROR

AND LEBANON'S HEZBOLLAH 353

Two Perspectives: The Media andGovernments 354

The Perspective of the Media 354The Perspective of Governments 355

Understanding the Role of theMedia 356

Publicizing the Cause 356Spreading the Word: Mass

Communications and the Terrorists'Message 357

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 11 .1 . DELIVERING THE

MESSAGE 358

No More Printing Presses: MassCommunications and the"New Media" 36l

Truth and Consequences: ReportingTerrorism 362

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 11.2. AL

JAZEERA 363

A New Battleground: The Warfor the Information HighGround 366

Practical Considerations: Using theMedia 367

Information Is Power: The Media as aWeapon 370

Problems on the New Battleground:The Risk of Backlash 372

The Public's Right to Know: Regulating theMedia 373

The Free Press 374

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 11.3.

SELF-REGULATION AND THE AMERICAN

MEDIA 374

The State-Regulated Press 376

Chapter Summary 377


Discussion Box: Freedom of Reportingand Security Issues 378

On Your Own 379



12. The American Case: Terrorism in theUnited States 381

OPENING VIEWPOINT: LYNCHING—VIGILANTE

COMMUNAL TERRORISM IN THE UNITED

STATES 381

An Introduction to the American Case 383Weighing the Origins of Terrorism in

the United States 385Background to Terrorism: Left-Wing

Activism and Ideological Extremism inAmerica 386

Origins of the Modern Civil RightsMovement 387

The Rise of Black Power 387Growth of the New Left 388

Left-Wing Terrorism in the UnitedStates 389

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 12 .1 . SEEDS OF

TERRORISM: RADICALS ON THE AMERICAN

LEFT 390

Generational Rebellion: New LeftTerrorism 392

Civil Strife: Ethnonationalist Terrorismon the Left 395

The Revolution Continues: LeftistHard Cores 399

Case: The United FreedomFront 400

Single-Issue Violence on the Left • 401Background to Terrorism: Rightist

Activism and Ideological Extremism inAmerica 402

Religious Politics and the"Christian Right" 403

Rise of the AntigovernmentPatriots 403

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 12.2.

CONSPIRACY THEORIES ON THE AMERICAN

RIGHT 405

Racial Supremacy: An Old ProblemWith New Beginnings 407

Racial Mysticism 408Race and the Bible: The Christian

Identity Creation Myth 408Right-Wing Terrorism in the United

States 409CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 12.3. SEEDS OF

TERRORISM: REACTIONARIES ON THE

AMERICAN RIGHT 409

Homegrown Racism: The Legacy

oftheKuKluxKlan 411Racial Mysticism: Neo-Nazi

Terrorism 413

Patriot Threats 415Case in Point: Moralist Terrorism 417

International Terrorism in the UnitedStates 420

The Spillover Effect in the UnitedStates 420

The New Terrorism in the UnitedStates 421

Chapter Summary 425


Discussion Box: Domestic Terrorism inthe American Context 426

On Your Own 427



Part IV. Securing theHomeland 42913. Counterterrorism: The Options 430

OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE DEATH OF OSAMA

BIN LADEN 430

Responding to Terror: The Scope ofOptions 432

Use of Force 432Operations Other Than War 432Legalistic Options 433

Warlike Operations: Counterterrorism andthe Use of Force 434

Maximum Use of Force: SuppressionCampaigns 435

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 13 .1 . OPERATION EL

DORADO CANYON 439

War in the Shadows, Part 1: CoerciveCovert Operations 439

Surgical Use of Force: SpecialOperations Forces 443

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 13.2. HOSTAGE

RESCUES 446

Operations Other Than War: RepressiveOptions 448

War in the Shadows, Part 2: NonviolentCovert Operations 448

Knowing the Enemy:Intelligence 450

Hardening the Target: EnhancedSecurity 451

Long-Term Coercion: EconomicSanctions 453

Operations Other Than War: ConciliatoryOptions 455

Reasoned Dialogue: DiplomaticOptions 455

Responding to Grievances: SocialReform 458

Giving Them What They Want:Concessionary Options 459

Applying the Rule of Law: LegalisticOptions 460

Law Enforcement andCounterterrorism: The GlobalPerspective 460

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 13.3. THE ROLE OF

THE "INTERNATIONAL POLICE" 461

Domestic Laws andCounterterrorism 462

International Law: Legalistic Responses

by the World Community 463

Chapter Summary 466

Key Terms and Concepts 467Discussion Box: The Utility of Elite

Counterterrorist Units 469

On Your Own 469



14. A New Era: Homeland Security 472OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE CAPTURE OF MIR

AIMAL KANSI 472

Homeland Security in Perspective 473The Threat From Homegrown

Jihadists 474Crisis and Homeland Security 476

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 14 .1 . DHS AREAS OF

RESPONSIBILITY 482

Homeland Security in the UnitedStates 482

Counterterrorist Laws 482

• Homeland Security Agencies 484The U.S. Intelligence Community:

Mission and Challenges 488

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 14.2. WAGING WAR IN

THE ERA OF THE NEW TERRORISM 488

Civil Liberties and Securing theHomeland 492

Security and Liberty 492

CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 14.3. THE UNITED

KINGDOM: SUSPENDING CIVIL LIBERTIES IN

NORTHERN IRELAND 493

Achieving Security 494Balancing Civil Liberties and Homeland

Security 496

Chapter Summary 499


Discussion Box: After the Next9-11 500

On Your Own 501



15. What Next? The Future ofTerrorism 503

OPENING VIEWPOINT: CARNIVORE 503

An Overview of Near-TermProjections 504

Terrorism by States and Dissidents 506Whither the "Old Terrorism"? 507

The Future of Terrorism: New Threats 508Terrorist Environments in the 21st

Century 508

The World in Conflict: Future Sourcesof Terrorism 510

High-Tech Terrorism 514Soft Targets and Terrorist

Symbolism 517Controlling Terrorism:

New Challenges 517Government Responses 518Societal Responses 518Countering Extremism 518New Fronts in a New War 518The Continued Utility of Force 520Countering Terrorist Financial

Operations 520The Case for International

Cooperation 522Threats to the Homeland: Prospects for

Terrorism in the United States 524The Future of International

Terrorism 524The Future of the Violent Left 524The Future of the Violent Right 525

Chapter Summary 525

A Final Thought 526


Discussion Box: Toward BigBrother? 527

On Your Own 527


APPENDIX: MAP REFERENCES A-l

GLOSSARY G-l

INDEX 1-1

PHOTO CREDITS C-l

Note: Appendix: Historical Examples, which presents a more extensive version of the timeline printedin the front and back of this book, is available on the companion study site at www.sagepub.com/martin4e

A/572041 UNDERSTANDING TERRORISM - GBV · Globalized Solidarity: International Terrorist Networks...

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